JANUARY 22, 2013

Chapter 2: read pp. 24-29, 38 (starting at Acids and Bases) - 52

Define hydrogen bond, and explain how hydrogen bonds hold polar
molecules together.
a. The attraction of oppositely charged ends of one polar molecule to another polar molecule
holds molecules or parts of molecules together.
Use ATP and ADP to illustrate the release or input of energy in chemical
reactions.
b. input: ADP+Pi+Energy-->ATP
c. release: ATP-->ADP+Pi+Energy
Chemistry: is the study of the nature of matter
-The study of the nature of matter; how building blocks are put together
Matter: All living and nonliving things; anything that occupies space and has mass
Atom: smallest unit of matter
-has 3 subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons
Atomic structure:
protons: one positive charge, form part of the nucleus in the center of the atom
neutrons: no electrical charge, from nucleus at the center of the atom
electrons: one negative charge, move around the nucleus of the atom, region where they
are found is represented by an electron cloud.
Chemical bond: results from attractive forces between atoms
Types of chemical bonds:

Covalent: forms when atoms share one or more pairs of electrons, the resulting
combination of atoms is called a molecule (composed of two or more atoms chemically
combined to form a structure that behaves as an independent unit)

occurs when pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms

sharing of electrons

typically strong bonds

nonpolar covalent: when electrons are shared equally between atoms;

equal sharing

polar covalent: covalent bond in which atoms do not share their electrons
equally; unequal sharing

Ionic: Chemical bond that is formed when one atom loses an electron and another accepts
that electron.

strength of bond depends on conditions: strong in dry solution but weak in

aqueous solution

Fig. 2.4: A complete transfer of electrons between two atoms result in separate
positively charged and negatively charged ions.

Chemical Reaction: occurs when bonds are formed, rearranged or broken

Metabolism: All chemical reactions that occur in the body
Types of reactions:

synthesis (anabolic) reaction: When two or more reactants chemically combine to form a
new and larger product

building reactions

enable growth, maintenance, and repair of the body

reaction uses energy

decomposition (catabolic) reaction: reverse of a synthesis reaction-a larger reactant is

chemically broken down into two or more smaller products.

catastrophic

breaking down reactions

include the digestion of food molecules in the intestine and within cells, the
breakdown of fate stores, and the breakdown of foreign matter and
microorganisms in certain blood cells that protect the body.

reaction involves the release of energy

Energy: capacity to do work

work: to put matter into motion
Forms of energy:

Kinetic energy: energy in motion, actually doing work and moving matter

Potential energy: stored energy

energy of position

location determines how much energy is stored: the further up the hill a rock is,
the more potential energy is stored

Chemical Energy: potential energy stored in the bonds of molecules

-rearranging or altering bonds between atoms of molecules can release energy
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): most fundamental form of chemical energy
-provides the energy used in nearly all of the chemical reactions within cells
-capable of both storing and providing energy
ATP-->ADP+Pi (releases energy)
ADP+Pi-->ATP (requires/uses energy)

pH scale: a means of referring to the H+concentration in a solution. A pH of 7 is neutral,

values less than 7 are acidic, values greater than 7 are basic.
-scale is logarithmic
pH of 1=0.1 grams/unit
pH of 2=0.01 grams/unit
-the higher the pH number, the lower the H+ concentration
Acid: proton donor
Base: proton acceptor
Organic Compounds: contain carbon
1.

Carbohydrates: Sugars

-monosaccharide (simple sugar) or the organic molecules composed of monosaccharides bound

together by chemical bonds-for example, glycogen. For each carbon atom in the molecule, there
are typically on oxygen molecule and two hydrogen molecules.
A.
Monosaccharides: Simple sugar carbohydrate that cannot form any simpler sugars
by hydrolysis.
-example: glucose (6 carbon sugar)
-monomer: building blocks of complex sugars (polymers)
-polymer: composed of multiple units
B. Disaccharides: Condensation product of two monosaccharides by the elimination of
water.
C.
Polysaccharides: Carbohydrate containing a large number of monosaccharide
molecules.
-example:glycogen
-glycogen: polysaccharide in mammal cells, stored from glucose; most prevalent
in skeletal muscle and liver
Functions of Carbohydrates
1.

readily and easily used as a source of fuel

2.

structural components of cell (few)

3.

cell identifiers

2. Lipids: Substance composed principally of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen; contains a lower
ratio of oxygen to carbon and is less polar than carbohydrates; generally soluble in nonpolar
solvents.
A.

Neutral Fats: (ex: triglycerides)

-Triglycerides: three carbon glycerol molecule with a fatty acid attached to each carbon;
constitute approximately 95% of the fats in the human body
-nonpolar molecules

not attracted to water molecules

B.
and a

Phospholipids: lipid with phosphorous, resulting in a molecule with a polar end

nonpolar end; main component of lipid bilayer.

-hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail (micelle structure)

C.
Steroids: large family of lipids, including some reproductive hormones, vitamins,
and cholesterol.
-have a stereotypical shape; same basic shape
4 interlocking rings
what is attached to the rings determines the function
Functions of lipids
1.

structural components of the cell

2.

fuel source
a. gram for gram, they yield more energy than proteins and carbs

3. chemical messengers
3.

Proteins: polymers of amino acids, linked together by covalent bonds

a. Macromolecule consisting of long sequences of amino acids linked together by peptide
bonds.
b. PROTEIN SHAPE DETERMINES FUNCTION!!!
c. sensitive to temp. and pH
Amino acids: building blocks of protein, linked by peptide bonds

Structure and shape of the amino acid chain is important to the

function of the protein
-R group determines identity of amino acid
-

linked together by peptide bonds

Functions of Proteins

1.

Catalyst: speeds up reactions

2.

structural: building blocks

3.

carrier: transportation of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood

4.

movement: muscle contraction

5.

identifiers

Four levels of protein structure

1.
bonds
2.

Primary: determined by the sequence of amino acids bound by peptide

Secondary: interaction of amino acids in close proximity

a. results from the folding or bending of the polypeptide chain caused by the
hydrogen bonds between amino acids.
3.

Tertiary: shape of the entire chain of amino acids

a. results from folding of the pleated sheets or helices

4.

Quaternary: result of interaction of two or more amino acid chains

a. results from the spatial relationships between the individual subunits

PROTEIN SHAPE IS VITAL TO FUNCTION!!

4.

Nucleic acids: polymers of nucleotides

a. deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
b. polymer of nucleotides, consisting of DNA and RNA, forms a family of substances that
comprise the genetic material of cells and control protein synthesis.
Nucleotides: are the building blocks of nucleic acids; linked by phosphodiester bonds

Functions of Nucleic Acids

1.

Provide info for protein synthesis (info stored in DNA is used to make protein)

2.

Direct all metabolic functions

DNA Structure
1.
DNA has two strands of nucleotides joined together to form a twisted, ladderlike
structure called a double helix.
2.
The sides of the ladder are formed by covalent bonds between the deoxyribose
molecules and phosphate groups of adjacent nucleotides.
3.
The rungs of the ladder are formed by the bases of the nucleotides of one side
connected to the bases of the other side by hydrogen bonds.
4.

Each nucleotide of DNA contains one of the organic bases:

a. adenine

b. thymine
c. cytosine
d. guanine
5.

Complementary base pairs: are organic bases held together by hydrogen bonds.

a. Adenine<--->Thymine: structure allows two hydrogen bonds to form between

them.
b. Cytosine<--->Guanine: complementary base pairs because the structure of these
organic bases allows 3 hydrogen bonds to form between them.
6. If the sequence of bases in one DNA strand is known, the sequence in the other strand
can be predicted because of complementary base pairing.