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543273
research-article2014
Review Article
Examining Cultural
Intelligence and
Cross-Cultural
Negotiation Effectiveness
Abstract
International negotiation failures are often linked to deficiencies in negotiator
cross-cultural capabilities, including limited understanding of the cultures
engaged in the transaction, an inability to communicate with persons from
different cultural backgrounds, and limited behavioral flexibility to adapt
to culturally unfamiliar contexts. Although management educators are
concerned about developing students cross-cultural capabilities, there exists
very little empirical research demonstrating the impact of such abilities on
negotiation performance. To address this limitation while advancing research
on the development of cross-cultural capabilities, we examined the impact
of cultural intelligence (CQ) on cross-cultural negotiation performance.
Using assessment center and consensus rating methodologies, 113 fully
employed MBA students participated in a negotiation exercise designed to
underscore key cultural differences with respect to both negotiation style
and substantive issues. Controlling for prior negotiation and international
experiences, personality (openness to change and extraversion), and
emotional intelligence, our results demonstrated that CQ predicted
negotiation performance while interest-based negotiation behaviors partially
mediated the CQnegotiation performance relationship. CQ capabilities
facilitated negotiators ability to demonstrate cooperative, interest-based
1Pepperdine
Corresponding Author:
Kevin S. Groves, Graziadio School of Business and Management, Pepperdine University,
6100 Center Drive, Los Angeles, CA 90045, USA.
Email: kevin.groves@pepperdine.edu
Groves et al.
Groves et al.
Lee, et al., 2013). The researchers concluded that the cognitive CQ dimensions (cognitive and metacognitive) are affected by traditional academic
classroom interventions while motivational and behavioral CQ are more
readily affected by extensive, purposefully designed experiential learning
interventions or through an intensive direct experience with other cultures,
gained by spending a meaningful amount of time abroad (Eisenberg, Lee, et
al., 2013, p. 616). Ahn and Ettners (2013) recent examination of CQ in MBA
curricula also concluded that intensive experiential activities, such as international work experiences and obtaining a degree from a foreign country, are
the most important drivers of enhancing CQ.
Motivational CQ drives attention so that one can focus on both cultural
differences and cultural similarities while also mobilizing energy toward
adapting to unfamiliar cultural contexts. Defined by Ang and Van Dyne
(2008) as the ability to direct(s) attention and energy toward cultural differences, motivational CQ is the foundation of ones self-confidence concerning the ability to deal with people and situations of a different culture. This
self-efficacy effect (Ang & Van Dyne, 2008) is critically important as it
requires a high-level personal confidence to perform successfully in a crosscultural setting (Earley et al., 2006). Imai and Gelfands (2010) research on
intercultural negotiations found that integrative information sequences and
their subsequent joint outcome gains were predicted by the negotiators motivational CQ. Most recently, Salmon et al. (2013) found evidence that motivational CQ was a significant factor in predicting the effectiveness of
manipulative mediation styles in intercultural disputes. Overall, these
research findings suggest that motivational CQ may affect the efficacy of
negotiation strategies, including manipulative, cooperative, and interestbased behaviors, for resolving intercultural conflicts.
Behavioral CQ is the ability to act appropriately when interacting with
people and situations in an unfamiliar culture. Behavioral CQ is essentially
how one can play a role very convincingly and consistently (Earley et al.,
2006) in a cross-cultural setting. Such performance demands a wide range of
behaviors that can be flexibly deployed based on the situation. Behavioral
CQ consists of the ability to properly adapt both verbal and nonverbal behavior (Ang & Van Dyne, 2008) in culturally unfamiliar contexts. Ang et al.
(2007) showed that behavioral CQ and motivational CQ are positively associated with ones cultural adjustment, well-being, and task performance.
global business community. Prior research suggests that international negotiations frequently fail due to an overall lack of understanding and knowledge
of the multiple cultures involved in the transactions. For example, Adair
(2003) indicated that in high context cultures, indirect communication is
favored, while in low context cultures, direct communication is preferred.
She also discovered that it was more difficult for those from low context
cultures to adapt to the negotiation style of those from high context cultures
than vice versa. Tinsley and Pillutla (1998) argued that different cultural
groups developed negotiation strategies that were consistent with their cultural values, and thus, the joint gains of negotiation and negotiator satisfaction were moderated by culture. When Brett and Okumura (1998) examined
the simulated negotiations between Japanese and American managers, they
found that intercultural negotiation resulted in lower joint gains because both
Japanese and American negotiators used different scripts to communicate
with one another.
On the basis of CQ theory and research to date, we posit that negotiators
with high CQ should be better equipped to navigate the difficulties of negotiating in a cross-cultural context. We draw on the work of Imai and Gelfand
(2010), Gelfand et al. (2001), Busch (2012), and others in postulating that CQ
capabilities facilitate ones ability to exercise cooperative, IBN behaviors,
which are associated with stronger joint gains and overall negotiation efficacy in cross-cultural contexts. Imai and Gelfand (2010) argued that integrative negotiation processes, which draw on IBN behaviors as opposed to
competitive behaviors, are critical for determining overall negotiation effectiveness and mutually agreeable joint gains among the negotiating parties.
Because of the anxiety caused by encountering an unfamiliar culture, it is
often more difficult for negotiators from different cultural backgrounds to
behave cooperatively and flexibly during cross-cultural negotiations
(Hewston, Rubin, & Willis, 2002; Imai & Gelfand, 2010).
In their negotiation simulation study, Imai and Gelfand (2010) found that
individuals with high CQ were more likely to form cooperative relationships
during the negotiation. As demonstrated through prior CQ research, negotiators with high CQ are more agreeable, flexible, and cooperative while also
possessing greater motivation to accurately perceive the nuances inherent in
cross-cultural negotiation contexts (Ang et al., 2007; Chen, Liu, & Portnoy,
2012). When presented with the challenge of a negotiation involving culturally bound issues (e.g., issues underscored by cultural values such as individualism/collectivism, power distance, universalism/particularism, etc.) as
well as an opposing party who demonstrates a disparate negotiation style,
negotiators with high CQ will accurately perceive and decode culturally relevant information and adapt their negotiation behaviors accordingly (Hewston
Groves et al.
Groves et al.
10
with high motivational CQ, which is conceptually consistent with key aspects
of cognitive motivation, are more likely to demonstrate the requisite drive,
curiosity, and cognitive attention to exercise IBN behaviors in cross-cultural
negotiation contexts. An individuals attraction to and willingness to sustain
effort in a culturally unfamiliar context is likely associated with the ability to
actively search for relevant information, propose and critically evaluate alternative scenarios, and integrate more diverse information into decision making, all of which are fundamental IBN behaviors (Fisher & Ury, 1991).
In addition to cognitive complexity and cognitive motivation, other
research streams suggest that individuals with behavioral flexibility are more
likely to demonstrate IBN behaviors. A problem-solving orientation was seen
to have had a positive effect on dyads reaching a more integrative solution by
encouraging heuristic trial and error and inhibiting behavior that would lead
to a more distributive solution (Pruitt & Lewis, 1975). This trial-and-error
approach indicated behavioral flexibility on the part of the negotiators who
were able to achieve integrative solutions. Behavioral flexibility is conceptually consistent with behavioral CQ, which taps ones ability to use a broad
range of verbal and nonverbal behaviors that are appropriate for varied cultural contexts (Van Dyne et al., 2008). Similarly, prior research has demonstrated that behavioral mimicry improves the joint gains of the party that
invokes subtle mimicry behavior (Maddux, Mullen, & Galinsky, 2007).
Mimicry requires negotiators to be attentive to the behaviors of counterparts
so that they can make in-the-moment adjustments to their own behaviors.
Based on the research reviewed above, we offer the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 2: Negotiators with high CQ will demonstrate greater IBN
behaviors than negotiators with low CQ.
Hypothesis 3: Interest-based negotiation behaviors will partially mediate
the relationship between negotiator CQ and negotiation performance.
Method
Sample
A total of 113 fully employed MBA students, each representing a different
organization, participated in this study. The reported ethnic background of
the sample was as follows: 43% Hispanic/Latin American (n = 49), 28%
Asian American (n = 32), 15% Multiethnic (n = 17), 5% Caucasian (n = 6),
4% African American (n = 5), and 3.5% Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific
Islander (n = 4). The reported nationality was as follows: 40% United States
(n = 45), 17% China (n = 19), 13% Mexico (n = 15), 6% Philippines (n = 7),
11
Groves et al.
Procedure
Participant Recruitment. The participants were recruited from the part-time
MBA program at a medium-sized public university in Southwestern United
States. The participants were fully employed MBA students enrolled in three
sections of a Managerial Skills course taught by the first author over the
course of three consecutive academic quarters. The three sections consisted
of 36, 38, and 39 students (113 overall), respectively. The learning objectives
of the course centered on the assessment and development of a series of management skills, including performance feedback, conflict mediation, developing teams, and negotiation. During the first week of the course, students
were asked to complete an online survey that measured CQ and a series of
demographic, work background, and psychometric questions. During the
first 3 weeks of the course, students were also asked to participate in an
assessment center negotiation exercise that would elicit important feedback
on their negotiation skills in a cross-cultural context. As detailed below, all
students completed the negotiation exercise prior to the delivery of any
course content or learning activities addressing negotiation skills. The course
content and learning activities addressing negotiation skills was delivered
during the final 2 weeks of the term. No part of the course addressed CQ,
leading diverse teams, or other topical areas related to cross-cultural skills.
Assessment Center Development. The assessment center was developed by
first selecting a cross-cultural negotiation exercise from the Dispute Resolution Research Center at Northwestern Universitys Kellogg School of
Management. The selected negotiation exercise, International Lodging
Merger (negotiationexercises.com/Details.aspx?ItemID=116), was modified to suit the present studys goals. This exercise was an integrative negotiation about the merger of U.S. and Brazilian hotel chains. The exercise
was designed to motivate culturally different behaviors from the negotiators, as key cultural differences between the United States and Brazil (e.g.,
12
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Groves et al.
14
15
Groves et al.
and pilot tested with the 10 mock negotiation exercises conducted during the
training session for the AAA Hotel negotiator role. The seven behavioral
items were assessed according to the frequency of behaviors demonstrated
during the exercise (1 = not at all, 2 = rarely, 3 = occasionally, 4 = fairly
often, and 5 = very frequently). After the assessor panel conducted consensus
ratings (described in detail below) of each individual item as part of the assessor training session, we conducted an internal reliability test of the sevenitem scale. The resulting Cronbach alpha of .83 for the pilot test demonstrated
support for the internal reliability of the scale.
Consensus Ratings. On the basis of prior validation research concerning the
aggregation of assessor ratings of behavioral exercises, we opted to conduct
consensus ratings for measuring negotiation performance outcomes and IBN
behaviors. After viewing each video-recorded exercise, the assessors completed individual ratings of the behavioral exercises and then immediately
conducted consensus ratings. Used in prior empirical studies (Earley, 1999;
Gibson, 1999; Tziner, Ronen, & Hacohen, 1993), the consensus method
involves presenting a panel with a rating scale for the purpose of forming a
single group response to a set of items. After discussing each item, the panel
uses consensus decision-making techniques to determine an agreed on rating
on a Likert-type scale.
Prior empirical research by Kirkman, Tesluk, and Rosen (2001); Pulakos,
Schmit, Whitney, and Smith (1996); and Kleiman, Lounsbury, and Faley
(1987) demonstrates the incremental validity of consensus ratings beyond the
aggregation method of individual ratings. Because the consensus process
demands that assessors discuss their ratings for each scale item, rich contextual and nuanced information concerning the behavioral performance is
shared and deliberated across panel members (Kirkman et al., 2001). Gibson,
Randel, and Earleys (2000) experimental study of a negotiation task concluded that, regardless of whether consensus ratings occurred before or after
individual ratings were completed, the consensus method was a superior predictor of multiple performance indicators compared with aggregated individual ratings. Kleiman et al.s (1987) study of job performance ratings found
that consensus ratings possessed significantly fewer halo and leniency errors
and greater validity compared with aggregated ratings. Finally, Pulakos et al.
(1996) found that consensus ratings demonstrated significantly higher validities of interviewer ratings compared with an aggregation of individual interviewers ratings. The authors concluded that consensus ratings may produce
significantly higher validities because . . . the consensus process increased
interviewers accountability (to their peers) and hence the accuracy of their
ratings (Pulakos et al., 1996, p. 99).
16
Measures
Negotiation Performance.A panel of three assessors observed each of the
video-recorded negotiations and conducted group consensus ratings using the
negotiation performance assessment instrument (see the appendix). To limit
the effects of assessor fatigue, the panel conducted assessments for no more
than six exercises in a single session. The assessor panel conducted consensus ratings of each negotiation performance item: (a) number of voting seats
on the 8-person executive board to be controlled by AAA Hotel, (b) management of AAA Hotel properties, and (c) management incentives for AAA
Hotel property managers.
Interest-Based Negotiation Behaviors.The same three-assessor panel observed
each of the video-recorded negotiations and conducted group consensus ratings
using the IBN behaviors assessment instrument (see the appendix). The assessor panel conducted consensus ratings of the seven IBN items according to the
following scale (1 = not at all, 2 = rarely, 3 = occasionally, 4 = fairly often, and
5 = very frequently). The Cronbach alpha for the seven-item scale was .85.
Cultural Intelligence. Cultural intelligence was measured by Ang et al.s (2007)
20-item self-report scale comprising the following subscales: metacognitive
(checks the accuracy of his/her cultural knowledge as he/she interacts with
people from different cultures; four items; = .88), cognitive (knows the
rules for expressing nonverbal behaviors in other cultures; six items; =
.91), motivational (enjoys interacting with people from different cultures;
five items; = .86), and behavioral (changes his/her non-verbal behavior
when a cross-cultural situation requires it; five items; = .87). Respondents
completed the scales according to a 7-point scale (1 = strongly disagree; 7 =
strongly agree). Overall, the CQ scale demonstrated strong internal reliability
( = .90). The means of the four subscales were calculated and then averaged
to produce an overall CQ mean.
17
Groves et al.
Control Variables
Emotional Intelligence.Emotional intelligence was measured by Wong and
Laws (2002) 16-item, self-report measure based on the Mayer and Salovey
(1997) model of EQ. EQ was included as a control variable to more readily
demonstrate the incremental validity of CQ in a cross-cultural performance
context beyond the effects of a competing competency. Earley and Angs
(2003) seminal work on CQ asserts that EQ competencies should not transfer
across nationalities because a persons ability to anticipate and react to the
affective states of work colleagues differs considerably across cultures. Consistent with prior research that assessed the predictive validity of CQ beyond
the effects of EQ in cross-cultural performance contexts (e.g., Crowne, 2013;
Groves & Feyerherm, 2011; Rockstuhl et al., 2011), and specifically crosscultural negotiation (Imai & Gelfand, 2010), the present study included EQ
as a control variable for hypothesis testing. The measure includes the following four-item subscales: self-emotion appraisal (I have a good understanding of my own emotions; = .88), others emotion appraisal (I am sensitive
to the feelings and emotions of others; = .84), use of emotion (I am a
self-motivated person; = .90), and regulation of emotion (I have good
control of my own emotions; = .91). Respondents completed the scales
according to a 7-point scale (1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree). Overall, the EQ scale demonstrated strong internal reliability ( = .92). The means
of the four subscales were calculated and then averaged to produce an overall
EQ mean (M = 5.36, SD = 1.00).
International Experience. Prior research suggests that length and intensity of
international experiences may be associated with the development of cultural intelligence (Ang & Van Dyne, 2008; Crowne, 2013). To control for
the influence of negotiators prior international experiences, we used
Takeuchi, Tesluk, Yun, and Lepaks (2005) measure of international experience as the total length of time the participants spent living abroad. Participants were asked to list in chronological order the countries and duration of
living experiences abroad. The total list of living experiences abroad were
summed and converted to weeks as the international experience variable (M =
28.05, SD = 5.99).
Negotiation Experience.To control for the depth of the negotiators prior
negotiation experiences, which may influence the relationships among the
study variables (e.g., Imai & Gelfand, 2010), participants were asked to
report the level of prior negotiation experiences with the following question:
According to the following scale, how much prior experience do you have
18
in formal negotiations? The scale consisted of the following: 1 = no experience, 2 = little experience, 3 = some experience, 4 = significant experience,
5 = substantial experience, and resulted in a mean of 2.55 (SD = 0.89).
Openness to Experience and Extraversion. To control for individual difference
characteristics that prior research has found to affect CQ and negotiation outcomes in intercultural contexts (e.g., Ang, Van Dyne, & Koh, 2006; Imai &
Gelfand, 2010; Ma & Jaeger, 2005), the present study included openness to
experience and extraversion as control variables in hypothesis testing. The
inclusion of these personality traits allows for a more conservative assessment of whether CQ is associated with IBN behaviors and performance outcomes in a cross-cultural negotiation context. The personality traits openness
to experience and extraversion were measured with John and Srivastavas
(1999) Big Five personality assessment. Respondents completed the scales
according to a 7-point scale (1 = extremely uncharacteristic to 7 = extremely
characteristic). The 10-item openness to experience scale (Is curious about
many different things; = .88) and 8-item extraversion scale (Is outgoing,
sociable; = .89) demonstrated acceptable Cronbach reliability estimates.
The mean scores for openness to experience and extraversion were 4.59
(SD = 0.91) and 4.68 (SD = 0.67), respectively.
Results
Preliminary Analyses
Potential Interactive Effects of Ethnicity and Nationality. Given the potential for
participant ethnic background and/or nationality to significantly interact with
the studys key variables, we tested for any significant differences between
the major ethnic backgrounds or major nationalities across IBN behaviors
and negotiation performance. Tukeys honestly significant difference (HSD)
test identified no significant differences across the major ethnic backgrounds
(Hispanic/Latin American, Asian American, Multiethnic, Caucasian, African
American, Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander) for IBN or negotiation
performance. Similarly, Tukeys HSD test again revealed no significant differences between the main nationalities represented in the sample (United
States, China, Mexico, Philippines, El Salvador, Saudi Arabia, Vietnam, and
Armenia) for IBN or negotiation performance.
Measurement Model.Prior to testing the hypotheses, confirmatory factor
analyses (CFA) were conducted to provide support for the construct validity
of the study variables. Given consistent research findings regarding the most
19
Groves et al.
Hypothesis Testing
The following section includes the results of hypothesis tests using hierarchical regression analyses. We chose this analysis approach in lieu of SEM
given the considerable research on the impact of sample size, indicators, and
factor loadings on SEM results. Barrett (2007), Bentler (2007), and Wolf
et al. (2013) indicate the significant challenges of using SEM analyses on
small sample sizes, as Bentler (2007) cautions about samples of less than
100 while Barrett (2007) asserts that SEM analyses based on samples of
20
less than 200 should simply be rejected outright . . . unless the population
from which the sample is hypothesized to be drawn is itself small or restricted
in size (p. 820). Furthermore, Wolf et al. (2013) assert that mediation models with smaller direct effects require larger sample sizes to achieve acceptable statistical power. Given the relatively small sample size in the present
study as well as the expectation of relatively modest effect sizes in light of
the current state of research on CQ competencies and cross-cultural negotiation performance, we chose to use hierarchical regression analysis for
hypothesis testing.
Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations, and correlation coefficients among the primary study variables. Openness to experience, extraversion, and EQ demonstrated significant positive relationships with Overall
CQ (range of r = .30 to r = .49) and the CQ dimensions (range of r = .21 to
r = .48). Cultural intelligence was associated with both IBN behavior (r =
.35, p < .01) and negotiation performance (r = .49, p < .01). The CQ subscales were moderately correlated with one another (r = .21, p < .05 to r =
.45, p < .01). Finally, IBN behaviors were related to negotiation performance
(r = .48, p < .01).
21
.13
.13
.03
.09
.10
.12
.09
.03
.09
.01
.17
.18
.23*
1.Gendera
1.58 (0.50)
2.Age
33.21 (3.96)
3. International Experience
28.05 (5.99)
4. Negotiation Experience
2.55 (0.89)
5.Openness to Experience
4.59 (0.91)
6.Extraversion
4.68 (0.67)
7. Emotional Intelligence
5.36 (1.00)
8. Overall CQ
4.32 (1.07)
9. Metacognitive CQ
4.91 (1.21)
10. Cognitive CQ
3.32 (1.39)
11. Motivational CQ
5.07 (1.19)
12. Behavioral CQ
4.29 (1.34)
13.Interest-based Negotiation 3.49 (1.17)
14.Negotiation Performance
3.90 (1.31)
M (SD)
.67**
.08
.09
.06
.05
.16
.18
.16
.06
.10
.03
.13
.08
.09
.06
.05
.16
.18
.16
.06
.10
.03
.14
.18 .88
.03 .52** .89
.15 .46** .49**
.08 .30** .36**
.09 .28** .42**
.05 .26** .24**
.12 .24*
.31**
.03 .21*
.27**
.04 .15
.19*
.08 .01 .06
.92
.49**
.50**
.32**
.48**
.31**
.05
.04
.90
.66**
.65**
.74**
.74**
.35**
.49**
.88
.31**
.21*
.40**
.29**
.41**
.91
.36**
.22**
.32**
.47**
10
12
13
14
.86
.45** .87
11
22
Step 1
Step 2
International Experience
Negotiation Experience
Openness to Experience
Extraversion
Emotional Intelligence
Metacognitive CQ
Cognitive CQ
Motivational CQ
Behavioral CQ
R2
Total R2
F
Total F
.14
.06
.04
.08
.04
.04
.06
.02
.19
.15
.24
.29*
.14
.26*
.28
.31
9.22*
9.77
.03
.03
.55
.55
Note. N = 113.
aStandardized regression coefficients are shown.
*p < .05. **p < .01.
23
Groves et al.
Table 3. Results of Hierarchical Regression Analyses for Testing the Mediating
Effect of IBN Behaviors.a
Negotiation Performance
International Experience
Negotiation Experience
Openness to Experience
Extraversion
Emotional Intelligence
Metacognitive CQ
Cognitive CQ
Motivational CQ
Behavioral CQ
Interest-based Negotiation
R2
Total R2
F
Total F
IBN Behaviors
Step 1
Step 2
.07
.04
.12
.25*
.15
.30*
.33*
.20
.27*
.04
.06
.02
.19
.15
.24
.29*
.14
.26*
.25
.25
3.44**
3.44
.31
.31
9.77**
9.77
.08
.04
.06
.02
.05
.12
.15
.04
.11
.41**
.07
.37
16.05**
25.82
Note. N = 113.
aStandardized regression coefficients are shown.
*p < .05. **p < .01.
Discussion
We set out to address an important gap in the cross-cultural negotiation literature by examining the impact of negotiator CQ on IBN behaviors and negotiation performance. Despite the clear need for managers to possess the
ability to effectively negotiate across cultures in an increasingly global business environment, there exists very little empirical evidence for the predictors of cross-cultural negotiation effectiveness. The results of our study
demonstrate that CQ is strongly associated with negotiation performance outcomes, while IBN behaviors partially mediate the relationship between CQ
and negotiation performance. Cultural intelligence capabilities facilitated the
negotiators ability to demonstrate IBN behaviors in a negotiation context
that demanded behavioral adaptation. Perhaps due to a lessening of the anxiety caused by encountering an unfamiliar culture in a negotiation context,
24
25
Groves et al.
26
27
Groves et al.
Conclusion
This study addressed important limitations to the negotiation and CQ research
literatures by illustrating CQ as a key predictor of cross-cultural negotiation
effectiveness. Our findings demonstrate that high CQ negotiators facilitate
cross-cultural negotiation performance outcomes through IBN behaviors.
Organizations seeking to improve the outcomes of international negotiations
and better prepare their managers for an increasingly global business environment should focus management education efforts on CQ assessment and
development.
28
Appendix
Behavioral Instructions for the AAA Negotiator
Behave Indirectly. You prefer to start the negotiation with a short presentation
which discusses AAA Hotels, its general goals in the market, and optimism
for the future relationship with Lambert. You are hungry for information
from the Lambert executive, but not very forthcoming with information.
After the other party has answered a question, you may respond by asking
another question, repeating the question, or just remaining silent. You may
often ask for information to be repeated in order to search for areas of agreement. In your culture, it is inappropriate to promote your own positions;
rather, you prefer to listen until you hear where your positions and interests
come together with the other party. You seldom use the word no; rather,
you might say that would be difficult. You value relationships and to be
completely negative would not be relating sympathetically to the other party.
Behave Patiently. Since it is culturally inappropriate to promote ones own
ideas or positions, you wait patiently until the other side suggests something
that is acceptable. You seldom make any concessions except at the very end
of the negotiation.
Behave Unemotionally.You value self-control and have been trained since
childhood not to show emotion. Public displays of emotion are believed to
lead to confrontation and conflict, which interfere with normal, cooperative
relationships. Do not show your frustration with or distaste of the other partys negotiating behavior. Maintain an unemotional and impassive face and
demeanor throughout the negotiation.
Behave Passively. You consider the aggressive, persuasive negotiator skilled I
argumentation to be insincere and vulgar. When confronted with such a negotiator or one using threats or other crude tactics, retreat to silence.
29
Groves et al.
3 = three AAA seats
4 = two AAA seats
5 = one AAA seat
2. Management of AAA Hotel properties
Rating Scale:
0 = no agreement
1 = Lambert provides two regional representatives to AAA corporate
offices, AAA general managers report to AAA corporate offices, and no
new training for AAA managers
2 = Lambert provides two regional representatives to AAA corporate
offices, trains all AAA general managers for one month in AAA home
country, and AAA general managers report to AAA corporate offices
3 = Lambert provides two regional representatives to AAA corporate
offices, trains all AAA general managers for one month in U.S., and AAA
general managers report to AAA corporate offices
4 = Lambert provides one regional manager per 5 AAA properties, trains
all AAA general managers for one month in U.S., and all AAA general
managers report to regional managers
5 = Lambert expatriates (experienced U.S. Lambert managers)
3. Management incentives for AAA Hotel property managers
Rating Scale:
0 = No agreement
1 = Less than 10% of managers pay is contingent on
performance
2 = Between 10% and 20% of managers pay is contingent on
performance
3 = Between 21% and 35% of managers pay is contingent on
performance
4 = Between 36% and 50% of managers pay is contingent on
performance
5 = 51% or more of managers pay is contingent uon
performance
property
property
property
property
property
30
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
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