Chapter 19: Blood

Learning Outcomes:
1.

List and describe the functions of blood.

2.

List the components of blood.

3.

Describe the composition of plasma. List and describe the functions of

the three common groups of plasma proteins.

4.

List and describe the three common types of formed elements.

5.

Describe the origin and production of the formed elements.

6.

Describe the structure and function of hemoglobin.

7.

Discuss the life history of a red blood cell.

8.

Discuss the breakdown and processing of hemoglobin.

9.

List and describe the 5 common types of white blood cells.

10.

Describe the function of platelets. Discuss the process of hemostasis.

Blood: fluid connective tissue; contains cells suspended in a fluid matrix

Functions of blood
A. transport: carries dissolved gases, nutrients, hormones and waste to and from all
areas of the body
B. regulation of pH and electrolyte composition of the interstitial fluids (osmosis)
C. restricts blood loss at injury sites by clot formation
D. defense against toxins and pathogens
E. stabilizes body temperature by releasing heat at surface of skin
Composition of whole blood
Plasma: fluid matrix

is a colloid: a liquid containing suspended substance that does not settle out of
solution
Plasma proteins: suspended substances
8% of plasma volume
most formed in liver
globular
EXTRACELLULAR
a. albumins:
a. most abundant (58% of plasma proteins)
b. transport proteins-important in regulating the movement of
water between the tissues and the blood

c. maintaining colloid osmotic pressure

d. also binds and transports other molecules in blood
b. globulins:
a. 38% of plasma protein
b. transport proteins
c. immunoglobulins-provide protection against microorganisms
c. fibrinogens:
a. 4% of plasma proteins
b. give rise to fibrin necessary for clotting (responsible for the
formation of blood clotts)

Serum:
ground substance
liquid solution
plasma without the clotting factors

Formed elements: blood cells and cell fragments that consists of

erythrocytes:
red blood cells (RBCs)
most abundant cell type
specialized for transporting

leukocytes:
white blood cells (WBCs)
defense cells

thrombocytes:
platelets: cell fragments that function in blood clotting

hematopoiesis (hemopoiesis): process of RBC production

All formed elements are produced through a process of hemopoiesis

Hemopoiesis occurs in the red bone marrow, primarily in the axial skeleton,
girdles and proximal epiphyses of humerus and femur

All formed elements arise from the same type of stem cell: hemocytoblast
Hemocytoblast: a single population of stem cells that give rise to all formed
elements of the blood
divide by mitosis

 differentiate into:
myeloid stem cell: give rise to RBC, most WBC, and platelets
lymphoid stem cell: gives rise to lymphocytes
RBC
(MSC) and (LSC)
[RBC, WBC, platelets]

[lymphocytes]

Erythrocytes (RBCs)

contain red pigment, hemoglobin bags of hemoglobin

1. intracellular protein that binds oxygen and transports it
2. composed of four globin chains each containing a heme molecule
3. when oxygen level is low, heme releases bound oxygen

Most abundant cell type: 260 million RBCs/drop of blood

anucleated

cannot move on their own-they are passively moved by forces that cause the
blood to circulate

simple cells

Biconcave disc shaped (edges are thicker than the center of the cell)
shape is important to function:
1. increase surface area for oxygen exchange (allows gases to move into and out of
the RBC more rapidly)
2. enables cells to form stacks or rolls (aids in speedy movement)
3. flexible (can bend or fold around its thin center, decreasing its size and enabling
it to pass more readily through smaller vessels)

Hemoglobin:
the pigmented protein inside RBCs
occupies about 1/3 of the total cell volume
accounts for RBC red color
4 subunits: each consists of a globin chain and a heme group (ion-containing
group)
carbon dioxide binds to the globin chain (carbaminohemoglobin)
oxygen binds to heme group
oxyhemoglobin: when hemoglobin is exposed to oxygen and one oxygen
molecule becomes associated with each heme group
deoxygemoglobin: hemoglobin containing no oxygen

 carboxyhemoglobin: a compound formed when carbon monoxide (CO) binds to

iron of hemoglobin and prevents oxygen transport; leads to what is known as
carbon monoxide poisoning
Erythropoiesis

decreased oxygen->kidneys release erythropoietin into blood stream>erythropoietin stimulated blood cell production in bone marrow->increased oxygen
level and restored homeostasis
Erythropoiesis and destruction of RBC maintain a balance of RBCs in the blood
a.

too few RBCs: hypoxia

b.

too many RBCs: blood becomes thick

Process of erythropoiesis involves several stages:

a. hemocytoblast divides to form myeloid stem cell
b. myeloid stem cell differentiates into proerythroblast
c. proerythroblast passes through several stages during which the cell is
accumulating hemoglobin
d. cell sheds nucleus and is called a reticulocyte
e. reticulocyte enters the bloodstream where it will become a mature RBC
Erythropoiesis is regulated by:
a. erythropoietin: hormones released by the kidneys in response to hypoxia
a.hypoxia:
b. adequate supplies of materials to manufacture hemoglobin (iron, B vitamins,
folic acid)
Lifespan of erythrocyte
1.1.

limited due to lack of organelles and nucleus

1.2.

over time, lose flexibility, become fragile, hemoglobin begins to degenerate

1.3.

lifespan: 100 - 120 days

1.4.

old cells become less flexible and are trapped and fragment in smaller blood
vessels, usually in the spleen

1.5.

dying cells are usually recognized and engulfed by macrophages that will break
down the RBC and recycle the components of the hemoglobin:
a. heme degraded to bilirubin (yellow pigment)
b. globin broken down to amino acids
c. iron salvaged and stored as iron-protein complex for reuse

Hemoglobin Breakdown
1.

hemoglobin is broken down by macrophages into heme and globin chains

2.

the globin chains of hemoglobin are broken down to individual amino acids and
are metabolized or used to build new proteins

3.

the heme of hemoglobin releases the iron. the heme is then converted into
biliverdin, which is then converted into bilirubin
3.1. bilirubin: yellow pigment

4.

blood transports iron in combination with transferrin to various tissues for

storage or to the red bone marrow where it is used in the production of new
hemoglobin
4.1. transferrin:

5.
6.
7.

blood transports free bilirubin to the liver

conjugated bilirubin is excreted as part of the bile into the small intestine.
bacteria of the intestine break down the bilirubin
some bilirubin derivatives contribute to the color of feces

8.

other bilirubin derivatives are reabsorbed from the intestine into the blood. these
are excreted from the kidneys and contribute to the color of urine

9.

jaundice: yellowish staining of the skin and the sclerae of the eyes caused by a
buildup of bile pigments in the circulation and interstitial fluids

Blood types

determined by presence of specific surface antigens on RBC membranes

antigen:
cell markers
substance that induces a state of sensitivity or resistance to infection or toxic
substances after a latent period
stimulates the immune system-capable of triggering an immune response
glycoprotein or glycolipid
genetically determined
ex: the infection that enters your body

antibody:
proteins that attach to bacteria and activate mechanisms that destroy bacteria
binds specifically to antigen
ex: protein that destroys antigen

the body produces antibodies against antigens not present in RBC

at least 50 different types of surface antigens exist, most often hear about ABO
and Rh

in ABO, two types of surface antigens A and B; type O lacks complete antigens

in Rh group, positive has the antigen, negative lacks the antigen

plasma contains antibodies (immunoglobulins) that "recognize" foreign antigens

and bind to the antigen

ABO blood group: system that is used to categorize human blood based on the presence
or absence of ABO antigens on the surface of red blood cells.
FIGURE 19.13: ABO BLOOD GROUPS
Type A
RBC:type A surface antigen
PLASMA: anti-B antibodies
Type B
RBC: type B surface antigen
PLASMA: anti-A antibodies
Type AB
RBC: both type A and B surface antigens
PLASMA: neither anti-A nor anti-B plasma antibodies
Type O
RBC: neither type A nor B surface antigens
PLASMA: both anti-A and anti-B plasma antibodies
Rh Blood Group

People are Rh positive if they have a certain Rh antigen (the D antigen) on the
surface of their RBCs
people are Rh negative if they do not have this antigen
antibodies against the Rh antigen do not develop unless an Rh-negative person is
exposed to Rh-positive blood
hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN:
occurs when mother is Rh-negative and fetus is Rh-positive
when fetal blood leaks through the placenta and mixes with the mothers blood, the
mother becomes sensitive to the antigen and produces antibodies that cross the
placenta and cause agglutination and hemolysis of fetal RBCs

 usually doest occur in the first pregnancy but is observed in the following
pregnancies

Sickle Cell Anemia

genetic disorder that affects the RBCs

a result of a mutated gene

mutation causes a change in hemoglobin, causing hemoglobin to clump together

inside the RBC
RBC changes shape and appears sickle shaped

cells become less able to squeeze through capillaries and causes a reduced blood

flow

Leukocytes: white blood cells

Characteristics of WBC

1. have nucleus and organelles

2. make up about 1% of total blood volume
3. defense cells
4. amoeboid movement: allows WBCs to move along the walls of the vessels and
outside of the bloodstream
5. diapedesis: move outside of the bloodstream
6. positive chemotaxis: attracted to particular chemical signals released by damaged
cells or other WBCs

Major categories of WBCs (classified based on the staining of granules

located in cytoplasm
1. Granulocytes: have specialized, membrane-bound granules that are visible when
stained
2. Agranulocytes: lack obvious stainable granules

Granulocytes:

1.

Larger than RBCs

2.

have visible stained granules

3.

have lobed nuclei

4.

phagocytes: can engulf pathogens, cell debris, other material

5.

types of granulocytes include

neutrophils
a. 50-70-% of circulating WBCs
b. most abundant

c. granules are hard to see, stains are neutral

d. specialized in attacking and engulfing bacteria
e. granules contain chemicals used to destroy foreign cells and attract other
WBCs
f. produce and store chemicals such as hydrogen perioxide in granules: break
open and kill bacteria
g. during an acute bacterial infection, number of neutrophils increase explosively
h. during an active attack, release prostaglandins that will increase the local
inflammation
i. will also produce leukotrienes to attract other WBCs
j. short lived, 10 hours in bloodstream
k. have a low nuclei
eosinophils
a. dark-staining granules with eosin and other acidic dyes
b. 2-4% of circulating WBCs
c. phagocytize antigen-anitbody complexes such as during an allergy attack
d. defend against parasitic infection
e. life span 8-12 days
f. release enzymes that reduce the degree of inflammation at injury site
basophils
a. dark staining granules with basic dyes
b. rare in bloodstream
c. granules contain histamines and vasodilators that increase inflammation
d. release other chemical signals that attract basophils and eosinophils
e. life span hours to few days
Agranulocytes

1. lack visible granules

2. two types of agranulocytes:
lymphocytes

20 - 30% of WBCs

SECOND most abundant

many in body, few in bloodstream

usually found in the lymphatic system

play critical role in immunity

differ from other WBCs in that lymphocytes are specific to certain pathogens

types of lymphocytes include T cells and B cells

T cells: protect against viruses and other intracellular microorganisms

by attacking and destroying the cells in which they are found; also
involved in the destruction of tumor cells and in tissue graft rejections

B cells: stimulated by bacteria or toxins to divide and form cells that

produce antibodies

little cytoplasm around nucleus

lifespan days to decades

monocytes

LARGEST WBC

2 - 8% of circulating WBCs

enter peripheral tissue and become macrophages

phagocytize pathogens in tissue

if a monocyte encounters something too large, several will fuse to form a

phagocytic GIANT CELL

life span: several months

NEVER LET MONKEYS EAT BANANAS!

(order of abundance)
1.

neutrophils

2.

lymphocytes

3.

monocytes

4.

eosinophils

5.

basophils

Leukocyte production
1. most leukocytes or WBCs are derrived from myeloid stem cells
2. hemocytoblast gives rise to myeloid stem cell or lymphoid stem cell
3. myeloid stem cell gives rise to progenitor cell
4. one type of progenitor cell will give rise to each of the following: neutrophil,
eosinophil, basophil or monocyte
5. monocyte is the only cell type that does not fully mature in the bone marrow
6. lymphoid stem cell gives rise to lymphocytes through the process of
lymphopoiesis; actually occurs in the lymphoid tissue

Platelets Thrombocytes
A. cytoplasmic fragments of megakaryocytes

B. megakaryocytes develop from myeloid stem cells and give rise to platelets or
thrombocytes
C. life span of a platelet is 10 - 12 days
D. Functions of platelets include:
1. preventing blood loss:
1. forming platelet plugs that seal holes in small vessels
2. promoting the formation and contraction of clots that help seal off
larger wounds in the vessels
2. transport of chemicals important for the clotting process
3. form a temporary patch in the wall of damaged vessel
4. contraction of clot
Hemostasis: prevention of blood loss or the stoppage of bleeding
1.

Vascular phase

MAJOR PLAYER: blood vessels

a. vascular spasm: the immediate but temporary constriction of a blood vessel that
results when smooth muscle within the wall of the vessel contracts
b. cut of vessel causes local constriction of the vessel to reduce blood loss (vascular
spasm)
a. constriction can close vessel completely and stop blood flow through
them
c. chemicals and hormones can also produce spasms:
a. thromboxanes: released by platelets during the formation of a platelet
plug, are derived from certain prostaglandins
b. endothelin: a peptide released by endothelial cells
d. endothelial cells release chemical factors and hormones

2.

Platelet phase

MAJOR PLAYER: platelets

platelet plug: an accumulation of platelets that can seal small breaks in blood
vessels
steps of platelet plug formation:
1. platelet adhesion:
a. platelets stick to cells (collagen) exposed by the blood vessel damage at the
injury site
b. mediated through von Willebrand factor (vWF):
i. a protein produced and secreted by blood vessel endothelial cells

ii. forms a bridge between exposed collagen of the blood vessel wall and
platelets by binding to platelet surface receptors and collagen
2. platelet aggregation: more and more platelets arrive at injury site and begin
sticking together to form the platelet plug
3. platelets release chemical signals that attract other platelets as well as cause
increase vascular contraction, blood coagulation, and endothelial repair
3.

Coagulation phase

MAJOR PLAYER: plasma protein

a. complex series of steps that lead to the conversion of circulating
fibrinogen to fibrin
b. blood clot: network of protein fibers called fibrin
a. fibrin forms network that covers platelet plug and traps blood cells and
platelets: blood clot
c. clot retraction: platelets contract to reduce the size of the clot
a. condensation of a clot into a denser, compact structure; caused by the
elastic nature of fibrin

(PLATELET PLUG + FIBRIN = BLOOT CLOTT)

COAGULATION IS STIMULATED BY:

tissue damage

chemicals released by platelets

abnormal causes:
slow blood flow
buildup of plack in veins or arteries

Hemorrhage: the loss of large amounts of blood from vessels

1. blood clotting can usually prevent hemorrhaging in smaller vessels
2. extensive hemorrhaging from large vessels usually requires medical intervention
Thrombosis: clotting in an unbroken blood vessel

may form when:

1. platelets encounter damaged or diseased areas on the walls of blood vessels or the
heart
2. there is a rough surface on vessel wall
3. blood flows too slowly

Hemophylia: lack the ability to form blood clotts