Chapter 1: Introduction to Physics Physical quantities QUANTITIES that are measu

rable Base quantities PHYSICAL QUANTITIES that cannot be defined in terms of oth
er physical quantities but has its own definition Derived quantities PHYSICAL QU
ANTITIES that are derived from base quantities by multiplication or d ivision or
both Scientific notation/ standard form POWERS of the base number 10 to show a
very large or small number Prefixes GROUP OF LETTERS placed at the beginning of
a word to modify its meaning, which act as multipliers Scalar quantity QUANTITY
which has only magnitude or size (time, temperature, mass, volume, dist ance, de
nsity, power) Vector quantity QUANTITY which has both magnitude or size and dire
ction (force, velocity, displa cement, acceleration, momentum) Error DIFFERENCE
between actual value of a quantity and the value obtained in measurem ent System
atic errors CUMULATIVE ERRORS that can be corrected, if the errors are known. (z
ero error, i ncorrect calibration of measuring instrument) Random errors ERRORS
that arise from unknown and unpredictable variations in condition, and wi ll pro
duce a different error every time. Random errors are caused by factors that are
beyond the control of o bservers.(human limitations, lack of sensitivity, natura
l errors, wrong technique) Zero error ERROR that arises when the measuring instr
ument does not start from exactly zero

Parallax error ERROR in reading an instrument because the observer s eyes and th
e pointer are not in a line perpendicular to the plane of scale Measurement PROC
ESS of determining value of a quantity using a scientific instrument with a stan
dard scale Consistency ABILITY to register the same reading when a measurement i
s repeated (improve minates parallax error, greater care, not detective instrume
nt) Accuracy DEGREE to which a measurement represents the actual value (improve
repeat readings, avoid parallax/zero error, high accuracy instrument) eli
Sensitivity ABILITY to detect quickly a small change in the value of a measureme
nt (thermome ter thin wall bulb, narrow capillary) Inferences EARLY CONCLUSION t
hat you draw from an observation or event using information th at you already ha
ve on it Hypothesis GENERAL STATEMENT that is assumed to be true regarding the r
elationship between the manipulated variable and responding variable

Chapter 2: Forces and Motion Distance how far a body travels during motion Displ
acement CHANGE IN POSITION of an object from its initial position in a specified
directi on Speed RATE OF CHANGE of distance Velocity RATE OF CHANGE of displace
ment Mass MEASURE of an object s inertia AMOUNT of matter in the object Accelera
tion RATE OF CHANGE of velocity Inertia PROPERTY of matter that causes it to res
ist any change in its motion or state of rest Momentum PRODUCT of mass and veloc
ity Force pulling or a pushing ACTION on an object Impulsive force LARGE FORCE w
hich acts over a very short time interval RATE OF CHANGE in momentum Gravity FOR
CE originated from centre of the Earth that pulls all objects towards the gro un
d Free fall FALLING of an object without encountering any resistance from a heig
ht towards t he earth with an acceleration due to gravity

Forces in equilibrium An object is said to be in a state of equilibrium when for

ces act upon an object and it remains stationary or moves at a constant velocity
Resultant force SINGLE FORCE which combines two or more forces which act on an
object Work Work is done when a force causes an object to move in the direction
of the force . Energy CAPACITY of a system to do work Gravitational PE ENERGY ST
ORED in the object because of its height above the earth surface Elastic PE ENER
GY STORED in the object as a result of stretching or compressing it Kinetic ener
gy ENERGY possessed by a moving object Power RATE at which work is done or energ
y is changed and transferred Efficiency ABILITY of an electrical appliance to tr
ansform energy from one form to another without producing useless energy or wast
age Elasticity PROPERTY of an object that enables it to return to its original s
hape and dimens ions after an applied force is removed Spring constant FORCE nee
ded to extend a spring per unit length Elastic limit MAXIMUM STRETCHING FORCE wh
ich can be applied to an elastic material before it c eases to be elastic

PRINCIPLE Hooke s Law Hooke s law states that the force, F applied to a spring i
s directly proportional to the spring s extension or compression, x, provided th
e elastic limit is not exceeded.
Principle of conservation of energy Principle of conservation of energy states t
hat total energy in an isolated syst em is neither increased nor decreased by an
y transformation. Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, but it can be tra nsfo
rmed from one kind to another, and the total amount stays the same.
Principle of conservation of momentum The principle of conservation of momentum
states that, in any collision or inter action between two or more objects in an
isolated system, the total momentum of the system will remain constant; th at is
, the total initial momentum will equal the total final momentum.
Newton s first law of motion Newton s first law of motion states that a body wil
l either remain at rest or cont inue with constant velocity unless it is acted o
n by an external unbalanced force.
Newton s second law of motion Newton s second law of motion states that the acce
leration a body experiences is d irectly proportional to the net force acting on
it, and inversely proportional to its mass. F =ma
Newton s third law of motion Newton s third law of motion states that to every a
ction there is an equal but opp osite reaction.

Chapter 3: Forces and Pressure Pressure FORCE acting normally on a unit surface
area Gas pressure FORCE per unit area exerted by the gas particles as they colli
de with the walls of their container (due to the rate of change of momentum) Buo
yant force NET FORCE acting upwards due to the difference between the forces act
ing on the upper surface and the lower surface
PRINCIPLE Law of Flotation Law of floatation states that the weight of an object
floating on the surface of a liquid is equal to the weight of water displaced b
y the object. (weight of object = weight of water displaced)
Pascal s Principle Pascal s principle states that a pressure applied to a confin
ed fluid is transmitt ed uniformly in all directions throughout the fluid.
Archimedes
principle
Archimedes principle states that the buoyant force on a body immersed in a fluid
is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by that object (buoyant force = w
eight of water displaced)
Bernoulli s principle Bernoulli s principle states that the pressure of a moving
fluid decreases as the speed of the fluid increases, and the converse is also t
rue.

Chapter 4: Heat Temperature DEGREE of hotness of an object Thermometric property

PHYSICAL PROPERTY of a substance which is sensitive to and varies linearly with
the temperature change Thermal equilibrium A STATE when heat transfer between t
he two objects are equal and the net rate of heat transfer between the two objec
ts are zero Heat capacity HEAT ENERGY required to raise its temperature by 1C or 1
K Specific heat capacity HEAT ENERGY required to produce 1C or 1 K rise in temper
ature in a mass of 1 kg. Latent heat HEAT ABSORBED OR RELEASED when a substance
changes its state without a change in temperature is called the latent heat of t
he substance Specific latent heat of fusion HEAT ENERGY required to change 1 kg
of a substance from solid state to liquid st ate, without a change in temperatur
e Specific latent heat of vapourisation HEAT ENERGY required to change 1 kg of a
substance from liquid state to gaseous state, without a change in te
PRINCIPLE Boyle s Law Boyle s Law states that the pressure of a fixed mass of ga
s is inversely proportio nal to its volume provided the temperature of the gas i
s kept constant (PV = k)
Pressure Law The pressure law states that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is
directly pro portional to its absolute temperature (in

Kelvin), provided the volume of the gas is kept constant (P/T = k)

Charles
Law
Charles law states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportion
a l to its absolute temperature (in Kelvin), provided the pressure of the gas is
kept constant (V/T = k)

Chapter 5: Light Refraction PHENOMENON where the direction of light is changed w

hen it crosses the boundary between two materials of different optical densities
as a result of a change in the velocity of light. Apparent depth,d DISTANCE of
the image from the surface of water (or the boundary between the two mediums inv
olved) Real depth,D DISTANCE of the object from the surface of the water (or the
boundary between th e two mediums involved) Total internal reflection TOTAL REF
LECTION of a beam of light at the boundary of two mediums, when the ang le of in
cidence in the optically denser medium exceeds a specific critical angle Critica
l angle GREATEST ANGLE OF INCIDENCE in the optically denser medium for which the
angle o f refraction, r = 90 Power of lens MEASURE OF ITS ABILITY to converge or
diverge an incident beam of light
PRINCIPLE Laws of Reflection -the angle of incidence, i, is equal to the angle o
f reflection, r (i = r) -the incident ray, normal and reflected ray will all lie
in the same plane
Law of Refraction -The incident ray and the refracted ray are on the opposite si
des of the normal at the point of incidence, all three lie in the same plane -Ob
ey snell s law
Snell s Law The value of sin i/sin r is a constant

IMAGE CHARACTERISTICS Virtual an image which cannot be projected (focused) onto

a screen Real an image which can be projected (focused) onto a screen Laterally
inverted an image which left and right are interchanged Upright an image which i
n vertical position Diminished image formed is smaller than the object Magnified
image formed is larger than the object

Chapter 1 Waves
Waves
A TYPE OF DISTURBANCE produced by an oscillating or vibrating motion in which a
point or body moves back and forth along a line about a fixed central point prod
uces waves. Wavefront LINE OR PLANE on which the vibrations of every points are
in phase and are at th e same distance from the source of the wave. In phase = s
ame direction, same displacement Transverse Wave WAVE in which the vibration of
particles in the medium is perpendicular to the d irection of propagation of the
wave (water waves, light waves, electromagnetic waves) Longitudinal Wave WAVE i
n which the vibration of particles in the medium is parallel to the direct ion o
f propagation of the wave (sound waves, ultrasound) Amplitude MAXIMUM DISPLACEME
NT form its equilibrium position MEASURE of height of the wave crest or depth of
the wave trough. Period TIME TAKEN to complete an oscillation, from one extreme
point to the other and b ack to the same position. Frequency NUMBER OF COMPLETE
OSCILLATIONS made by a vibrating system in one second Wavelength, . DISTANCE be
tween successive points of the same phase in a wave Damping DECREASE in the ampl
itude of an oscillating system is called damping (Internal damping: extension an
d compression of molecules External damping: frictional force/ air resistance) R
esonance Resonance occurs when a system is made to oscillate at a frequency equi
valent to its natural frequency by an external force. The resonating system osci
llates at its maximum amplitude.

Natural frequency FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY of which an object vibrates. It is the f

requency of a syst em which oscillates freely without external force Reflection
of wave Reflection of wave occurs when a wave strike an obstacle direction . ; f
= ; a = ; . = Refraction of wave Refraction of wave occurs when a wave travel f
rom one medium to another f = ; v . ; . . ; direction . Diffraction of waves PHE
NOMENON in which waves spread out as they passed through an aperture or round a
small circle f = ; . = ; speed = ; v . ; direction . Interference of waves SUPER
POSITION of two waves originating from two coherent sources coherent = same freq
uency, amplitude and in phase Constructive interference Constructive interferenc
e occurs when the both crests or both troughs of both wa ves coincide to produce
a wave with crests and troughs of maximum amplitude Destructive interference De
structive interference occurs when the crest of one wave coincides with the tr o
ugh of the other wave, thus cancelling each other with the result that the resul
tant amplitude is zero. Antinode POINT where constructive interference occurs. N
ode POINT where destructive interference occurs.

Electromagnetic waves PROPAGATING WAVES in space with electric and magnetic comp
onents. These componen ts oscillate at right angles to each other and to the dir
ection of propagation of wave. Monochromatic light LIGHT with only one wavelengt
h and colour
PRINCIPLE Principle of superposition Principle of superposition states that at a
ny instant, the wave displacement of the combined motion of any number of intera
cting waves at a point is the sum of the displacements of all the componen ts wa
ves at that point.

Chapter 2 Charge, Q
Electricity
WORK DONE to move a unit of voltage in a circuit Current, I RATE of flow of char
ge Potential difference, V WORK DONE in moving one coulomb of charge from one po
int to another in an electr ic field Electric field A FIELD in which electric ch
arge experiences an electric force A FIELD in which electric force acts in a par
ticle with electric charge Circuit CLOSED LOOP through which charge can continuo
usly flow Resistance, R RATIO of the potential difference across the conductor t
o the current flowing th rough it MEASURE of the ability of the conductor to res
ist the flow of an electric curren t through it Superconductor CONDUCTOR in whic
h its resistance will suddenly become zero when it is cooled be low a certain te
mperature called the critical temperature Electromotive force (e.m.f.) TOTAL ENE
RGY supplied by a cell to move a unit of electrical charge from one ter minal to
the other through the cell and the external circuit Power rating RATE at which
it consumes electrical energy.
PRINCIPLE Ohm s Law Ohm s law states that the electric current,I flowing through
a conductor is direct ly proportional to the potential difference across the en
ds of conductor, if temperature and other physical condi

tions remain constant. That is, v is directly proportional to r

Chapter 3
Electromagnetism
Electromagnet DEVICE in which magnetism is produced by an electric current TEMPO
RARY MAGNET which acts as a magnet when the current is switched on and ceas es t
o be a magnet when the current is switched off Magnetic field REGION in which a
magnetic material experiences a force as the result of a magne t or a current-ca
rrying conductor Radial field MAGNETIC FIELD with the field lines pointing towar
ds or away from the centre of a circle. Electromagnetic induction PRODUCTION of
an electric current by a changing magnetic field (conductor cuts a cross a magne
tic flux OR a change of magnetic flux linkage with a coil) Root mean square curr
ent/ voltage VALUE of a steady current/ voltage, which would produce the same he
ating effect in a given resistor. Transformer EQUIPMENT to raise or lower the po
tential difference of an alternating current s upply
PRINCIPLE Faraday s Law The magnitude of the induced electromotive force (e.m.f.
) is directly proportion al to the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage with
the solenoid or the rate at which a conductor cuts through the magnetic flux.
Lenz s Law Lenz s law states that an induced electric current always flows in su
ch a directio n so as to oppose the change (or motion) producing it.

Chapter 4
Electronics
Thermoionic emission EMISSION of electrons from hot metal surface Work function
MINIMUM ENERGY required to eject electrons from surface Cathode ray fast moving
ELECTRONS travel in a straight line in vacuum Cathode ray oscilloscope measuring
and testing INSTRUMENT used in study of electricity and electronics Conductor M
ATERIAL which allows current to flow through them Semiconductor MATERIAL whose r
esistance is between good conductor and insulator Insulator MATERIAL which does
not conduct electric current Junction voltage POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE acting from n
-type to p-type material of a diode across the depletion layer Rectification CON
VERSION of a.c. to d.c. by diode Smoothing PROCESS where output is smoothed by c
onnecting a capacitor across load that acts as a reservoir and maintains potenti
al difference across load Logic gates ELECTRONIC SWITCHES with one or more input
s and one output.

Chapter 5 Atom
Radioactivity
An atom consists of a nucleus which is made up of protons and neutrons, with ele
ctrons orbiting the nucleus. Nuclide TYPE of nucleus with particular proton num
ber and nucleon number Proton number NUMBER of protons in the nucleus of an atom
Nucleon number NUMBER of protons and neutrons in an atom Isotopes ATOMS of an e
lement which have the same proton number but different nucleon numb er(similar c
hemical properties but differs in physical properties) Radioactivity SPONTANEOUS
DISINTEGRATION of unstable nucleus into a more stable nucleus with t he emissio
n of energetic particles or protons Radioactive decay PROCESS where an unstable
nucleus becomes a more stable nucleus by emitting radi ations Radioisotope ISOTO
PE that has unstable nucleus that tends to undergo radioactive decay Half life T
IME TAKEN for the activity of atoms to fall to half its original value TIME TAKE
N for half the atoms in a given sample to decay Nuclear fission PROCESS involvin
g the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two nuclei of roughly eq ual mass and sh
ooting out several neutrons at the same time. Nuclear fusion PROCESS involving t
he fusion of two or more small and light nuclei come together to form a heavier
nucleus.

PRINCIPLE Einstein s Principle of Mass-Energy Conservation The change of energy

is linked to the change of mass by the equation, E=mc2