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Published in IET Electric Power Applications
Received on 13th August 2008
Revised on 4th June 2009
doi: 10.1049/iet-epa.2009.0071

ISSN 1751-8660

Three-phase doubly fed induction generators:

an overview
M. Tazil 1 V. Kumar 2 R.C. Bansal3 S. Kong3 Z.Y. Dong4
W. Freitas 5 H.D. Mathur 6
1

School of Engineering and Physics, The University of the South Pacic Suva, Fiji
Electrical Engineering Department, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
3
School of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia Campus,
Qld 4072, Australia
4
Department of Electrical Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
5
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, State University of Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil
6
Electrical and Electronics Engineering Group, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, Rajasthan, India
E-mail: rcbansal@ieee.org
2

Abstract: Adjustable speed induction generators, especially the doubly fed induction generators (DFIG), are
becoming increasingly popular due to their various advantages over xed speed generator systems. A DFIG in
a wind turbine has the ability to generate maximum power with varying rotational speed, ability to control
active and reactive power by the integration of electronic power converters such as the back-to-back
converter, low rotor power rating resulting in low cost converter components, and so on. This study presents
an extensive literature survey over past 25 years on the different aspects of DFIG.

Introduction

Most of the electricity generated today uses non-renewable

sources of fuel such as coal, oil and gas. These contribute
to large quantities of CO2 to the atmosphere, and cause an
enhanced green house effect, leading to the warming of the
earths atmosphere. The increasing rate of depletion of
conventional energy sources has increased emphasis on
renewable energy sources to provide the growing demand.
The adverse effects of conventional systems have given rise
to a shift in focus towards renewable energy sources such as
wind, solar, hydro, tidal wave, biomass, and so on. As
already known, renewable energy sources have virtually no
adverse effects on the environment. The Global Wind
Energy Council (GWEC) [1] states that wind energy
developments has occurred in more than 70 countries
around the world, with an installed capacity of 94,189 MW
in 2007, with an increase of 27% from 2006 to 2007.
The use of a doubly fed induction generator (DFIG)
is becoming more and more popular for the generation
of power from large wind systems. This paper presents an
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overview on various aspects of DFIG. The paper is

organised as follows. Section 2 presents the generators
overview. Sections 3 and 4, respectively, discuss DFIG, its
equivalent circuit and modelling. Various control techniques
and software simulation/hardware experimentation on
DFIG have been discussed in Sections 5 and 6, respectively.
Sections 7 and 8 present DFIG applications in grid
connected and isolated systems, respectively. Section 9
presents some references on the various aspects on which
some research has been carried out. Finally, important
conclusions on DFIG are presented in Section 10.

Generator overview

Wind technology has improved over the years to todays

modern wind power conversion systems as shown in Fig. 1 [2].
All wind turbine systems are comprised of the components
shown in Fig. 1. It is just a matter of including or excluding
the optional components, which is decided by the application
and the type of generator used. The generator forms the
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Figure 1 Main components of a wind turbine system [2]

major link in converting mechanical power to electrical
power. Induction generators are commonly used in such
applications because of their major advantages such as
reduced unit cost, ruggedness, reduced size, ease of
maintenance and self-protection against severe overloads
and short circuits [2 6].
The generators used in wind energy conversion systems
(WECS) can be categorised into two types: xed speed
generators (FSGs) based wind turbine (WT) and adjustable
speed generators (ASGs) based WT. A novel detail on
these generators is provided in [7 11]. Overall, FSGsbased WT are more expensive in mechanical construction,
especially at high-rated power as compared to ASGs-based
WT, which are widely used in WECS.

2.1 Fixed speed generators

Fixed speed wind turbines basically operate at constant speed.
The performance of xed speed wind turbines depends a lot
on the characteristics of mechanical sub-circuits. A fast and
strong variation in electrical output power of FSGs is
observed when the system experiences strong gusts of winds.
The load variations not only require a stiff power grid to
enable stable operation, but also require a sturdy mechanical
design to absorb high mechanical stresses. This strategy
leads to expensive mechanical construction, especially at
high-rated power [7]. A xed speed system [8], even though
is more simple and reliable, severely limits the energy output
of a wind turbine. Since there is no torque control loop,
uctuations in generated power are larger.

2.2 Adjustable speed generators

ASGs are becoming more popular due to their overriding
advantages in the WECS. The main advantage of this
system is that it is able to operate at variable speed, making
it easier to operate at varying wind speeds. Moreover,
modern system designs have also incorporated the use of
power electronic devices to work together with variable
speed generators in order to maximise the generated output
power at varying wing speeds, a major improvement
compared to xed speed systems. Two types of wind
generators that have become increasingly popular in
modern variable speed wind turbines are the synchronous
generator and the DFIG [2].
Even though direct-in-line ASGs designs have been built
up to the 5 MW range [7], there are several disadvantages of
using them such as: full 1.0 per unit (p.u.) systems rating of
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the power converters in the design, which is expensive, and

full 1.0 p.u. systems rating of inverter output lters and
electro magnetic interference (EMI) lters, making lter
design difcult and costly. The DFIG, which is being
analysed in the present research work, however, has many
advantages associated with it to make it the better
alternative for WECS.

Doubly fed induction generator

Recently, the overall aim of most of the WECS has been to

provide a constant frequency output voltage from a variable
speed system. This has given rise to the term variable speed
constant frequency (VSCF) system. A DFIG can supply
power at constant voltage and constant frequency while its
rotor rotation speed varies [12 16]. This represents an
asset in providing more exibility in power conversion and
also better stability in frequency and voltage control in the
power systems to which such generators are connected. A
DFIG consists of a wound rotor induction generator
(WRIG) with the stator windings directly connected to the
three-phase grid/load and the rotor windings connected to
a back-to-back partially rated (20 30% rating) [17 24]
power converter as shown in Fig. 2 [7].
The back-to-back converter is a bi-directional power
converter consisting of two conventional pulse width
modulation (PWM) voltage source converters and a
common DC bus employing a DC link capacitor. The size
of the converter relates not only to the total generator power
but also to the selected speed range or the slip power [25
27]. PWM converters have been widely used and discussed
in [12, 28 34]. Due to the bi-directional power ow ability
of the converter, the DFIG may operate as a generator or
motor in both sub-synchronously (0 , slip , 1) and supersynchronously (slip , 0). Neglecting losses, the rotor power
handled by the converter can be represented using slip (s) as
[13, 35 37]
Protor sPstator
Pstator

Pgrid
1s

(1)
(2)

and the mechanical power is represented as

Pmech Protor

(1  s)
Pstator Protor
s

(3)

Figure 2 DFIG wind turbine system [7]

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The higher the slip, the larger the electrical power, which
is either absorbed or delivered through the rotor. At supersynchronous mode, both the stator and the rotor powers add
up to convert the mechanical power. The operation modes
and power signs of a DFIG at sub-synchronous and supersynchronous modes are given in Table 1 [13].

rotor bars in the rotor plays an important role in the

operation of this machine and as it was experimented in
[43], a smaller number of rotor cage bars cause high
harmonic content generated in the air gap ux causing
high leakage reluctances.

Overall, the DFIG has the following advantages over other

types of systems [7, 19, 28, 38]:

4 Equivalent circuit and modelling

of DFIG

Reduced inverter cost, because the inverter is typically

rated at only 0.25 p.u. while the speed range is
around +33% around the synchronous speed. This means
that the converters are 25% smaller than those used in the
synchronous generator design, making it far less expensive.

Since a DFIG is an electrical machine, it can be represented

electrically using the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 3
[45, 46]. This equivalent circuit includes the magnetisation
losses and is valid for one equivalent star (Y ) phase and for
steady-state calculations. In the case that the DFIG is delta
(D)-connected the machine can still be represented by this
equivalent Y representation.

Reduced cost of inverter lters and EMI lters, because

lters are rated at 0.25 p.u. of total system power.
Improved system efciency due to the low rating of the
converters, which means that the converter losses are less.
Power factor control can be implemented at lower cost.
The DFIG with a four-quadrant converter in the rotor
circuit enables decoupled control of active and reactive
power of the generator.
The use of a DFIG on a wind turbine not only improves
the efciency of energy transfer from the wind but also
provides wind farms with the capability of contributing
signicantly to network support and operation with respect
to voltage control, transient performance and damping [9,
39]. Furthermore, a DFIG can generate an output power
even twice of its own rating at a slip value of s 21 [40,
41]. This makes a DFIG wind turbine system very exible
and appropriate in WECS.
Brushless doubly fed induction machines (BDFM) have
also been studied and tested for performance in [42 44].
A BDFM has two stator windings (usually one is called
auxiliary winding) and as the name suggests, does not
contain a wound rotor but has a cage rotor instead. The
major advantage of this machine is that there are no brush
gears, making it appropriate for off-shore wind turbine
applications where servicing costs are high and it is
desirable to avoid brush gear maintenance. The number of

Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law in Fig. 3 and using

Xs j v1 Lsl and Xr j v1 Lr l gives the following equations
[45]
Vs Rs Is j v1 Lsl Is j v1 Lm (Is Ir Irm )

(4)

Vr Rr
Ir j v1 Lrl Ir j v1 Lm (Is Ir Irm )
s
s

(5)

0 Rm I rm j v1 Lm (Is Ir I rm )

(6)

where Vs stator voltage, Rs stator resistance, Vr rotor

voltage, Rr rotor resistance, Is stator current,
Rm magnetising resistance, Ir rotor current, Lsl stator
leakage inductance, Irm magnetising resistance current,
Lrl rotor leakage inductance, v1 stator frequency,
Lm magnetising inductance and s slip.
The slip, s, equals
s

v1  vr v2

v1
v1

(7)

where vr rotor speed and v2 slip frequency. Furthermore,

if the air-gap, stator and rotor uxes are dened as

cm Lm (Is Ir Irm )

(8)

cs Lsl Is Lm (Is Ir Irm ) Lsl Is cm

(9)

cr Lrl Ir Lm (Is Ir Irm ) Lrl Ir cm

(10)

Table 1 Operation modes and power signs

Slip
0 , s , 1 (subsynchronous)
s , 0 (supersynchronous)

Operation
mode

Pmech Pstator Protor

motor

,0

,0

.0

generator

.0

.0

,0

motor

,0

,0

,0

generator

.0

.0

.0

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Figure 3 Equivalent circuit of DFIG [45]

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Then, (4)(6) become

5.1 Pitch control for power optimisation

Vs Rs Is j v1 cs

(11)

Vr Rr
Ir j v1 c r
s
s

(12)

0 Rm Irm j v1 cm

(13)

After determining the apparent and active power that is fed to

the DFIG via the stator and rotor circuits, the mechanical
power produced by the DFIG can be determined.
The modelling of a DFIG has been widely discussed in [38,
4766]. In [64], impact of the closed-loop control on the
dynamics of the DFIG is analysed, along with the modelling
requirements for power system stability studies. Hu and He
[65] present a mathematical model of a DFIG based on
stator voltage orientation (SVO) in the positive and negative
synchronous reference frame under unbalanced grid voltage
conditions, where oscillations of DFIG electromagnetic
torque and the stator active and reactive powers are fully
described during grid voltage unbalance. In [66], a detailed
dynamic model of a DFIG-based wind turbine grid
connected system is presented in the dq-synchronous
reference frame.
It is important to note that the three-phase asynchronous
machine equations are often transformed into direct and
quadrature (d 2 q) axis as well in order to develop nthorder models for specic applications, whereby higher order
models are used for studies requiring high degree of
accuracy. Lower order models are used for simplicity
and are achieved after certain conditions and assumptions.
The transformation into two-phase components and
subsequently rotating all variables into a synchronous
(d 2 q) reference frame enables linking of the synchronous
frame to stator or rotor ux of an induction machine that is
also used in vector control.

5 Control methods used in

DFIG system
Control of the DFIG is more complicated than the control
of a standard induction machine. Wind speed is a highly
unpredictable source, which can prove fatal to the DFIG
without any control. Likewise, the consumers of electricity
can put the electrical system into constant stress by
connecting various types of loads, all of which could
severely affect the DFIG system if there were no
appropriate controls in place.
Through the years, many researchers have attempted to
look at various types of DFIG control systems [17, 19, 21,
23, 25, 67 86] for different environment, electrical and
mechanical conditions so as to come up with a system
which is robust as well as able to handle the unwanted
disturbances that the DFIG system can face.
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The pitch control is a mechanical method of controlling the

blade angle of the wind turbine. The amount of mechanical
power that a turbine can produce in steady state is given by
[10, 25, 28].
1
Pmech rpR2 u3 Cp (u, l)
2

(14)

where r is the air density (kg/m3), R is the blade radius (m),

u is the wind speed (m/s) and Cp (u, l) is the aerodynamic
efciency, which depends on pitch angle, u, and tip speed
ratio, l. The central ambition of wind turbine at low wind
speeds is to adjust the rotor speed so that Cp (u, l) is always
maintained at its maximum value. Fig. 4 shows the optimal
power curve at different wind speeds [9, 18, 87, 88].
It is seen that there is a specic generator speed, which
yields the maximum possible power at each wind speed. At
low wind speeds the pitch angle is usually xed. But, at
high wind speeds whereby the rated generator power is
exceeded, at 12 m/s in Fig. 4, pitch control is enabled to
limit the maximum output power to be equal to the rated
power in order to protect the generator.

5.2 Vector and decoupling control

As opposed to scalar control [89] that uses relationships valid
in steady state to measure magnitude and frequency (angular
speed) of voltage, current and ux linkage vector spaces,
vector control uses relationships valid for dynamic states,
not only magnitude and frequency but also instantaneous
positions of voltage, current and ux space vectors in general
[90]. Vector control provides the ability to enable separate
control of the active and reactive power from the generator.
It is a control scheme based on a d q synchronous reference
frame. The d-axis of the synchronous frame is aligned with
the stator-ux vector thus allowing the decoupling of the
active and reactive powers. Research work carried out in [12,
29, 47, 48, 91 96] show that vector control is feasible on
the DFIG system for large grid as well as stand-alone
isolated systems. The investigation of oscillation damping
capability in vector control-based DFIG is of practical value.

Figure 4 Electrical output power of a generator at different

wind speeds
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In [97], the authors have developed a decoupled vector control
schemes and control loops to effectively damp inter-area
oscillations in a power system. Also, active and reactive
power modulations are investigated for their effectiveness on
inter-area oscillation damping. Fig. 5 shows a typical vector
control simulation for controlling a DFIG system [7].
A different approach was presented in [67], in which vector
control was applied to an aircraft power grid which used a
permanent magnet synchronous machine (PMSM) to
provide excitation current to the power converter in the rotor
circuit of a DFIG onboard the aircraft. Simulation results
were shown for both DFIG as well as PMSM control strategies.

5.2.1 Active and reactive power control: Even

though active power is usually considered to be more
important, reactive power is equally responsible for a
systems electrical behaviour. An induction generator, such
as the DFIG, requires a reasonable amount of reactive
power for its operation. In case of grid-connected systems,
the generator obtains the reactive power from the grid
itself. In case of isolated system operation, the reactive
power has to be supplied by external sources such as
external capacitors [98] and in case of an isolated DFIG
system, reactive power is produced exciting the rotor by an
external source (i.e. batteries), thus the need for a bank of
capacitors is eliminated [99]. Active and reactive power
control has been discussed widely in [22, 100 107].
In contradiction to [12] which showed position sensorless
control of active and reactive power using vector control,
Peresada et al. [100] showed the development of simple
and robust torque tracking and reactive power control
algorithm making use of both position and velocity sensors.
However, sensorless control of the variable speed doubly
fed induction machine (DFIM) has also been addressed by
several researchers [101, 108 115] for different control
methods. Sensorless schemes are based on estimation
techniques. A common way used for the estimation of
parameters without taking any feedback is the use of model
reference adaptive system (MRAS) observer as used in
[108, 113, 114]. In [102], simulations on active and
reactive power controls were made using Laplace transforms
(continuous domain) and transfer functions which are easily
implemented in Simulinkw software.

Figure 5 Vector control simulation of DFIG system [6]

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5.3 Passivity control methods

A passivity-based controller (PBC) is used to achieve
stabilisation via energy balancing; therefore, the regulation
of power in a system is automatically achieved. Similar
works on passivity control in [116, 117] show the use of
passivity control in controlling an induction motors
mechanical speed, which is connected to the DFIGs stator
terminals. This scheme leads to the control of the
induction motor torque as well by making use of the rotor
voltage of the DFIG as the control variable. However, Lee
and Nam [116] went on to further design an equivalent
circuit of the DFIG and induction motor control system to
provide a better understanding of the performance of the
system.

5.4 Flywheel control

The inclusion of a ywheel in the DFIG control system is not
taken as a separate control system of its own. In fact, even
though a ywheel is included in the system, the controls
are still done by other existing methods. However, in all
systems containing ywheels, the sole purpose of the
ywheel is to serve as an energy storage device. It is already
known that a ywheel is a heavy round mass with a high
moment of inertia. Once spun, the ywheel maintains the
rotation for a longer period of time. In [118], a ywheel
was used as a storage device with passivity based controller
as mentioned in the previous section. Whenever the power
required by the local loads was less than the generated
power, the excess generated energy was used to accelerate
the ywheel. As the local load demand increased, the
rotation energy of the ywheel was used to rotate the
DFIG generator to provide the extra needed power.
Akagi et al. [119] described a DFIG control system
containing a ywheel energy storage system for the purpose
of achieving load levelling over the repetitive period of time
and also to perform reactive power compensation of the
load. In this system, vector and decoupling control method
was implemented due to the objective being compensation
of reactive power, which is made achievable by vector control.

5.5 Matrix converters control

Conventionally, the two-stage AC DC AC conversion
system is adopted for DFIG rotor circuit where the
generator side converter may be a diode-rectier, a
thyristor-rectier or a voltage-sourced converter (VSC).
But, the utility side converter is often a VSC unit. The
main shortcomings of such conventional two-stage AC
DC AC conversion unit are (i) large physical dimensions,
high weight and excessive volume/foot-print of the DC
link component, that is the DC capacitor or the inductor,
(ii) the low reliability of DC capacitor and (iii) the poor
line power factor and harmonic distortion in line and
machine currents, which are severely restricted by the
IEEE Standard 519.
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However, Zhang and Watthanasarn [120] and Zhang
et al. [121] have effectively proposed the use of matrix
converters (MCs) to act as direct AC AC conversion for
the control of the rotor-side currents of a DFIG system.
MCs provide direct AC AC conversion and is considered
an emerging alternative to the conventional two-stage AC
DC AC converter topology, as it provides a large number
of control levers that allow for independent control on the
output voltage magnitude, frequency and phase angle, as
well as the input power factor. When compared with the
conventional two-stage AC DC AC converter system,
the bold feature of MCs is the elimination of the DC-link
reactive elements, for example, bulky electrolytic capacitors
and/or inductors, so allowing for extreme environment
storage and wider operating temperature range than with
electrolytic capacitors. The MC topology provides a
compact solution and yields high input and output quality.
It draws sinusoidal input current and, depending on the
modulation technique, it can be arranged so that unity
displacement factor is seen at the supply side irrespective of
the type of load.
However, the proposed system together with the DFIG
was only simulated and no hardware experimentation was
carried out on prototypes to fully verify the practicality of
the proposed system, while the use of PWM converters has
existed in hardware experimental prototype and has been
known to work well, as discussed in the following section.

5.6 Sliding mode control

Sliding mode control [122, 123] works by providing a
compromise between conversion efciency (maximum
power utilisation) and torque oscillation smoothing. A wind
turbine set-up to produce maximum power at various wind
speeds is bound to operate near or at maximum rating
around high wind speeds. Random wind uctuations, wind
shear and tower shadow (for wind-up turbines) may
produce high torque oscillations and ripples and could
easily damage the drive train, the power electronics and the
generator at this point. The slide mode scheme provides a
robust control to protect the system from harmful torque
oscillations at the maximum operating point of the turbine
by slightly reducing the maximum energy tracking control.

5.7 Direct torque control

The main principle of a direct torque control (DTC) [90,
124] is the ability to control directly the rotor ux linkage
magnitude and generator torque, made possible by proper
selection of the inverter switching states. The resulting
switching pattern restricts ux and torque errors within setup ux and torque hysteresis bands. Torque and ux
feedback are used for this type of control. The rotor ux is
estimated using the rotor and stator current vectors whereas
the nal torque is estimated using the estimated rotor ux
and the measured rotor currents.
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6 Software simulations and

hardware experimentations
on DFIG systems
Software simulations have become an important part of
research and project work. Even before physical hardware
structures and prototypes are constructed, software
simulations are very often done so as to predict the actual
systems performance and also to provide theoretical
explanations on different operational characteristics of
components. Majority of the papers reviewed contained
software simulations of the proposed systems.
The choice of software is often driven by the
appropriateness of the application, its availability and past
experience with the software. For studying effects of power
generation by wind turbines connected to the grid, the
most widely used simulation softwares found were
Simulinkw with SimPower Systems provided as a toolbox
in MATLABw, DIgSILENTw Power Factory, PSCADw,
BLADEDw and PSS/Ew.
From the review, Simulinkw was found to be the most
widely used software. In [38, 47, 67, 68, 92, 102 104,
125, 126], Simulink was used for modelling and
verication of proposed systems. PSCADw was used [127]
for transient analysis of grid connected wind turbines in
external short circuit. For the dynamic modelling of
variable speed DFIG pitch control, DIgSILENTw was
used [25, 128]. Since pitch control is the control by means
of mechanical systems, the dynamic modelling tool was
most appropriately chosen by the authors. Another
simulation software used for dynamic corrections,
aerodynamics and structural dynamics is BLADEDw
[129]. The least frequently used software for system
modelling and simulation purpose was found to be PSS/
Ew which was used in [130].
Hardware experimentations and implementations of
proposed systems were found in only a handful of the
literatures reviewed [29, 69, 89, 99, 120, 131]. A 7.5 kW
DFIM was used in experimentations in two very similar
work done in [29, 120]. Caratozzolo [99] used a much
smaller 200 W wound rotor induction machine
experimental prototype. In this prototype, TMS320C40
Texas Instrument digital signal processor (DSP) was used
for the purpose of providing PWM and controlling the
PWM converters in the rotor circuit. DSPs are used as an
interface between continuous time domain machines and
the discrete time domain computers. In these hardware
systems, the converter used was the standard PWM
AC DC AC converter, signifying very good practical
performance of this component. In [89], experimentations
were performed on a 0.8 kW machine supplying isolated
loads. For a less complex system control, a microprocessor
was used [69], in which an INTELw 8086 microprocessor
was used for control purposes.
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7

DFIG systems connected to grid

There are several papers, which are associated with DFIG

operation for a grid-connected system. Major areas of research
in grid connected systems found in the review were control of
active and reactive power ow between wind turbine systems
and the grid [29], current control of DFIG [19], dynamic
interaction of DFIG and fuel cell with grid [132], analysis of
systems under grid disturbance or fault conditions [31, 4952,
126, 127, 133140]. Under the unbalanced grid voltage, the
most severe operation problem of DFIG may not be the
transient over current, but the large electric torque pulsation
that causes wear and tear of the gearbox, and large voltage
ripple in the dc link of back to back VSC that may decrease
the lifetime of the dc capacitance. In [139], the behaviour of
DFIG under unbalanced grid voltage is thoroughly analysed,
and a dual-sequence eld-oriented current (FOC) controller is
proposed, in which rotor VSC is controlled to limit the torque
pulsation, and the grid VSC is controlled to limit the dc
voltage ripple. Kasem et al. [140] implemented a scheme to
keep the wind-power DFIG operating during transients grid
faults by developing a comprehensive time domain model
with decoupled dq controller.
The study of wind turbine and power grid synchronisation
techniques [141], decentralised non-linear control of wind
turbine with DFIG based on differential geometry theory
[86], control comparison of DFIG connected to grid by
asymmetric transmission lines [142], various protection
schemes for wind turbine systems under grid fault and
stability analysis of wind farms under transient failures, low
voltage ride through capability and voltage drop conditions
have been discussed in detail [9, 16, 53, 104, 143147]. With
the increase of DFIG-based wind farms, many researches
have been concentrated on the control and dynamic
performance of DFIG system under unbalanced voltage sags
and during network unbalance [148151]. In [148], stator
current and voltage unbalances are reduced/eliminated by
injecting compensation currents into the grid using stator side
converter. In [149], unbalanced voltage sags have been ridethrough by choosing certain current reference values in the
positive and negative sequences so as to keep torque and dc
voltage stable during unbalanced sags. In [150], a new rotor
current control strategy is used to investigate the control and
operation of DFIG-based wind generation system during
network unbalance. Wang et al. [151] have developed
strategies for operating DFIG-based wind farms as power
conditioners to compensate network unbalance by coordinated
control of the rotor and grid side converter.
The research areas, as seen above, are basically attempting to
address the difculties faced by grid connected wind turbine
systems. Since a grid can be affected by various disturbances
such as lightening, short circuits causing faults or voltage
uctuations, research in such areas was predominant.
Furthermore, a grid is known to have a xed voltage level
and frequency; therefore, in order to connect a wind turbine
to the grid, synchronisation has to be performed.
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8 DFIG systems supplying

isolated loads
A relatively small amount of research on DFIG systems
supplying isolated or stand-alone systems was found. This
could be due to the fact that in large countries, there are
wider grid-connected systems; hence, research is more
common in these areas. However, for smaller developing
tropical island countries such as Fiji, it becomes fairly
impossible to supply isolated settlements using the grid.
Hence it is appropriate to develop isolated electricity
generation systems to supply the local community with
the much-needed electricity.
Unlike the grid-connected case, where large consumer
loads can be operated without greatly affecting the grid
performance, isolated DFIG systems have to be made
robust and very good control systems have to be put in
place in order to operate the required loads. This is mainly
due to the fact that there is usually only one generator
supplying the settlement; hence, the type of loads that the
consumers use greatly affects the performance of the entire
system.
The possibility of DFIG supplying an isolated load was
proposed in [152], in which steady state control problem
was discussed. In order to achieve constant voltage and
constant frequency, the rotor has to be supplied by a voltage
phasor having frequency equal to the difference between
actual speed and the synchronous speed [32, 70 72,
153 156]. The isolated system in [67] used a DFIG for
aircraft applications. Wind-diesel power system for
supplying isolated system was presented in [157]. Dynamic
modelling of isolated systems containing DFIG was
proposed by Caratozzolo et al. [99] whereby rotor voltage
was controlled in order to control the DFIG characteristics.
In addition, Drid et al. [89] represented modelling and
scalar method of control for DFIG supplying an isolated load.

9 Various other areas of

DFIG applications
In this section references of DFIG in various areas of which
are not covered above that is PhD on DFIG [158 160],
control of optimal power ow [161 163], comparison of
stabilising methods [164, 165], power quality/harmonic
analysis [166 169], frequency analysis [170 175], DFIG
application in hydro systems [176], steady-state and
transient performance analysis [177, 178], application of
articial intelligent techniques in DFIG for non-linear
model identication of wind turbine, to estimate wind
turbine power generation, for the fault automatic diagnosis
which processes real time online fault diagnosis to analyse
and conrm the position and character of the merging
networks fault, and shorten the fault stop time of the wind
turbine [176, 179 183]; adaptive fuzzy controller for
maximum wind energy extraction by Galdi et al. [184]
81

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where a methodology for designing an adaptive fuzzy system
for DFIG has been proposed and tested; fuzzy control used
for improving the dynamic behaviour of DFIG [185],
effect of wind farms with DFIG on small-signal stability
[186], reactive power capability of a DFIG using
performance capability curve [187], autonomous power
system for island or grid-connected wind turbines in
distribution generation [188] and so on have been presented.

machine a comparison with alternative schemes, IEEE

Trans. Energy Convers., 2002, 17, (3), pp. 414 421
[9] HOLDSWORTH L. , WU X.G., EKANAYAKE J.B., JENKINS N. :
Comparison of xed speed and doubly-fed induction
wind turbines during power system disturbances, Proc.
IEE Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2003, 150, (3), pp. 343 352
[10]

10

Conclusions

The use of DFIG in wind turbines is emerging rapidly

and more and more research is being done in many areas of
study relating to the use of such a system for extracting
wind energy for electricity generation. The popularity of
DFIG systems are due to its competitive advantages over
other types of generators and hence are more widely being
used in large power grids in order to add power to the grid
or for stand-alone systems. Smaller systems do not usually
use DFIG systems due to the complexity involved in the
use and control of power electronics involved.

11

RODRIGUEZ J.M., FERNANDEZ J.L., BEATU D., ITURBE R., USAOLA J.,

LEDESMA P. , WILHELMI J.R. :

Incidence on power system

dynamics of high penetration of xed speed and doubly
fed wind energy systems: study of the Spanish case, IEEE
Trans. Power Syst., 2002, 17, (4), pp. 1089 1095
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[12] PENA R., CLARE J.C., ASHER G.M.: A doubly fed induction
generator using back-to-back PWM converters supplying
an isolated load from a variable speed wind turbine, IEE
Proc. Electr. Power Appl., 1996, 143, (5), pp. 380 387

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