IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 21, NO.

1, FEBRUARY 2006

153

A Unified Three-Phase Transformer Model

for Distribution Load Flow Calculations
Peng Xiao, Student Member, IEEE, David C. Yu, Member, IEEE, and Wei Yan

AbstractThis paper provides a unified method to model

three-phase transformers for distribution system load flow calculations, especially when the matrix singularity caused by the
transformer configuration arises. This paper shows that the singularity appears only in certain transformer admittance submatrices
and only in certain transformer configurations. The unified
method presented in this paper can solve the voltage/current equations in the forward/backward sweep algorithm for various types
of transformer configurations, whether or not the corresponding
admittance submatrices are singular. Comprehensive comparisons have been made between the proposed approach and other
methods. Test results demonstrate the validity and effectiveness of
the proposed method.
Index TermsAdmittance matrix, load flow analysis, power
distribution, power transformers.

I. INTRODUCTION

S the power distribution networks become more and more

complex, there is a higher demand for efficient and reliable system operation. Consequently, two of the most important
system analysis tools, power flow and short-circuit studies, must
have the capability to handle various system configurations with
adequate accuracy and speed. Of the several dedicated distribution system load flow methods used in the power industry, the
forward/backward sweep algorithm [1], with its low memory
and computation requirements and robust convergence characteristic, has gained the most popularity in recent years. The algorithm is also known to be the branch current-based feeder analysis. Based on the ladder theory for linear circuit analysis, the
forward/backward sweep algorithm can fully utilize the radial
structure of most distribution networks. With minor modifications, several methods [2], [3] have been proposed to extend its
application in weakly meshed distribution systems.
To take into account the existence of multiphase load and unsymmetrical feeders in distribution systems, three-phase system
representation is generally used. The modeling of three-phase
transformers is a vital step in distribution system analysis. Due
to unbalanced system operations, a complete and accurate threephase model is desirable for distribution and inline transformers
of various core and winding configurations.
Manuscript received August 18, 2004; revised January 8, 2005. This work was
supported in part by the Visiting Scholar Foundation of the Key Laboratory of
High Voltage Engineering and Electrical New Technology, Education Ministry,
China. Paper no. TPWRS-00450-2004.
P. Xiao and D. C. Yu are with the Electrical Engineering Department, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53211 USA.
W. Yan is with the Electrical Power Department, Chongqing University,
Chongqing 400044, China.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRS.2005.857847

Fig. 1. General three-phase transformer model.

A two-block three-phase transformer model was presented

in [4]. As shown in Fig. 1, a series block represents winding
connections and leakage impedance, and a shunt block models
real and reactive power losses in the transformer core. A similar
model was proposed in [5], where the shunt block is connected
to the primary side.
The core loss of a transformer is approximated by shunt core
loss functions on each phase of the secondary terminal of the
transformer. Generally, the functions are nonlinear and the coefficients should be determined by experiments. Since transformer
winding connections have little effect on core loss, this paper focuses mainly on the series block, while the core loss block can
be treated as a three-phase load on either side of the transformer.
To include such a transformer model into the forward/backward sweep algorithm, specific voltage/current relationships
should be derived. Several approaches have been developed in
the past several years. In [4], fictitious injection current sources
were used to resolve the coupling between the primary and secondary sides, which greatly simplified the admittance matrix.
However, this technique faces slow convergence problems when
employed in the forward/backward sweep algorithm. In [5],
voltage and current update equations were developed for three of
the most commonly used transformer connections based on their
equivalent circuits. In [9], voltage/current equations were derived
in matrix form for transformers of the ungrounded wye-delta
connection. However, these methods are mainly based on circuit
analysis with Kirchhoffs voltage and current laws. Different set
of equations are needed to handle each connection type. Transformers of various winding connections can only be analyzed
on a case-by-case basis, which is not convenient for efficient
implementation and incorporation of new connection types.
In this paper, a unified method is proposed to model the
diverse distribution transformers into the forward/backward
sweep load flow algorithm. A brief description of the forward/backward sweep algorithm is presented in Section II. In
Section III, the proposed modeling procedure is explained in

0885-8950/$20.00 2005 IEEE

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Fig. 2.

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 21, NO. 1, FEBRUARY 2006

One section of a distribution network.

detail. Extensive computation and comparisons have been done

to verify the method, and the results are presented in Section IV.
II. FORWARD/BACKWARD SWEEP ALGORITHM
Although the forward/backward sweep algorithm can be extended to solve systems with loops and distributed generation
buses, a radial network with only one voltage source is used here
to depict the principles of the algorithm. Such a system can be
modeled as a tree, in which the root is the voltage source, and
the branches can be a segment of feeder, a transformer, or other
components between two buses.
With the given voltage magnitude and phase angle at the root
and known system load information, the power flow algorithm
needs to determine the voltages at all other buses and currents in
each branch. The forward/backward sweep algorithm employs
an iterative method to update bus voltages and branch currents.
During each iteration, a backward sweep is performed to update
branch currents, and a forward sweep is performed to update bus
voltages. The algorithm terminates when the voltages converge.
A brief description of the main steps of the forward/backward
sweep algorithm is shown as follows.
A. Initialization
Before the first iteration, the voltage at each leaf node, i.e., the
buses that do not have child buses, is given an initial guess value.
The guess values should be as close to the true values as possible
to reduce the number of iterations and to avoid divergence. Typically, the voltage magnitude is set to one per unit, while the
voltage phase angle can be chosen by considering transformer
phase shift between the root and the leaf nodes.
B. Backward Sweep
With voltages at all the leaf nodes given, the backward sweep
procedure determines the currents in the branches that connect
these nodes and their parent nodes and the voltages at the parent
nodes. When the voltages at the parent nodes are calculated,
these nodes can then be treated as leaf nodes and the calculation continues until the root is reached.
Fig. 2 shows one section of the system, in which bus is the
parent node and bus is the leaf node. Each step of the backward
sweep is to determine the currents flowing through the branch
and the voltages at bus . Therefore, in the backward
sweep, the branch components need to be modeled in a way that
and can be obtained when
and are known.
C. Forward Sweep
After backward sweep, the currents in all branches are updated. However, since calculations of these currents are based

on estimated bus voltages, incorrect voltage values will result

in incorrect branch currents. In forward sweep, the root voltage
information, together with the branch currents obtained from the
last backward sweep, are used to update the leaf node voltages.
Starting from the root node, the voltages at all the child nodes
are calculated based on the parent bus voltages and the currents
in the branches. The procedure continues until all the leaf node
voltages are updated.
As indicated in Fig. 2, the forward sweep requires that the
can be obtained when
branch be modeled in a way that
and are known.
The proposed method for modeling distribution transformer
satisfies the requirements of the forward/backward sweep algorithm and can be easily integrated into the algorithm, regardless
of the types of transformer configurations.
III. TRANSFORMER MODELING PROCEDURE
A. Construction of the Primitive Admittance Matrix
The starting point for the proposed modeling approach is the
of the transformer, which
primitive admittance matrix
can be determined according to the transformer winding connections. Depending on the system representation, both per-unit
values or actual unit values can be used to form the matrix. A
discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of both unit systems was presented in [6].
B. Conversion to Nodal Admittance Matrix
The conversion from the primitive admittance matrix
to the nodal admittance matrix
was discussed in detail in
[8]. Basically, the procedure involves using the node-to-branch
incidence matrix with
(1)
can then be reduced to 6 6 by eliminating
The matrix
the neutral point nodes with Kron reduction. The resulted matrix
.
is the nodal admittance matrix
In [10], a systematic approach utilizing symbolic mathematical tools was proposed to establish the nodal admittance matrices for various transformer connection types. Minor modifications are necessary to take into account the off-nominal tap ratio
between the primary and secondary sides of the transformer. The
matrices for the most common transformer configurations
were proposed in [4].
Following the same transformer modeling procedures, it
is straightforward to build the nodal admittance matrices for
the more particular transformer configurations such as Open
Wye/Open Delta. Once these matrices are determined, they
can be used in the forward/backward algorithm. However, this
paper does not discuss these more specialized transformer
configurations due to space limitations.
C. Characteristics of the

Submatrices

, the transformer
With the nodal admittance matrix
voltage-current relationship can be expressed as
(2)

XIAO et al.: UNIFIED THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER MODEL FOR DISTRIBUTION LOAD FLOW

TABLE I
SUBMATRICES FOR COMMON STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

where the

matrix is divided into four 3 3 submatrices:

, and
. Vectors
, and
are the
three-phase line-to-neutral bus voltages and injection currents at
the primary and secondary sides of the transformer, respectively.
As described in the last section, in backward sweep proceand
are known, while
and
are to be calcudure,
lated. From (2), the following can be derived:
(3)
(4)
In forward sweep,
calculated. Similarly

and

are known, and

needs to be
(5)

According to (3)(5), the implementation of the forward/backward sweep algorithm requires the inversion of
and
. However, a close examination
submatrices
matrices for common transformer configurations
of the
shows that these submatrices are often singular. Table I shows
for the nine most common step-down
the submatrices of
transformer connection types, and Table II shows the matrices
for step-up transformers, where
(6)

155

TABLE II
SUBMATRICES FOR COMMON STEP-UP TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

From (7) and (8), it is obvious that both

and
are
is invertible only for
connection,
singular. Hence,
is invertible only for
and
connections.
and
connection, (3)(5) can be directly used for forward
For
connection, only
and backward sweep calculations. For
(5) can be used in forward sweep. For all other connection types,
since the matrices are singular, there is no unique solution to the
above equations. In essence, the singularity in those transformer
configurations arises due to the lack of voltage reference point
on one or both sides of the transformer.
D. Solving the Singularity Problem
To circumvent the singularity issue, it is noted that although
and
cannot be
the three-phase line-to-neutral voltages
obtained by solving (3) and (5), the nonzero-sequence components of the voltages can be uniquely determined. To illustrate
this point in the backward sweep, rewrite (3) as
(9)
Let
i.e.,

represent the nonzero-sequence components of

,
(10)

where vector
side; thus

is the zero-sequence voltage on the primary

(11)

(7)

(8)

and
is always zero for transformer
The product of
. This is because
is repconfigurations other than
resented by
or
in all other transformer configurations
. From (7) and (8), it can be seen that
except
(12)

and is the per-unit transformer leakage admittance. For simplification, the leakage admittances of each phase are assumed
to be identical. For transformers with unbalanced admittances,
their nodal admittance matrices are more complex and do not
take the forms shown in Tables I or II. However, it is proved
that the singularity of the transformer submatrices remains the
same.

so (11) can be reduced to

(13)
Equation (13) indicates that the zero-sequence component of
does not affect the backward sweep calculation for transmatrix. The above analysis shows
formers with a singular

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 21, NO. 1, FEBRUARY 2006

that (3) can be used to calculate both

and its nonzero-se. However, if
is singular, (13) still
quence components
, and a modification is needed.
cannot uniquely determine
Since
does not contain zero-sequence component, it satisfies
(14)

Fig. 3. Four-bus example system.

Equations (13) and (14) can be combined as

Equation (20) can then be transformed into
(15)
is obtained by replacing the last row of
with
, while and
are the same as and
, except
that elements in their last row are set to 0 so that (14) is satisfied.
is not singular, the nonzero-sequence compoNow that
nents of the voltages on the primary side can be determined by
where

(22)

(16)
Similar results can be obtained for forward sweep calculation
(17)
is the nonzero-sequence component of
where
is the same as
, except that the last row is replaced with
, and
are obtained by setting the elements in
to 0, respectively.
the last row of and
or
are calOnce the nonzero-sequence components of
culated, zero-sequence components are added to them to form
the line-to-neutral voltages so that the forward/backward sweep
procedure can continue.
As an example, consider the backward sweep for an untransformer. According to Table I
grounded

(18)
and

(19)

E. Modified Forward/Backward Sweep Algorithm

With the above transformation, the equations for transformer
voltage calculation are no longer singular. However, the resulted
and
only contain the positive and
transformer voltages
negative sequence components. Thus, zero-sequence voltages
must be added to them to form line-to-neutral voltages. The
primary-side zero-sequence voltage can be initialized to 0 and
is updated during the forward sweep. Since voltages are also
calculated when line currents are updated, the secondary-side
zero-sequence voltage can be obtained directly from the backward sweep.
To illustrate the modified procedure, a four-bus example
shown in Fig. 3 is used.
1) Initialization: The forward/backward sweep algorithm
begins with all the load information and only the source voltage
known. A guess value is given to the voltages on bus 4.
given, the load currents can
2) Backward Sweep: With
be calculated. If the transformer core loss is modeled on the secondary side, core loss functions can be used to determine the
absorbed power and current. Thus, the three-phase currents
that flows through feeder 34 can be obtained. Assume that line
charging is neglected, then the currents flowing through the secare equal to . The voltages
ondary side of the transformer
on the secondary side of the transformer are

Thus, (13) becomes

(20)
is evident. However, the matrix
The singularity of matrix
can be changed to nonsingular if one of its rows is replaced with
, i.e.,

(21)

where
is the line impedance matrix for feeder segment
34.
-connected transformer, its
matrix is not
For the
invertible. According to (16)

Since
only contains the positive-and negative-sequence
, an initial value of zero-sequence voltage
components of
is needed to get the transformer primary side voltage

XIAO et al.: UNIFIED THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER MODEL FOR DISTRIBUTION LOAD FLOW

Next the currents at the ungrounded Wye side can be determined with

157

TABLE III
DURING ITERATIONS

The backward sweep calculation continues until the source

bus is reached. If the difference between the computed source
and the actual source voltage
is not within the
voltage
required error limit, a forward sweep is performed.
3) Forward Sweep: The forward sweep begins by setting
to its actual value
. Since the currents in feeder sections 12
have been calculated in the backward sweep, the voltage at bus
2 can be obtained by

where
is the line impedance matrix for feeder segment
, the zero-sequence component
12. Note that by updating
is also updated and will be used in the next backward sweep
procedure.
based on the knowledge
The next step is to determine
and . Still, due to matrix singularity, only positive-and
of
negative-sequence components can be determined

The voltage
can then be calculated by adding zero-sequence voltage , which is obtained from the last value of
in backward sweep. The forward sweep then continues until bus
4 is reached.
4) Zero-Sequence Voltage Update: As illustrated above, for
or
submatrices, zero-setransformers with singular
quence voltage update calculation cannot be performed from
one side to the other. This is due to the fact that zero-sequence equivalent circuit is interrupted at a transformer with
windings. Hence, the zero-sequence
ungrounded Y and/or
voltage on one side of the transformer cannot be determined
based on line-to-neutral voltages on the other side, even when
line current information on both sides is available. In these
cases, the zero-sequence voltages on the primary side can be
updated by the source voltage during the next forward sweep.
However, the zero-sequence voltages on the secondary side
with a or ungrounded Y winding will not be updated due to
the lack of voltage reference point on the secondary side, which
makes determining the real line-to-neutral voltage impossible.
To avoid such difficulties, the method in [9] used the lineor ungrounded Y side of the transto-line voltage on the
former and the line-to-neutral voltage in the remaining part of
the system. The method in [5] introduced an arbitrary reference neutral point to convert the line-to-line voltages to the
line-to-neutral voltages. The proposed method, using an initially
guessed zero-sequence voltage on the primary side, does not reor ungrounded
quire any special treatment in handling the
Y transformers. With this initial zero-sequence voltage, line-toneutral voltages can be used throughout the system.
The primary-side zero-sequence voltages are updated by the
source voltage. The zero-sequence voltage on the secondary
or ungrounded Y winding are determined by
side with a

grounded elements that are connected to the same side of the

transformer, such as grounded load, line charging, or other
grounded transformers. However, due to the limitations of forward/backward sweep algorithm [11], zero-sequence voltage
cannot be updated. Therefore, the secondary line-to-neutral voltages in these conditions are the assumed value. The
common practice in the utility industry will seldom see a single
phase-to-ground load connected to an ungrounded three-phase
source or transformer, so the zero-sequence current is generally
very small compared with load currents. Thus, even if the
calculated line-to-neutral voltage is not real, the corresponding
line-to-line voltage is still accurate.
IV. TEST EXAMPLES
To verify the proposed method, different transformer configurations were included in a three-phase distribution load flow program with a forward/backward sweep algorithm. Two different
sized examples were implemented, and results were compared
with other existing methods.
A. Model Validation
The IEEE four-node test feeder [12] was used to provide a
simple system for the testing of various three-phase transformer
connections. The one-line diagram of the example is shown in
Fig. 3.
The two distribution feeder segments have unequal mutual
coupling between the phases. The load is unbalanced with different kilovoltampere and power factor in each phase.
transformer connection, the proFor an ungrounded
gram terminates after five iterations, and the difference between
and specified source voltage
computed source voltage
are within 0.0001 p.u. The -phase line-to-line voltages at the
load are listed in Table III.
The results match very well with those listed in [9], where a
detailed step-by-step example was given. Tests have been conducted for all other transformer connections, and the results
match those listed in [12].
However, the method mentioned in [9] and [12] requires different sets of equations for different transformer configurations,
which is not convenient for efficient implementation and incorporation of new connection types. The unified method proposed
in this paper does not require any special equations to handle the
transformers with the or ungrounded Y windings.

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 21, NO. 1, FEBRUARY 2006

TABLE IV
ZERO-SEQUENCE VOLTAGES AT BUS 2

TABLE VI
LINE-TO-LINE VOLTAGES AT BUS 4

TABLE V
ZERO-SEQUENCE VOLTAGES AT BUS 4

B. Zero-Sequence Voltage Update

Different transformer configurations were implemented in
the four-bus example to further test the updating behavior of
the zero-sequence voltage. Two different initial values (0 and
0.1 p.u.) were chosen for each configuration. If different initial
values always converge to the same final value, then it means
the zero-sequence voltage can be correctly updated during the
iterations for the given type of transformer configuration.
Table IV shows the final zero-sequence voltages on the primary side of the transformer for different connection types. The
results show that, for each transformer configuration, the primary side zero-sequence voltage always converges to a similar
value, regardless of its initial value. These results indicate that
the primary side zero-sequence voltage can be updated. This update takes place during the forward sweep, and it is due to the
Y-grounded source voltage.
Table V shows the final zero-sequence voltages on the secondary side (bus 4) of the transformer. The results indicate that
for some transformer configurations, different initial values will
produce different final values. This is true for every transformer
and
. The results further
configuration except
show that forward/backward sweep algorithm cannot produce
unique secondary line-to-neutral voltages in these cases. It
is
should be noted that the initial zero-sequence voltage
.
obtained from the initial leaf-node voltages
For
and
transformers, zero-sequence voltage
on one side can be uniquely determined from voltages on the

Fig. 4.

IEEE 123-bus example system.

other side together with current information. For other connections, a close examination reveals that the final values are in the
vicinity of the initial value. In other words, zero-sequence voltages are not updated, even though the algorithm converges. This
is due to the fact that without additional grounding devices on
the secondary side, the subnetwork is isolated, and the zero-sequence voltage will not be affected by other part of the system.
Table VI shows the corresponding line-to-line voltages at
bus 4 for different transformer configurations with different
initial zero-sequence voltages. The results indicate that even
though different initial values may produce different final
zero-sequence voltages, the corresponding line-to-line voltages
are correct when the algorithm converges, which meets the
requirement for most load flow analysis.
C. Large System Tests
The IEEE 123-bus example shown in Fig. 4 is used to demonstrate the transformer models in large systems. The load flow
analysis calculation was performed using per-unit values on a
basis of 115 kV/4.16 kV/480 V and 10 MVA. There are two
transformers in this system. One is located between nodes 150
and 149, and the other is between nodes 61 and 610.
Extensive tests have been performed on the system to verify
the validity of the proposed method. Comparisons have been
made against transformer modeling approaches developed in [4]

XIAO et al.: UNIFIED THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER MODEL FOR DISTRIBUTION LOAD FLOW

TABLE VII
ITERATION NUMBERS FOR DIFFERENT SYSTEM LOADING CONDITIONS

159

the corresponding zero-sequence voltage cannot be updated.

This paper also proves that the line-to-neutral voltage, excluding its zero-sequence component, can still be used in
the forward/backward sweep. Based on these findings, the
proposed technique separates the zero and nonzero sequence
voltage during the forward/backward sweep, regardless of the
transformer configuration to avoid the singularity problem.
For certain transformer connections, the zero-sequence voltage
on the secondary side cannot be updated during the sweeps.
The proposed method was implemented in two different sized
examples, and tests were conducted to compare with other
existing approaches. The results show the validity and effectiveness of the proposed technique.
REFERENCES

TABLE VIII
ITERATION NUMBERS FOR DIFFERENT R/X RATIOS

and [5]. For convenience, the proposed modeling method is labeled model 1 in the tables, and methods in [5] and [4] are labeled model 2 and model 3, respectively.
Table VII compares the results under different loading conditions, and Table VIII compares the results under different R/X
ratios. It appears that there is a strong agreement in terms of
the resultant bus voltages and branch currents among the three
models under all test conditions.
From the results, it is observed that as the load increases, the
number of iterations for convergence increases irrespective of
the models. However, model 1 and model 2 appear to be less
sensitive than model 3. Results further reveal that the iteration
numbers for model 3 are larger than that of model 1 and 2. The
major reason is that in model 3, the injection currents of all the
equivalent current sources are calculated based on voltages obtained in the previous iteration, instead of the updated voltages.
Even though the computation time needed for each iteration is
less for model 3, the smaller amount of voltage/current update
makes the total iteration number much higher.
It can be seen that with increases in R/X ratios, all the models
exhibit poor convergence, although model 1 and model 2 are
less sensitive.
V. CONCLUSION
A unified method to incorporate three-phase transformers
into the forward/backward sweep-based distribution load
flow is presented. The singularity issues existing in certain
transformer configurations were thoroughly examined. This
paper indicates that the singularity appears only in certain
transformer submatrices and only in certain transformer connections. This paper shows that when the singularity occurs,

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Peng Xiao (S04) received the M.S. degree in electrical engineering from
North China Electric Power University, Beijing, China, in 2000. He is currently
working toward the Ph.D. degree at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.

David C. Yu (M84) is currently a Full Professor with the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.

Wei Yan received the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from Chongqing
University, Chongqing, China, in 1999.
Currently, he is an Associate Professor and Associate Chairman of the
Electrical Power Department, Electrical Engineering College, Chongqing
University. His research interests include optimal operation and control in
power systems.