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Morphology forms the primary basis for classifying organisms into various
taxonomic groups or taxa. In earlier artificial systems, only one or a few
morphological characters were taken into consideration (e.g. plants were classified
into herbs, shrubs, trees, climbers, etc. on the basis of their habit). The sexual
system proposed by Linnaeus was based mainly on the characteristics of stamens
and carpels.
Later on, in the natural systems of classification (e.g. Bentham and Hooker's
system of classification of plants), a large number of morphological characters were
taken into consideration. As a result, classification of plant groups was more
satisfactory and their arrangement was showing natural relationships with each
other.
The similarities in the morphological characters are used for grouping the plants
together. Because, these similarities indicate their relationships. On the other hand,
differences or dissimilarities of characters are used for separating the plant groups
from each other. Plant groups with greater differences are considered to be
unrelated or distantly related.
For example, all flowering plants with ovules enclosed in an ovary cavity are
grouped together as Division - Angiosperms whereas, the angiosperms are further
classified into two classes: Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons, on the basis of
differences of the characters of root system, leaf venation, flower symmetry and
number of cotyledons in the embryo.
However, none of these or any other systems is a perfect phylogenetic system. This
is because, our present knowledge of the evolutionary history of plant groups is
very fragmentary and incomplete. At best, the present day systems can be
described as the judicious combination of both natural and phylogenetic systems.
Modern taxonomy takes into consideration data available from all disciplines of
botany for classification of plants. This helps immensely in establishing interrelationships of various plant groups. As a result, taxonomic arrangement becomes
more authentic and convincing.
It is a comparatively recent discipline. Chemotaxonomy is the application of phytochemical data to the problems of systematic botany.
Edgar Anderson (1949) was the first to make use of numerical taxonomy in the
classification of flowering plants. It involves exhaustive quantitative estimation of
taxonomic characters from all parts of the plant as well as from all stages in the life
cycle. The numerical data thus collected for various plant groups is tabulated
systematically. Computers are used for this purpose.
1.1.3 Conclusion
Classification is essential for the proper study and easy reference to the immense variety
of life forms. Systematics deals with identification, nomenclature and taxonomic
classification of organisms. Species has a great significance as a taxonomic unit. Recent
taxonomy gives more importance to sub-species and populations. In the systematic
classification of organisms, various taxa are arranged in the descending order of their
taxonomic categories as per the taxonomic hierarchy. Modern taxonomy makes use of the
data from all branches of botany, including genetics, cytology, ecology, chemotaxonomy,
numerical taxonomy, etc. in order to develop a phylogenetic system of classification of
plants.
A species (plural: species) is one of the basic units of biological classification and a
taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms
capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this
definition is adequate, the difficulty of defining species is known as the species
problem. Differing measures are often used, such as similarity of DNA, morphology,
or ecological niche. Presence of specific locally adapted traits may further subdivide
species into "infraspecific taxa" such as subspecies (and in botany other taxa are
used, such as varieties, subvarieties, and formae).
The original concept of species has undergone a considerable change during the
progress of taxonomy. John Ray (1627-1705) was the first to distinguish genus and
species. However, the clear morphological concept of species was first given by
Linnaeus (1707-1778). Later on, Darwin proposed the biological concept of species.
The concept was further modified by Ernst Meyr.
Fig: Cladistic concept: every time a speciation event occur, two new species are created
and the ancestral species becomes extinct
3) Cohesion species concept:
A species is the most inclusive group of organisms having the potential for genetic
and/or demographic exchangeability. (Templeton, 1989).
4) Competition species concept:
Species are the most extensive units in the natural economy such that reproductive
competition occurs among their parts (Ghiselin, 1974).
5) Ecological species concept:
A species is a set of organisms exploiting (or adapted to) a single niche (Ridley
1993).
Figure: Evolutionary concept: a species does not necessarily become extinct during a
speciation event. Species 1 is paraphyletic after split from species 2.
7) Isolation species concept:
Species are systems of populations: the gene exchange between these systems is
limited or prevented by a reproductive isolating mechanism or perhaps by a
combination of several such mechanisms. (as defined by Dobzhansky 1970; in
Templeton, 1989).
A species is a set of organisms that look similar to each other and distinct from
other sets (Ridley, 1993).
In the above example (Figure), Ensatina salamander lineages A and B are separate
species. Each has a common ancestor that individuals of other species do not.
Even though it has diversified a lot, Lineage C is a single species, according to the
phylogenetic species concept. None of the subspecies of Lineage C has a single
common ancestor separate from the other subspecies.
If species arent special creations, where do new species come from? Darwin found
the answer by concluding that lineages change over time and also multiply they
split in two. For Darwin, and all who followed, speciation is this process of
multiplication, occurring when one population splits into two reproductively isolated
populations.
There are four geographic modes of speciation in nature, based on the extent to
which speciating populations are isolated from one another: allopatric, peripatric,
parapatric, and sympatric.
a) Allopatric Speciation
During allopatric (from the ancient Greek allos, "other" + Greek patr, "fatherland")
speciation, a population splits into two geographically isolated populations (for
example, by habitat fragmentation due to geographical change such as mountain
building). The isolated populations then undergo genotypic and/or phenotypic
divergence as: (a) they become subjected to dissimilar selective pressures; (b) they
independently undergo genetic drift; (c) different mutations arise in the two
populations. When the populations come back into contact, they have evolved such
that they are reproductively isolated and are no longer capable of exchanging
genes.
Examples:
Examples include insular dwarfism and the radical changes among certain famous
island chains, for example on Komodo. The Galpagos islands are particularly
famous for their influence on Charles Darwin. During his five weeks there he heard
that Galpagos tortoises could be identified by island, and noticed that Finches
differed from one island to another, but it was only nine months later that he
reflected that such facts could show that species were changeable. When he
returned to England, his speculation on evolution deepened after experts informed
him that these were separate species, not just varieties, and famously that other
differing Galpagos birds were all species of finches. Though the finches were less
important for Darwin, more recent research has shown the birds now known as
Darwin's finches to be a classic case of adaptive evolutionary radiation.
b) Peripatric Speciation:
Peripatric speciation was originally proposed by Ernst Mayr, and is related to the
founder effect, because small living populations may undergo selection bottlenecks.
Genetic drift is often proposed to play a significant role in peripatric speciation.
Examples:
c) Parapatric Speciation
Examples:
Ring species
o The Larus gulls form a ring species around the North Pole.
o The Ensatina salamanders, which form a ring round the Central Valley in
California.
o The Greenish Warbler (Phylloscopus trochiloides), around the Himalayas.
the grass Anthoxanthum has been known to undergo parapatric speciation in such
cases as mine contamination of an area.
d) Sympatric Speciation
The best illustrated example of sympatric speciation is that of the cichlids of East
Africa inhabiting the Rift Valley lakes, particularly Lake Victoria, Lake Malawi and
Lake Tanganyika. There are over 800 described species, and according to
estimate, there could be well over 1,600 species in the region. All the species have
diversified from a common ancestral fish (Oryzias latipes) about 113 million years
ago. Their evolution is cited as an example of both natural and sexual selection.
Until recently, there has been a dearth of strong evidence that supports this form of
speciation, with a general feeling that interbreeding would soon eliminate any
genetic differences that might appear. But there has been at least one study, in
2008, that suggests that sympatric speciation has occurred in Tennessee cave
salamanders.
Sympatric speciation driven by ecological factors may also account for the
extraordinary diversity of crustaceans living in the depths of Siberia's Lake Baikal.
The species formed by without involving the fusion of male and female gametes in
reproduction is called as Apomictic Species.
Because apomictic specis are genetically identical from one generation to the next,
each lineage has some of the characters of a true species, maintaining distinctions
from other apomictic lineages within the same genus, while having much smaller
differences than is normal between species of most genera. They are therefore
often called microspecies.
Although the evolutionary advantages of sexual reproduction are lost, apomixis can
pass along traits fortuitous for evolutionary fitness.
Panmictic Species
A panmictic population is one where all individuals are potential partners. This
assumes that there are no mating restrictions, neither genetic nor behavioural, upon
the population, and that therefore all recombination is possible. The Wahlund effect
assumes that the overall population is panmictic.
To signify the importance of this, imagine several different finite populations of the
same species (for example: a grazing herbivore), isolated from each other by some
physical characteristic of the environment (dense forest areas separating grazing
lands). As time progresses, natural selection and genetic drift will slowly move each
population toward genetic differentiation that would make each population
genetically unique (that could eventually lead to speciation events or extirpation).
However, if the separating factor is removed before this happens (ex. a road is cut
through the forest), and the individuals are allowed to move about freely, the
individual populations will still be able to interbreed. As the species's populations
interbreed over time, they become more genetically uniform, functioning again as a
single panmictic population.
1.4.1 TYPIFICATION
The Process of inventing names relating with the term type continued. This resulted
in numerous different names which led us to believe that earlier workers were more
concerned with the invention of new names for replacing type or expanding it rather
than defining the exact role of the type. Frizzell listed as many as 233 such names.
Fernald listed 108, grouped in three categories:
1) Primary types or Proterotypes 2) Supplementary types 3) Ecotypes
The above three types are typical, specimens that have been used in published
descriptions of figures but consist of material which the authors have worked on or
such as have been collected at the original locality. Fischer gave list of principle
kinds of types. Blackwelder grouped such names of the types into the following
seven categories:
1) Primary types (the single nomenclatural types e.g. Holotype, Lectotype, Neotype).
2) Secondary types (the specimens from which the primary type must be selected e.g.
Syntypes, paralectotypes).
3) Tertiary types (other specimens originally set aside as of special taxonomic interest
to supplement the primary type; e.g. Paratype, Allotype)
4) Specimens identified as of special origin. E.g., Topotypes
5) Specimens identified as to time or person of identification. Eg. Metatype,
Homotypes or Homeotypes, etc.