Lecture 7

Dynamic Calibration: Frequency Response

First Order Systems

If a sinusoidally varying input is applied to a first order system (i.e. a

thermometer), the response will be such that the temperature indicated by
the thermometer (output of the system) will also vary sinusoidally.

The amplitude of the output signal will be reduced and the output will lag
behind the input.

If the input is of the form,

i = asint
then the output will be of the form,
o = bsin(t - )
where b is less than a, and is the phase lag between input and output.

Figure 1 Response of a First Order System to a Sinusoidal Input.

Continued
In figure 1, the natural frequency of both input and output signals is
the same, fn = /2, but the output lags behind the input by a phase
angle .
Second Order Systems
In this type of system, the response of the system depends upon the
relationship between the frequency of the applied sinusoid and the
natural frequency of the system. (The response is also affected by
the amount of damping present.)
The system in figure 2 may be represented by the equation,
md2x/dt2 + cdx/dt + Kx = Kx1

Figure 2 Damped Spring-Mass-Damper System Subjected to a

Sinusoidal Input Signal.

Continued
(Practical applications of the system shown in figure 1 include
seismic mass accelerometers and moving coil meters.)
Kx1 in the system equation is the input force applied to the system or
the forcing function.
When the input frequency is very low, the movement of the mass
very nearly follows the applied oscillation. When the frequency is
increased the mass will react more violently until, at a certain
frequency known as resonant frequency, the amplitude of the mass
displacement will take on its maximum value, this value could be
larger than the amplitude of the forcing oscillation. (The maximum
amplitude at the resonant frequency depends on the value of the
damping ratio.)

Continued

If the forcing frequency is increased still further, the amplitude of

mass displacement will decrease rapidly and become very small at
high frequencies.

It is evident that the displacement function x depends on the

frequency of the forcing input x1 and this behavior is known as
frequency response.

Some observation are included as follows:

(1)

The resonant frequency coincides with the natural frequency

for an undamped system but as the damping is increased the
resonant frequency becomes lower.

Continued
(2) The phase shift characteristics depend strongly on the
damping ratio for all frequencies.
(3) In an instrument system the flattest possible response up to
the highest possible input frequency is achieved with a
damping ratio of 0.707.
(4) The effect of increasing damping is to reduce the amplitude
at resonance.

Reference/Further Reading

C. V. Collet, A. D. Hope, Engineering Measurements, Pitman, London,

1983.