LECTURE 2

THE CONTENTS OF THIS LECTURE ARE AS FOLLOWS:

1.0 OXYGEN
1.1 General Properties
1.2 Physiological Effects
1.3 Detection of Oxygen
2.0 NITROGEN
2.1 General Properties
3.0 CARBON DIOXIDE
3.1 General Properties
3.2 Physiological Effects
3.3 Permissible Concentration
3.4 Detection of CO2
4.0 CARBON MONOXIDE
4.1 General Properties
4.2 Permissible Concentration
4.3 Physiological Effects
4.4 Detection of Carbon Monoxide
REFERENCES
Page 1 of 12

1.0 OXYGEN (O2)

1.1 General Properties
Oxygen is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas with a specific gravity of
1.1047. Its molecular weight is 32. A typical miner at rest consumes about
0.005 litres of oxygen every second due to respiration. Similarly, a miner
exposed to moderate and extreme workloads consumes 0.03 litres and 0.05
litres of oxygen every second respectively due to his breathing.
Oxygen can cause a dangerous condition in a mine only by its absence. Air
which has been stagnant for a considerable period may have much of its
oxygen removed by the oxidation of metals and minerals and the decaying of
timber, and some or all of it may have been replaced by carbon dioxide.
Such a mixture of gas which is deficient of oxygen, but is neither poisonous
nor explosive, is called black-damp in underground mine environment and
ventilation.
Mine safety laws in India require a TLV greater than 19% for oxygen. This
means that any part of a given mine must have an oxygen concentration ofat
least 19% in the mine air/atmosphere. In former USSR, the TLV for oxygen
was 20% while it is 19.5% in the USA.

1.2 Physiological Effects: The physiological effects of staying/working in

an atmosphere deficient in oxygen are given in Table 1
Table 1 Physiological effects of staying/working in an atmosphere
deficient in oxygen (McPherson, 1993)
O2 Conc.
Effect
19%
Flame height on flame safety lamp (to be discussed latter) gets
reduced by 50%
17%
Noticeable increase in rate of breathing. Increase in the
concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
15%
Spinning sensation in head and increased heartbeat.
13-9%
Disorientation, fainting, vomiting sensation, headache, blue lips,

Page 2 of 12

and coma may occur

Coma, convulsions (violent uncontrollable
muscles) or death may occur
The conditions may eventually lead to death

7%
Below
6%

contractions

of

1.3 Detection of Oxygen

a. The percentage of oxygen present in an atmosphere can be estimated by
using the principle of electrochemical method, paramagnetic method or the
flame safety lamp. In the electrochemical method, very small concentrations
of

the

gas

are

detected

by

its

influence

on

the

output

from

an

electrochemical cell. The MSA Oxygen Indicator Model 244, Auer Oxygen
Indicator Model P etc. are based on this principle and use fuel cells as oxygen
sensors. The cells contain a gold cathode and a lead anode in a basic
electrolyte (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Electrochemical cell using electrochemical

estimating oxygen percentage (after, Ramlu, 1991)

method

for

The whole setup is encapsulated in an inert plastic which is sealed off. A thin
membrane is used to protect the sensing electrode and it allows oxygen to
get diffused into the cell. The oxygen gets dissolved in the electrolyte and
reacts with the gold cathode. Thus the gold cathode becomes positively

Page 3 of 12

charged. The lead anode becomes negatively charged through the formation
of lead oxide and water. A current proportional to the oxygen concentration
flows between the cathode and the anode which is used as a measuring
signal.
b. In the paramagnetic method, as oxygen is a paramagnetic gas, it acts like
a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field. A weak permanent magnet having a
dumb-bell shape is suspended in a magnetic field against a light torque (Fig.
2). At first, the spheres are kept in balance in an inhomogeneous magnetic
field. When oxygen molecules having a large magnetic susceptibility flow
there, the molecules are pulled towards the stronger magnetic field zone and
the spheres are moved away from the zone. The resulting deviation of the
spheres is detected with the light source, reflecting mirror and light receiving
element, and a current is flowed through the feedback loop to control so that
the spheres can return to the initial balanced state. The current flowing
through the feedback loop is proportional to oxygen concentration. Thus,
oxygen concentration gets converted into electric signal.

Fig. 2 Paramagnetic method for estimating oxygen

Page 4 of 12

c. The flame safety lamp is also used to find out the percentage of oxygen in
the atmosphere. In this method, the length of the flame produced by the
lamp because of the burning of the gas is used. Accordingly, the oxygen
percentage can be found out by noticing the flame height. More details on
flame safety lamp will be discussed in latter lectures.

2.0 NITROGEN (N2)

2.1 General Properties
Nitrogen is a colorless, odorless and tasteless gas. It is slightly lighter than
air with a specific gravity of 0.967. It is usually inert and does not support
life or ignition. It has low solubility in water. There are three major sources of
nitrogen in mines:

Production by the decomposition of organic substances

Production from blasting using explosives (1 kg of nitroglycerine

releases 0.135 m3 of nitrogen)

Production from the strata through cracks

Nitrogen has no known harmful effects on the human system but a higher
concentration of nitrogen leads to deficiency of oxygen in the mine air. Thus,
increase in nitrogen concentration indirectly leads to the physiological effects
caused by a lack of oxygen on humans.
3.0 CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)
3.1 General Properties
Carbon dioxide is colorless, odorless and has a slightly acidic taste (CO2 is
sometimes called carbonic acid gas because with water it forms carbonic
acid). The specific gravity of carbon dioxide is 1.519which is almost one-anda-half times that of the specific gravity of air. That is why carbon dioxide is

Page 5 of 12

found in low-lying areas in the mines. It is fairly soluble in water and forms
carbonic acid when dissolved in water. Its solubility in water increases with
decrease in temperature{An increase in inhaled CO and subsequent reaction
2

with water in the blood forms carbonic acid (H CO ), which then dissociates
2

into hydrogen ions [H ] and bicarbonate [HCO ]. The excess CO shifts the
3

equilibrium towards the creation of more hydrogen ions, thus creating an

acidic environment (see equation below). That is why the pH of the blood
becomes less than 7.35 in such conditions}.
+

CO + H O H CO H + HCO
2

Carbon dioxide occurs both in coal and metal mines. It is produced from a
variety of sources including strata emissions, oxidation of carbonaceous
materials, internal combustion engines, blasting, fires, explosions and
respiration. A mixture of carbon dioxide and nitrogen in which the
concentration of CO2 may vary from almost negligible to 20%, is known as
black damp. Blackdamp is usually heavier than air, but becomes lighter when
the percentage of CO2 in it falls below 5.25%. Carbon dioxide liquefies at 5C under a pressure of 31.4 bar. If it is further cooled, it solidifies into dry
ice which derives its name from the fact that it evaporates in air without
melting (undergoes sublimation process).
3.2 Physiological Effects
Carbon dioxide dilutes oxygen in air and acts as a stimulant to the
respiratory and central nervous system. Diffusion of gas in bloodstream is
rapid and it affects the rate and depth of breathing. The physiological effects
of carbon dioxide are given in Table 2.

Page 6 of 12

Table 2 Physiological effects of carbon dioxide (Source)

CO2 Conc.

Effects

0.03%

No effect- it is the normal concentration of CO2 in air

0.50%

Lung ventilation gets increased by 5%

2.00%

Lung ventilation gets increased by 50%

3.00%

Lung ventilation gets doubled, heavy breathing or

panting on exertion

5% to 10%

Violent

panting

leading

to

fatigue

from

exhaustion(extreme fatigue), headache

10% to 15%

Intolerable

panting,

severe

headache,

rapid

exhaustion and collapse

3.3 Permissible Concentration

As per Indian Standards (DGMS), the CO2 concentration should not be
allowed to exceed 0.5 %.
Federal regulation require that all active workings in coal mines must be
ventilated by an air current containing not less than 19.5 % of O2 and not
more than 0.5% of CO2. If we need to calculate the air quantity required only
to satisfy the respiratory requirement, we need to consider both the cases
i.e., the oxygen consumed by each worker and the CO2 produced by him.
Since, CO2 is a contaminant, accurate measurement of quantity needed is a
must for the safety of the workers. Table 3 given below is useful in
calculating quantity of air requirements under different conditions.

Page 7 of 12

Table 3 Respiratory requirements under different situations

(Source)
Type
of Respiration
Air
inhaled Air
activity
rate
/respiration
inhaled
(Breaths/min) (103 mm3)
(10-4
m3/s)
At rest
12-18
377-705
0.822.18
moderate 30
1476-1968
7.649.83
Vigorous
40
2460
16.4
work

O2
consumed
(10-5
m3/s)
0.47

Respiratory
quotient

3.3

0.90

4.7

1.00

0.75

The term respiratory quotient is defined as the ratio of carbon dioxide

expelled to the oxygen consumed by person in the process of respiration.
3.4 Detection of CO2
The presence of CO2 is usually detected from oxygen depletion indicated by
the extinguishing of oil lamps at 17-17.5%. CO2 also turns lime water milky
and this property can be used in detection of CO2 in mines. Optical methods
like non-dispersive infrared gas analyzers can also be used in finding out the
concentration of CO2. Portable instruments are also used to estimate CO2
concentrations. Hand held detectors based on the principle of colorimetric
indication are also used for finding out CO2 percentage. These detectors have
detector tubes which are filled with an indicating chemical substance. When a
sample of air is drawn through a detector tube, this substance changes its
color over a length. This length is proportional to the concentration of CO2.
The concentration of gas can be read off on the concentration scale printed
on the tube.
M.S.A. Universal Tester, Drager Multigas Detector and Auer Gas tester are
commonly used in detection and estimation of CO2.
4.0 CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)
4.1 General Properties

Page 8 of 12

CO is a colorless and odorless gas with a specific gravity of 0.972.As can be

seen, its specific gravity is almost equal to that of air and therefore it exists
at all levels in an underground opening. It burns with a blue flame and is
explosive in presence of air at concentrations between 12.5% and 75%.
Though CO is an inflammable gas, this fact is of no practical importance in
mining because it never occurs in significant concentration to burn or to
cause an explosion. The ignition temperature of CO is 873K.CO is produced
by the incomplete combustion of carbonaceous materials. It is also produced
by internal combustion engines, blasting and spontaneous combustion in
coalmines. It can also be generated as a component of water gas (mixture of
CO and H2), when water is applied to coal for controlling the fire. That is why
it is advisable not to apply water at the centre of coal fire because it will lead
to the formation of hydrogen and CO, and because of the formation of
hydrogen which is a explosive gas, this fire will become more violent.
CO is considered as the most dangerous gas in mines. This is because of the
following reasons:

It is highly toxic in nature.

As it is colorless and tasteless, it is not noticed easily.

As its specific gravity is almost equal to the specific gravity of air, it

exists at all the levels in an underground opening. Hence the chances
of its inhalation are very high.

4.2 Permissible Concentration

As per Indian Standards (DGMS), the CO concentration should not be allowed
to exceed 0.005 %. The TWA for CO is 0.005% and STEL is 0.04% as per the
recommendations of the American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists (ACGIH) and US National Institute of Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH).

Page 9 of 12

4.3 Physiological Effects

Hemoglobin present in human blood has 300 times more affinity towards CO
than O2.The new substance formed by the combination of CO and
hemoglobin is known as carboxy-haemoglobin. This is relatively stable and
accumulates in the bloodstream. This results in a reduction in the number of
red cells for carrying oxygen to vital parts of the body. Thus the physiological
effects of CO arise because of the reduction in oxygen supply to vital parts of
the body. The symptoms depending upon the saturation of blood by carboxyhaemoglobin are given in Table 4
Table 4 Physiological effects of CO poisoning (McPherson, 1993)

Blood
saturation
% CO.Hb
5-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-60
60-70
70-80

Symptoms
Slight loss of concentration
Sensation of tightness across forehead, slight headache
Throbbing headache, judgment impaired
Severe headache, dizziness, disorientation, dimmed vision,
nausea(vomiting), possible collapse
Increased probability of collapse, rise in rates of pulse and
respiration, convulsions
Coma, depressed pulse and respiration, possible death
Fatal- will lead to death

4.4 Detection of Carbon Monoxide

Carbon monoxide imparts a bright pink color to blood, and the patient
poisoned by CO has a typically pink color as a result of this. The best remedy
for CO poisoning is to quickly expose the patient to fresh air and provide him
pure oxygen. The patient should be covered by blankets so that he can be
kept warm. Black coffee is also very useful. The property of blood turning
pink by absorbing carbon monoxide has been used for testing the gas. The
air with CO contained in it is passed through a light straw colored solution of

Page 10 of 12

blood and the coloration produced is compared with a standard color chart
calibrated for different colorations of the gas. This method gives a good
accuracy within the range of 0.01 to 0.2% CO.
Modern CO detectors, like Hoolamite tubes and M.S.A. ammonium-palladiumcomplex colorimetric detectors (Fig.3) use detector tubes containing suitable
gels such as alumina, silica gel, iodine pentoxide and fuming sulphuric acid
soaked in pumice stone, silica gel impregnated with palladium sulphate and
ammonium molybdate etc. The CO is detected using the principle of:
o

the change in the color of the chemical present in the detector tube

the change in the length of the color of the detector tube.

Warm blooded birds like munia/canary or mouse are also used for detecting
CO as they are affected sooner than human beings by CO. Only fresh birds
are used in this method as repetition of same bird may lead to the
acclimatization of the bird to the low percentages of CO.

There are no

immediate signs of distress observed when birds are exposed to 0.1% of CO.
But at 0.15% of CO, a bird shows distress (pronounced chirruping and loss of
liveliness) in 3 minutes. And at 0.3% of CO in air, the bird shows almost
immediate distress and falls off its perch (when a bird perches on something
such as a branch, it lands on it and stands there) in 2-3 minutes.

Fig. 3 MSA CO detector with detector tubes

Page 11 of 12

REFERENCES
Bolz, R. E. and Tuve, G. L., eds., Handbook of Tables for Applied Engineering
Science, 2nd ed. CRC Press, Cleveland
Deshmukh, D. J. (2008); Elements of Mining Technology, Vol. II; Denett
& Co., Nagpur, India.
Hartman, H. L., Mutmansky, J. M. & Wang, Y. J. (1982); Mine Ventilation
and Air Conditioning; John Wiley & Sons, New York.
McPherson, M. J. (1993); Subsurface
Engineering; Chapman & Hall, London.

Ventilation

and

Environmental

Misra G.B. (1986); Mine Environment and Ventilation; Oxford University

Press, Calcutta, India.
Ramlu, M. A. (1991); Mine fires, Explosions, Rescue, Recovery and
Inundations; Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Vutukuri, V. S. & Lama, R. D. (1986); Environmental Engineering in Mines;
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Page 12 of 12