Applied Geology

Void space
Fraction @ %
Porosity
Sedimentary rock contains sucient organic matter
0% < x < 40%
Source
Rock
Measure of Degree which fluid can be tx
High concentrations of organic matter

To preserve organic, O2 must be low and rapid
sedimentation rate
Unit - Darcy (D)
Permeability
fine-grained or crystalline, low-permeability rocks
Common - milidarcies (mD)
Mudstone/shale
Basin - responsible for continental drift
Cemented limestones
20 rigid plates
Def: Lithosphere broken into pieces and their
movement called plate tectonics
Examples
Cherts
Anhydrite
Seal (cap rock)
Plate Tectonic
Salt
Divergent
Critical for petroleum accumulation
Convergent
Boundaries
Applied Geoscience & Geophysics
Petroleum Province
Fault Planes
Transform
Develop along
Age
Fractures
Critical moment
Temporal aspects
Rock + Void Space
Preservation time
Reservoir
Eon - greatest expense of time

Petroleum System
Archean
Proterozoic
Petroleum + Water in Pore space

Sandstones or Carbonates
Hadean
Overburden Rock
Geometry of the sealed petroleum-bearing
Timescale
Trap Information
Cenozoic
Domes
Simplest config
Fault blocks
Paleozoic
Mesozoic
Faulted Zones
Phanerozoic
Timing of Petroleum migration
MKPP 1213
APPLIED GEOSCIENCE &

GEOPHYSICS
LECTURER:
PROF. DR. RADZUAN JUNIN
MKPP 1213
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Introduction
What is Applied Geoscience & Geophysics or
Petroleum Geoscience?
The disciplines of geology and geophysics
applied to understanding the origin and
distribution, and properties of petroleum and
petroleum-bearing rocks.
The importance of petroleum geoscience is to
find petroleum (petroleum province) and help
produce it.
Basic Geological Principles

To become a petroleum province, five
ingredients or elements are involved;
the source,
Seal (cap rock),
reservoir, and overburden rock
trap formation, and
timing of petroleum migration (Generation
migrationaccumulation of hydrocarbons).
These elements Petroleum system

A petroleum system contains a pod of active
source rock and all genetically related oil and
gas accumulations.
It includes all the geologic elements and
processes that are essential if an oil and gas
accumulation is to exist.
Practical application of petroleum systems can
be used in exploration, resource evaluation, and
research.
Cross Section Of A Petroleum System

(Foreland Basin Example)
Geographic Extent of Petroleum System
Stratigraphic
Extent of
Petroleum
System
Pod of Active
Source Rock
Essential
Elements
of
Petroleum
System
Overburden Rock
Seal Rock
Reservoir Rock
Source Rock
Underburden Rock
Petroleum Reservoir (O)

Fold-and-Thrust Belt
(arrows indicate relative fault motion)
(modified from Magoon and Dow, 1994)
Basement Rock
Top Oil Window
Top Gas Window
Basin Fill
Sedimentary
Extent of Play
Extent of Prospect/Field
O

The source:
A source rock is a
sedimentary rock that
contains sufficient
organic matter, when it is
buried and heated it will
produce petroleum.
Good examples: shale
and claystone/mudstone.

High concentrations of organic matter tend to
occur in sediments that accumulate in areas
of high organic matter productivity and
stagnant water.
To preserve organic matter, the oxygen
contents of the bottom waters and interstitial
waters of the sediment need to be very low
or zero, and a rapid sedimentation rate.

The Seal:
Seals tend to be fine-grained
or crystalline, low-permeability
rocks. Typical examples
include mudstone/shale,
cemented limestones, cherts,
anhydrite, and salt (halite).

Seals to fluid flow can also develop along fault
planes, faulted zones, and fractures.
The presence of a seal or seals is critical for
the development of accumulations of
petroleum in the subsurface.

The Trap:
The geometry of the sealed petroleum-bearing
container.
The simplest trapping configurations are domes
(four-way dip-closed anticlines) and fault blocks.
The mapping and remapping of trap geometry is

a fundamental part of petroleum geoscience.

The Reservoir:
The rock plus void space
contained in a trap.
The petroleum together with
some water occurs in the pore
spaces between the grains (or
crystals) in the rock.
Reservoir rocks are most
commonly coarse-grained
sandstones or carbonates..

Porous rock and porosity:
Porosity is the void space in the rock, reported
either as a fraction of one or as a percentage.
Most reservoirs contain >0% to <40% porosity.
Permeable rock and permeability:
Permeability is a measure of the degree to which
fluid can be transmitted. The unit for permeability
is the darcy (D), although the permeability of
many reservoirs is measured in millidarcies
(mD).

The timing of petroleum migration:
The timing of petroleum migration relative to the
time of deposition of the reservoir/seal
combinations and the creation of structure within
the basin.
In order to determine whether the reservoir,
seal, and trap are available to arrest migrating
petroleum, it is necessary to reconstruct the
geologic history of the area under investigation.
Petroleum Systems
Petroleum System Investigation:
Identifies,
names,
determines the level of certainty, and
maps the geographic, stratigraphic, and
temporal extent of a petroleum system.
Petroleum Systems
To identify a petroleum system, the
explorationist must find some petroleum.
Any quantity of petroleum, is proof of a
petroleum system.
An oil or gas seep, a show of oil or gas in a
well, or an oil or gas accumulation
demonstrates the presence of a petroleum
system.
Petroleum Systems
The name of a petroleum system contains
several parts that name the hydrocarbon fluid
system:
1. The source rock in the pod of active source
rock
2. The name of the reservoir rock that contains
the largest volume of in-place petroleum
3. The symbol expressing the level of certainty.
Petroleum Systems
A petroleum system has three important
temporal aspects:
1. Age - the time required for the process of
generationmigrationaccumulation of hydrocarbons
2. Critical moment - the time that best depicts the

generationmigrationaccumulation of hydrocarbons in
a petroleum system.
3. Preservation time - begins immediately after the

generation migrationaccumulation process occurs
and extends to the present day.
Prudhoe Bay: Event Timing Favors

Accumulation of Shublik Oil and Gas
Timing of formation of the major elements of a

petroleum system, Maracaibo basin, Venezuela.
From Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary

Timescales:
Petroleum maturation, migration and trapping of
oil can occur in a few million years.
Geologic time is divided, using a hierarchical
scheme, into a variety of named units.
The basic unit in this scheme is the period.
The sequence of periods with their attendant
subdivisions and supra-divisions makes up the
stratigraphic column.
The Geologic Timescale

The geologic timescale - a calendar of Earth
history.
The largest defined unit of time shown on the
geologic timescale is the supereon, composed
of eons.
Eon - the greatest expanse of time.
The earliest is the Hadean (beneath the Earth)
Eon, ranging from 4.6 to 3.8 billion yrs ago.
The earliest-known life forms appear in rock from
the Archean (ancient) Eon, about 3.8 to 2.5
billion yrs ago.
Generalized Stratigraphy of Malay Basin

The Archean Eon gave way to the Proterozoic
(early life) Eon (2,500-543 mya).
The beginning of the Phanerozoic (visible life)
Eon, 543 mil years ago, marks the first point at
which we find abundant fossil evidence.
Phanerozoic subdivided into three eras: the
Paleozoic (543-252 mya) , Mesozoic (252-65
mya) , and Cenozoic (65 mya-present day) .
The first part of the Paleozoic (ancient life) Era
was dominated by marine invertebrates, such
as corals, clams, trilobites, and later fish and
amphibians.

The Mesozoic (middle life) Era was dominated
by marines and terrestrial reptiles, including the
dinosaurs.
The Cenozoic (recent life) Era, which continues
today, is distinguished by its rich variety of
mammals.
Eras are subdivided into periods.
Periods are subdivided into epochs.
Plate Tectonic Context of

Petroleum Basins
Basins are generated by plate tectonics, the
process responsible for continental drift.
The Earth's crust is made up of about 20 rigid
plates.
Plates may be stretched and broken or pushed
together, or may rotate past each other. Each of
these processes divergence (extension),
convergence (compression), and strike-slip (or
wrench)can lead to the formation of basins.
Continental Drift
The idea that continents,
particularly South America and
Africa, fit together like pieces of
a jigsaw puzzle.
However, little significance was
given this idea until Alfred
Wegener (1915) proposed a
controversial hypothesis of
continental drift.
Continental Drift
Wegener suggested that the
continents float on a denser
underlying interior and
periodically break up and drift
apart.
Today the concepts of seafloor
spreading and plate tectonics
are firmly established.

Petroleum Basins
Seafloor Spreading
The rates of spreading (from
mid-ocean ridges) on either side
range from 1 to 6 cm/year or
total rate from 2 to 12cm/year.
At this rate it would have taken
about 200 million years for the
present Atlantic Ocean to attain
its present width.
An interesting feature about the
mid-ocean spreading ridges is
that they are sites for both
volcanic and earthquake
activities.
Plate Tectonics
In the 1960s, an exciting new hypothesis
called plate tectonics revolutionized our
understanding on how the outer portion of
the Earth functions.
According to this theory, the uppermost
mantle, along with the overlying crust,
behave as a strong, rigid layer, known as
the lithosphere, which is broken into
pieces called plates and their movement
as plate tectonics.
Plate Tectonics
Plate Tectonics Context of

Petroleum Basins
The lithosphere (rigid plate) overlies a weaker
region in the mantle known as the
asthenosphere.

Petroleum Basins
Plate Boundaries: there are three basic types

of plate boundaries or margins.
Divergent plate boundaries
Convergent plate boundaries
Transform plate boundaries
Plate Tectonics
Where two plates converge, they produce a

narrow, deep depression as the subducting
plate bends downward into the mantle. Such
depressions are called oceanic trenches.
a low area of the earth's surface underlain by a thick

sequence of sedimentary type
Extensional (divergent)
Definition
Crust move laterally with respect to each other

Strike-slip
Type
Smaller than other types of basin described before

Strike-slip basins
Cont to Cont
Oceanic to Oceanic
Developed on convergent plate motion
occur when a thermal plume or sheet impinges on

the base of the litho
Type
Oceanic to Continental
crustal tension at the zones of seafloor spreading
Outer rise on the oceanic plate
Active rifting (Rift basin)
bounded by major fault systems (Grabens)
Trench
Subduction complex
Baikal Rift
Arc System @ Throughs
Example
Fore-arc basin
North Sea
Volcanic arc
continental stretching + thinning
Chapter 2 : Sedimentary Basin
Floored by oceanic litho
Passive rifting
South America + Africa
Convergent
rate of subsidence
enigmatic
Extensional
Characteristic : broadly oval, shallow, saucer-shaped
basins
heat flows
Floored by cont. litho
Intracratonic (sag)
Back-arc
shallow marine shales, carbonates & tidal shelf sands
major HC province
abundant res. rock in both terrigenous & carbonate

rock
Foreland
lie on the edge of continental crust

Several 1000x km log
Parallel to the arc and thrust belt
sediment infill package increases from edge to center

major faults are absence
Outrank outher basin in term of Petroleum province

res + source + trap
Read sea
> prospective than intracratonic basins

Epicratonic
Heat flow , favour HC generation
Crustal instability
structural entrapment of oil
CHAPTER 2
SEDIMENTARY BASINS
Sedimentary Basins
Sedimentary basin: a low area of the earths
surface underlain by a thick sequence of
sedimentary rocks.
Basin Types:
1. Extensional basins (divergent plate motion)
Two main mechanisms operate to create
extensional basins. First, rifting can occur when
a thermal plume or sheet impinges on the base
of the lithosphere (active rifting).
Sedimentary Basins
Rift basins:
Form as a direct result of crustal tension at the
zones of seafloor spreading.
A rift basin is bounded by a major fault systems
(grabens).
A number of rift basins; including Baikal rift,
Red Sea, North Sea, and Central Africa rift
valleys extending from Nigeria, Mozambique,
and Somalia.
The lithosphere
heats up,
weakens, and can
rift. An example is
the East African
Rift.
Sedimentary Basins
The second mechanism (passive rifting) is
continental stretching and thinning, which has
happened during all major continental
breakups.
The most widely recognized pair of passive
margins are South America and Africa.
Passive Rifting
Sedimentary Basins
Passive basins:
Sedimentary Basins
Intracratonic basins: sag.
Intracratonic (intracontinental) basins were
regarded as somewhat enigmatic. Their
alternative description, "sags," illustrates their
form. Most tend to be broadly oval, shallow,
saucer-shaped basins .
The total sediment infill package increases
from edge to center and major faults are
absence.
Sedimentary Basins
Intracratonic basins generally contain abundant
reservoir rocks in both terrigenous and
carbonate facies.
Source rocks tend to be poorly developed,
except in the more marine carbonate basins.
Because these basins occur on stable granitic
crust, heat flow rates are low and major oil
generation may not have oocurred.
Siries of Intracratonic basins occur in North
Africa, eg: Murzuq and Kufra basins
(terrigenous basins). Another example is the
Michigan basin (carbonate basin).
Intracratonic
basins
Murzuq
basin, Libya
Malay Basin
Sedimentary Basins
Epicratonic basins: basins that lie on the edge
of continental crust.
The Tertiary Gulf Coast of the US and the Niger
delta illustrate a terrigenous epicratonic basin,
and the Sirte embayment of Libya illustrates a
carbonate-filled basin.
Epicratonic basins show that they are more
prospective than intracratonic basins.
Sedimentary Basins
Heat flow is high, which favors hc generation in
areas of high geothermal gradients due to
overpressure.
Crustal instability also favors structural
entrapment of oil, as well as stratigraphic traps.
Epicratonic Basins
Sedimentary Basins
2. Basin generated during convergent plate
motion:
The style of basin development associated with
convergent plate motion is highly varied, and
depends upon the interplay of several factors.
These include the types of crust undergoing
convergence: continental to continental, oceanic
to oceanic, and oceanic to continental.
Sedimentary Basins
Arc Systems or Troughs:
Characterized by six major components.
i) An outer rise on the oceanic plate.
This occurs as an arch on the abyssal plain.
ii) A trench.
Commonly > 10km deep, the trench contains
pelagic deposits and fine-grain turbidites.
Not considered to be prospective for petroleum
exploration.
Sedimentary Basins
iii) A subduction complex.
Comprises stacked fragments of oceanic crust
and its pelagic cover.
iv) A fore-arc basin.
Lies between the subduction complex and the
volcanic arc.
Less productive hc provinces than do back-arc
basins.
v) The volcanic (magmatic) arc.
Magma is generated from the partial melting of
the overriding and possibly subducting plates.
Overriding plate at a subduction zone
Forearc Basin
Sedimentary Basins
6. The back-arc region.
Floored by either oceanic or continental
lithosphere. Back-arc basins floored by oceanic
lithosphere tend to have very high rates of
subsidence and high heat flows.
Foreland basins: Where the back-arc region
is floored by continental lithosphere.
The deposits are shallow marine shales,
carbonates and tidal shelf sands.
Combination of favorable reservoir rocks,
source rocks, and traps diversity, back-arc
basins are commonly major hc provinces.
Sedimentary Basins
The Central Sumatra Basin is well-described
example. Other examples are Persian Gulf,
Western Canada and South East Asia.
The importance of foreland basins as petroleum
provinces outranks that of other basins
generated by convergent plate motions.
The basins are typically several thousands of
kilometers long and parallel to the arc and thrust
belt.
Sedimentary Basins
Sedimentary Basins
A simplified map and cross-section of the Zagros orogenic belt (Iran).
NNE-SSW diagrammatic cross-section to suggest the plate-tectonic model of

South China Sea Basin for Early Cretaceous toMiddle Eocene convergent
Sedimentary Basins
3. Strike-slip basins:
Strike-slip or wrench basins occur where
sections of the crust move laterally with respect
to each other.
Although a wrench system taken as a whole can
be of similar size to a rift, passive margin, or
foreland complex, individual basins are much
smaller than the other types of basin described
before.
Sedimentary Basins
A strike-slip basin plan and crosssection,

showing typical megasequence
distributions for the syn-rift, post-rift, and
transpression stages of the basin.
Sedimentary Basins:
Malay basin
CHAPTER 3
APPLIED GEOPHYSICS
Introduction
The petroleum geoscientist uses a wide range
of tools to help explore for and produce
petroleum.
The petroleum geoscientist needs to describe
the distribution, at basin to pore scale, of rock,
fluid, and void in the Earth's subsurface.
To do this, the geoscientist uses a large array of
data types and methods.
Data used in petroleum exploration

& production
Data type and source
Satellite images
Seismic data, including:
2D
3D
4D
4C (shear wave signal)
Wireline log data
Cuttings and cores from well
Outcrop data
Seepage of Petroleum
Use
Largely in frontier exploration
Frontier exploration and exploitation
Exploitation, appraisal, development
& production
Production
Exploration to production
Frontier exploration
Frontier exploration & exploitation
Data used in petroleum exploration

& production
A Landsat satellite image of the Zagros

Mountains, Iran. The center of the image shows a
near-circular anticline above a salt dome.
Gravity Surveying
Gravity data can be used to help define the
regional tectonic regime, prioritize areas for
seismic work, and identify the causes of
seismic structure (e.g., reefs, salt, and
basement uplift).
Gravimetric data can be obtained at much
lower cost than seismic data.
However, the resolution of gravimetric data is
lower than that of seismic data.
Gravity Surveying
Gravitational prospecting uses Newton's Law,
which links the force of mutual attraction
between particles in terms of their masses and
separation.
The law states that two particles of mass m1
and m2 respectively, and of small dimension
compared with the distance r that separates
their centers of mass, will be attracted to one
another by a force F as follows:
F = G(m1.m2)/r2
Gravity Surveying
The acceleration (a) of a mass m2 due to the
attraction of mass m1 at distance r can be
calculated by dividing the attractive force by the
mass m2, thus:
a = F/m2 = G m1/r2
If m1 is considered to be the mass of the earth
and r its radius, then a is the gravitational
acceleration on the earths surface.
g = GM/R2
G = universal gravitational constant
Gravity Surveying
The value of a varies from place to place. This
variation is due to the effect of latitude, altitude,
and topography, as well as geology.
These variations must be removed before the
last residual one can be detected.
The acceleration due to gravity is measured in
Gals. The commonly used unit is the milliGal
(where 1000 milliGaIs=I GaI).
Gravity Surveying
Variations in g:
Gravity Surveying
Salt dome, g
Dense rock (anticline), g
Gravity Measurement & Equipment

Relative gravity:
Mass on spring measurements. Two types:
1. Stable Gravimeter. Ex: Askania, Gulf dan
Norgaard
Change in g --> change in spring length.
g = -k L/m
Gravity Measurement & Equipment

2. Unstable gravimeter or astatic.
Suitable choice of mass, spring constant and geometry
makes the system unstable and very sensitive to
changes in g.
Ex: LaCoste-Romberg and Worden gravity meter.
Density Variations of Earth Materials

Consider the variation in gravitational
acceleration that would be observed
over a simple model.
Assume due to the presence of a
small ore body.
Let the ore body have a spherical
shape.
The gravity anomaly produced by a
buried sphere is symmetric about the
center of the sphere.
Gravity Surveying
When corrections have been made for the
readings at each station, they may be plotted
on a map and contoured in milligals.
Gravity maps are more useful for showing the
broad architecture of a sedimentary basin.
However, in some cases gravity maps may
indicate drillable prospects by locating salt
domes and reefs.
Gravity surveys can be carried out on land, at
sea, and by air.
Gravity Surveying
Example: Mapping basin depth
Gravity Surveying
Gravity Surveying
Magnetic surveying
The Earth's magnetic field may be divided into
three components, the external field, the main
field, and variations in the main field.
At any point above the earth, the measured
geomagnetic field will be the sum of these
components.
The main field is generated by the Earths
metallic core.
Variations in the main field are commonly much
smaller than the main field signal.
Magnetic surveying
They are produced by local magnetic
anomalies in the near-surface crust.
The intensity of magnetization of a magnetic
mineral will normally be related to the regional
field strength:
J=kH
Where J is the intensity of magnetization
k is the magnetic susceptibility
H is the intensity of the magnetic field
Magnetic Surveying
Rock magnetism has two components, induced and
remanent.
The induced component is proportional to the Earth's
magnetic field and the proportionality constant is called
the "magnetic susceptibility.
Magnetic susceptibility measures the degree to which an
element or mineral can be magnetized.
The magnetic susceptibility is very variable, ranging from
<10-4 emu/cm3 for sedimentary rocks to between 10-3 and
10-2 emu/cm3 for iron-rich basic igneous rocks.
Magnetic Surveying
In exploration geophysics, anomalies are
measured in gamma unitsequivalent to the
nanotesla (nT) in SI unitswhere 1 gamma
=0.00001 Oe.
Magnetic data may be collected on land and
with shipborne or airborne magnetometers.
By this method an aeromagnetic map, which
contours anomalies in the earths magnetic field
in gamma units, may be constructed.
Magnetic Surveying
Like gravity maps, magnetic maps are more
useful for showing the broad-basin architecture,
but can seldom be used to locate drillable
petroleum prospects.
Magnetic Surveying
Magnetic field anomaly.
Bouger anomaly.
Magnetic Anomaly
Let's now qualitatively
construct what the
magnetic anomaly of a
metallic sphere located
beneath the north pole
would look like.
Magnetic Anomaly
Finally, let's examine the
shape of the anomalous
magnetic field for a
metallic sphere buried
somewhere in the
northern hemisphere
Magnetic Anomaly
Suppose we have a buried dyke
with a susceptibility of 0.001
surrounded by sedimentary
rocks with no magnetic
susceptibility. The dyke in this
example is 3 meters wide, is
buried 5 meters deep, and
trends to the northeast. Thus,
we could determine the location
of the dyke and possibly its
dimensions by measuring the
spatial variation in the strength
of the magnetic field.
Seismic Surveying
Reflection surveying:
Seismic Surveying
Before Seismic Existed
Seismic Surveying
The most important of the three main types of geological
prospecting.
They are the only widely used data that give a complete
picture of the whole area of study, be it basin, play
fairway, prospect, trap or reservoir.
Seismic imaging of the Earth's shallow structure uses
energy waves created at a sound source and collected
some distance away.
The seismic method relies upon changes in acoustic
properties of rock to alter the properties of sound waves
transmitted through the rock.
www.dme.qld.gov.au/zone_files/geoscience_images/seismic3.jpg pubs.usgs.gov/of/2000/of00-304/htmldocs/chap01/images/seismic.gif
Seismic Surveying
Seismic surveying is largely concerned with the
primary P waves.
When a wave emanating from the surface
reaches a boundary between two media that
have different acoustic impedance, some of the
energy is reflected back into the upper
medium, and some may be refracted into the
lower medium.
Seismic Surveying
Reflection and refraction
Seismic Surveying
The acoustic velocity of a rock varies
according to its elastic constants and density.
The velocity of a P wave:
4
vP (k n)/
3
k is the bulk modulus

n is the shear modulus
is the density
Vs = (n/)
Seismic Surveying
Factor affecting Velocity:
Density velocity typically increases with density
(k and n are dependant on and increase more
rapidly than ):
Porosity and fluid saturation Increasing porosity reduces velocity.

Filling the porosity with fluid increases the velocity.
v1 1 v 2 2
v1 1 v 2 2
Seismic Surveying
The acoustic impedance is the product of the rocks
density and the velocity ( x ), and is characterized by
the reflection coefficient, R:
v 2 2 v1 1
R
v 2 2 v1 1
Where is the density, and v is the P wave velocity.
The greater the R the stronger the reflection.
The quality of reflectors and hence the ability to define
successions of rocks and their characteristics depends
initially on the natural variations in the rock.
Seismic Surveying
Reflection seismic
survey:
v1 1 v 2 2
v1 1 v 2 2
Seismic Surveying
The reflections generated
from many sources delivering
signals to many layers in the
subsurface, and collected at
many receivers, are compiled
to yield seismic crosssections in 2D and seismic
volumes in 3D.
Seismic Surveying
3D surveys: collect data on a grid.
v1 1 v 2 2
v1 1 v 2 2
Seismic Surveying
2D seismic cross-sections and 3D seismic
volumes are most commonly displayed by
linear x and y coordinates as measured on the
Earth's surface and z measured in time
beneath the Earth's surface.
If the average acoustic velocity of the rock is
known, then it is possible to calculate the depth
(D) to the interface.
D = vt/2
v is the acoustic velocity
t is the two-way travel time
v1 1 v 2 2
v1 1 v 2 2
Seismic Surveying
Seismic acquisition:
Land: Dynamite and Vibroseis are the most
common sources of energy for land-based
seismic surveys.
Vibroseis comprises a heavy all-terrain vehicle
that can lower a steel plate onto the ground
surface.
Other energy sources such as weight dropper
and Dinoseis (explosion of a propane/air
mixture in a chamber mounted below a truck).
v1 1 v 2 2
v1 1 v 2 2
Seismic Surveying
Guns, Weight dropper and Vibroseis
v1 1 v 2 2
v1 1 v 2 2
Seismic Surveying
The returning acoustic waves
are recorded on Geophones.
The signals are transmitted
from the geophones along
cables to the recording truck
and records on magnetic tapes.
v1 1 v 2 2
v1 1 v 2 2
Seismic Surveying
Marine: The energy source for such surveys is
almost exclusively the air gun. An air gun
discharges a high-pressure pulse of air into the
water.
The air guns can emit energy sufficient to
generate signals at between 5 and 6 s two-way
travel time.
Depending on interval velocities, these signals
may penetrate to over 5 km.
v1 1 v 2 2
v1 1 v 2 2
Seismic Surveying
v1 1 v 2 2
v1 1 v 2 2
Seismic Surveying
The reflected signals are recorded by
hydrophones on a cable towed behind the ship.
The cable (streamer) runs several meters
below sea level and may be between 2 and 5
km in length.
The reflected signals are transmitted
electronically from groups of hydrophones
along the cable to the recording unit on the
survey ship.
v1 1 v 2 2
v1 1 v 2 2
Seismic Surveying
v1 1 v 2 2
v1 1 v 2 2
Seismic Surveying
Seismic ship and air gun.
A seismic ship shooting a 3D marine survey in 1991. The four streamers under tow create the wake patterns seen
at the edges of the photo. Immediately to either side of the ship's wake is an air-gun array. Each array contains four
strings of air guns. With the two sources firing in an alternating pattern, eight lines of seismic data were acquired at
once (Western Geophysical). The Leading Edge 2005; v. 24; no. Supplement; p. S46-S71;
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Seismic Surveying
Seismic processing:
The aims are to enhance
the interpretable (useful)
seismic information relative
to the noise in the signal
and place the seismic
reflectors in their correct x,
y, z space.
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Seismic Surveying
Here is a brief description of
some of the processing steps:
Editing and Muting: Manually
cleaning up the data.
Remove dead traces
Remove noisy traces
Switch polarity on reversed traces
Cut out unwanted signal e.g.
pre-arrival noise, direct arrival,
ground roll.
Reflected Ray Paths Geometry

If t1 & t2 are travel time and x1 & x2 are offset,
so:
t = t2 t1 ~ (x22 x12 )/ 2V2to
(3)
If one geophone at shotpoint (or at x1=0),
t known as
normal moveout (NMO), tn
then,
(4)
tn ~ x2 / 2V2to
The importance of NMO:
Having determined the layer velocity, we can use the predicted quadratic
shape to identify reflectors
Then co ect (shift t aces) and stack to enhance signal to noise
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Seismic Surveying
Convolution/deconvolution
processes, which are designed
to allow determination of the
effect of the Earth on the seismic
signal.
The seismogram recorded at the
surface (S) is the convolution of
the two
S=W*R
W: source wavelet, R: reflectivity series
Deconvolution: undoing the

convolution to get back to the
reflectivity series.
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Seismic Surveying
Common depth/mid point (CMP)
stacking, which involves the
arrangement of component data
for a single depth point side by
side.
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Seismic Surveying
Single horizontal reflector
QuickTime and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
NMO Correction
Before and after NMO
www.ocean.slb.com/docs/seabed/Public_Webreport_2010_1
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Seismic Surveying
Migration: The process of trying to move reflections
back to their point of origin. When beds dip steeply, the
wave returns from the reflector from a point not
immediately beneath the surface location midway
between the shotpoint and each individual geophone but
from a point up-dip from this position. The data must be
migrated to correct this effect.
In consequence, migration is designed to restore
seismic reflectors to their proper xy position
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Seismic Surveying
Pre-migration
Migrated stack
Note improvement of data/image quality
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Seismic Surveying
Amplitude Variation with Offset (AVO)
Variation in seismic reflection amplitude with change in
distance between shotpoint and receiver that indicates
differences in lithology and fluid content in rocks above
and below the reflector.
AVO is a seismic technique that uses pre-stack seismic
data, to detect the presence of hydrocarbons in the
reservoir.
In reservoir rock, AVO response is dependent on the
velocities of P- and S-waves and on density to define
the pore space and fluids within the rock matrix.
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Seismic Surveying
AVO analysis is a technique by which geophysicists
attempt to determine thickness, porosity, density,
velocity, lithology and fluid content of rocks.
A gas-filled sandstone might show increasing amplitude
with offset, whereas a coal might show decreasing
amplitude with offset.
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Seismic Surveying
Seismic interpretation:
Objective - to generate a coherent geologic story from
an array of seismic reflections.
Involves tracing continuous reflectors across 2D grids
of seismic lines or throughout 3D data volumes.
Three-dimensional seismic datasets are usually
interpreted on a workstation.
The computer files contain the whole seismic volume,
which can be viewed or sliced in any direction.
Seismic Workstation
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Seismic Surveying
Salt dome
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Seismic Surveying
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Seismic Surveying
Chapter 4:
Transportation, Deposition
and Deformation Processes
of Sediment
THE EARTH MATERIALS
Three types of rocks exist in the Earths crust

and at its surface :
1. Igneous rocks
2. Metamorphic rocks
3. Sedimentary rocks
Rocks are naturally occurring combinations of
one or more minerals, with each mineral
retaining its own discrete characteristics within
the rock.
Minerals
Minerals are the naturally occurring elements

or chemical compounds that comprise the soil
and rock materials.
Most rocks are aggregates composed of two or
more minerals.
Igneous Rocks
Rocks that solidified from molten
rock material (magma) are called
igneous rocks (from the Latin
ignis, or fire).
As magma cools, the ions that
compose it arrange themselves
into orderly patterns during a
process called crystallization.
Igneous rocks are the most
abundant rocks on the earths
crust, making up about 64.7% of
the Earths crust.
Igneous Rocks
Two groups of igneous rocks:
a) Igneous rocks that form when
molten rock solidifies at the
surface are classified as
extrusive, or volcanic rocks.
b) Igneous rocks that form at
depth (deep-seated) are termed
intrusive, or plutonic rocks.
Igneous Rock Textures

Igneous rocks are most often classified by
their texture and mineral composition.
The term texture is a measure of the overall
size, shape, and arrangement of its
interlocking crystals.
The most important factor affecting texture is
the rate at which magma cools.
Classification of Igneous Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks form from preexisting rocks
(either igneous, sedimentary, or other
metamorphic rocks) that have been altered by
the agents of metamorphism, which include
heat, pressure, and chemical active fluids.
Metamorphism (change form) is a process that
leads to change in mineralogy, texture, and
often the chemical composition of rocks.
The changes that occur in metamorphosed
rocks are textural as well as mineralogical.
Making up 27.4% of the Earths crust.
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphism most often
occurs in one of three
settings:
1. Contact or thermal
metamorphism, which
occurs where rocks are
heated by direct or close
contact with magma.
Most contact metamorphic
rocks are fine-grained,
dense tough rocks of
various chemical
compositions.
Metamorphic Rocks
2. Hydrothermal metamorphism results from the
interaction of a rock with high-temperature fluids,
producting metamorphic and metasomatic
reactions that depend upon temperature and
compositional differences between the country
rock and the invading fluid.
3. Regional metamorphism, which occurs over
extensive areas of rock are subjected to directed
pressures and high temperatures associated with
large-scale deformation, generally in an area of
plate convergence.
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic Rock Classification:
1. Foliated rocks
SHALE
SLATE
PHYLLITE
(sedimentary rock)
SCHIST
GNEIS
Metamorphic Rocks
2. Nonfoliated rocks:
Marble is a coarse, crystalline
metamorphic rock whose parent
was limestone or dolostone.
Quartzite is a very hard
metamorphic rock formed from
quartz sandstone.
Hornfels is a metamorphic rock
formed next to intrusions.
Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rock consists of sediment that has
been lithified into solid rock.
Sediment from the Latin sedimentum, meaning
settling. Sediment consists of fragments of solid
material derived from pre-existing rock, the
remains of organisms, or the direct precipitation
of dissolved minerals from solution in water.
Although sedimentary rocks account for about
7.9% by volume of the Earths crust, however,
75% of all rocks exposed are sedimentary.
SEDIMENTOLOGY
Sedimentology encompasses the study of
sedimentary processes and sedimentary rocks
[included modern sediments such as sand, mud
(silt), and clay].
Sedimentary Process:
1. Erosion and Transportation
All rocks including igneous, metamorphic and
sedimentary that are exposed to the elements of
wind, rain, heat and cold eventually give way to
wear and tear and are eroded.
SEDIMENTOLOGY
Some are simply broken up into small pieces by
running water and frost while others are dissolved
slowly as weak acids in ground water react with
the minerals contained within the rocks.
In either case, the debris or sediment, is gradually
carried downhill by the forces of gravity and
running water.
As the sediment is washed further and further
"downstream", it is broken into smaller and
smaller pieces.
SEDIMENTOLOGY
Eventually, these rock fragments are deposited
in sediment traps such as ponds or lakes.
A large depressed area in which a lot of
sediment has been or is being deposited is
called a sedimentary basin.
During transport, the sedimentary particles
become sorted by size and density. This means
that the larger and heavier fragments will settle
faster than the lighter ones.
SEDIMENTOLOGY
The very smallest particles (fine sand and mud
particles) can be carried hundreds of kilometres
out to sea before settling to the bottom in the
quiet deeper waters.
The larger pieces (sand, gravel and boulders)
will be deposited closer to the shore such as
along beaches.
Sedimentary rocks that are formed primarily from
fragments of other rocks are called clastics.
SEDIMENTOLOGY
Clastic sedimentary rock conglomerate
SEDIMENTOLOGY
The flowing waters also contain dissolved
minerals such as calcium and salt. These
minerals will eventually come out of solution and
form precipitates (solids) when the conditions are
right.
2. Deposition/ Sedimentation
As sediment is continuously dumped into the
ocean, it gradually sinks to the bottom and starts
to form layers.
SEDIMENTOLOGY
Coarser, heavier material (gravel) is deposited
close to the shore and finer grained sediment
(fine sand and clay particles) is deposited further
out, in the deeper water.
Varying the water depth and environmental
conditions of an area results in different types of
sedimentary layers being deposited in the area
at different times.
The result is that in any given area there can be
many different layers, containing different kinds
of sedimentary rock.
Sedimentary Rocks
Turning sediment into sedimentary rock:
A great deal of change can occur to sediment
from the time it is deposited until it becomes a
sedimentary rock.
Diagenesis refers to all of the physical, chemical,
and biological changes that occur after sediments
are deposited and during and after lithification.
Diagenesis includes lithification, the processes by
which unconsolidated sediments are transformed
into solid sedimentary rock.
Sedimentary Rocks
Most sedimentary rocks are lithified by means of
compaction and/or cementation.
Compaction occurs when the weight of
overlying materials compresses the deeper
sediment.
Cementation
Cementation, the most important process by which
sediments are converted to sedimentary rock,
occurs when soluble cementing materials, such as
calcite, silica, and iron oxide, are precipitated onto
sediment grains, fill open spaces, and join the
particles.
Sedimentary Rocks
Sediment Texture:
The vast majority of sediments are detrital. They
are composed of transported solids fragments,
or detritus, produced by mechanical weathering
or released by erosion from preexisting rocks.
Detrital particles are deposited when the
transporting medium loses its capacity to carry
the sediment farther.
Sediment texture depends on the source rocks
of the sediment particles, the energy of the
medium that transported them, and their
environment of deposition.
Sedimentary Rocks
During transport, sediment grains undergo
sorting, a process by which they are carried or
deposited selectively, based on the energy of
their transport medium and the grains size,
density, and shape.
A well-sorted deposit consists of particles of one
size; a poorly sorted deposit contains particles of
widely varying sizes.
Sedimentary Rocks
Rounding Relative sphericity.
Sediment grains start out as angular grains.
With transport, sediments become more
spherical.
Well-rounded long transport distances
Angular negligible transport
Sedimentary Rocks
Concept of maturity:
1. Physically mature
All grains well rounded/ spherical
All grains same size
No matrix
2. Chemically mature
All grains are quartz.
Unstable minerals (feldsfars, micas) are removed with
transport and by chemical weathering.
Sedimentary Rocks
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
Can be divided into two major groups: detrital/
clastic and chemical.
Detrital (clastic) sedimentary rocks:
All detrital rocks have a clastic texture, which
consists of discrete fragments and particles
that are cemented or compacted together.
Classification depends on their particle sizes
rather than the composition of their particles.
Common detrital rocks include conglomerate/
breccia, sandstone, and shale.
Sedimentary Rocks
Classification
Conglomerate
Breccia
Sandstone
Shale
Sedimentary Rocks
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
Sediment composition
Classification of clastic rocks according to texture
Detrital/Clastic sedimentary rocks

Grain Size
Gravel size >2mm
Sand size 2mm 0.0625 mm
Composition
Fragments or any
rock type - quartz,
quartzite, and chert
dominant
Mostly quartz
Mostly feldspar
Silt size 00039 to

0.0625 mm
Clay size <0.0039 mm
Shape/Description
ROCK NAME
Rounded
Conglomerate
Angular
Breccia
Relatively uniform
grain size
Quartz
Sandstone
Pink K-Feldspar
present
Arkosic
Sandstone
Quartz grains,
feldspar grains, clay
minerals
Clay minerals
Fissile
Shale
Clay minerals
Non-fissile
Claystone
Siltstone
Sedimentary Rocks
Chemical sedimentary rocks:
The primary basis in the chemical group is their
mineral composition.
There are two kinds of chemical sediments:
inorganic, and biogenic.
Inorganic chemical-sedimentary rocks
precipitate directly from water, usually when the
water evaporates or undergoes a significant
temperature change.
Sedimentary Rocks
Classification
They include inorganic limestone, evaporites,
chert, and dolostone.
Inorganic limestones include travertine and
oolitic limestone.
Evaporites include halite (rock salt) and gypsum
(rock gypsum).
Oolitic limestone
Inorganic (evaporite) sedimentary rocks

Grain Size
Composition
Shape/Description
<2mm
Mostly calcium
carbonate
(CaCO3)
Fizzes with cold
dilute HCl
Spherical grains like tiny Oolitic

beads with concentric
Limestone
laminations
Coarse
crystalline
Cryptocrystalline Variety of
Quartz (SiO2)
ROCK NAME
Banded
Travertine
Scratches glass
Chert
Fine to coarse
crystalline
Gypsum
Can be scratched with
(CaSO42H2O) fingernail
Rock
Gypsum
Fine to coarse
crystalline
Halite (NaCl)
Rock Salt
Salty taste
Sedimentary Rocks
Biogenic chemical-sedimentary rocks form when
organisms extract dissolved compounds from water,
convert them into biological hard parts (such as shells
and skeletons), and subsequently deposit them as
sediment when they die.
They include biogenic limestone, biogenic chert, coquina
and coal.
Biogenic sedimentary rocks

Grain Size
Composition
Mostly calcium
carbonate
(CaCO3)
Fizzes with cold
dilute HCl
Muddy matrix with

fossils
>2mm
<0.0625 mm
Shape/Description
Fossiliferous Limestone
(Wackstone)
Shells or shell
fragments poorly
cemented to form
porous, earthy rock)
<0.0039 mm
Shells or shell
fragments well
cemented to form dense
rock
Dull brown and plant- Porous and easy to
like
break apart in plant
fragments
Woody appearance,
light weight
Highly altered plant
Black, dense and brittle
remains (Carbon)
or porous and sooty
ROCK NAME
Coquina
Chalk
Micrite
(Calcareous
Mudstone)
Peat
Lignite
Bituminous
Coal
Sedimentary Rocks
Depositional Environments:
Sedimentary environments are
those places where sediment
accumulates (or deposited).
They are grouped into
continental, marine, and
transitional (coastal)
environments.
Sedimentary Rocks
Continental environments
are those environments
which are present in
continents (alluvial fan,
fluvial, lacustrine, desserts
and swamps).
Transitional environments
are those environments at or
near the transition between
the land and the sea (deltas,
beaches and barrier islands,
lagoons tidal flats).
Sedimentary Rocks
Marine environments are those environments in
the seas or oceans (reefs, continental shelf,
continental slop and continental rise).
Each is characterized by certain physical,
chemical, and biological conditions.
A sedimentary facies is the set of unique
properties that distinguish a rock in a given layer
from surrounding rocks formed in different
depositional settings at the same time.
Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary Structures:
Sedimentary rocks form as layer upon layer of
sediment accumulates in various depositional
environments.
This layers, called strata, or beds, are the single
most characteristic feature of sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary Rocks
Separating the strata are bedding plane.
Changes in the grain size or in the
composition of the sediment can create
bedding plane.
The thickness of beds ranges from
microscopically thin to tens of meters
thick.
Cross-bedding refers to sediment
layers that are oriented at an angle to
the underlying sets of beds. It is most
characteristic of sand dunes, river delta,
and certain stream channel deposits.
Sedimentary Rocks
Graded bedding when the particles
within a single sedimentary layer
gradually change from coarse at the
bottom to the fine at the top.
Graded beds are most characteristic
of rapid deposition from water
containing sediment of varying sizes.
The deposition of graded bed is most
often associated with a turbidity
current, a mass of sediment-choke
water that is denser than clear water
and that moves downslope.
Sedimentary Rocks
Ripple marks are small waves of
sand that develop on the surface of
a sedimentary layer by the action of
moving water or air.
Mud cracks occurs at the top of a

sediment layer when muddy
sediment dries and contracts.
STRATIGRAPHY
Stratigraphy is the study that deals
with the formation, composition,
sequence, and correlation of
stratified rocks.
Rock layers were studied since the
time of Avicenna (Ibn Sina, 1027).
He was the first to outline the law of
superposition of strata.
Sedimentary layers are deposited in
a time sequence, with the oldest on
the bottom and the youngest on the
top.
STRATIGRAPHY
Grand Canyon Rock

Layers
Stratigraphy
Thus the goal of any stratigraphic analysis is to
establish the temporal sequence of sedimentary
rocks in the area under investigation.
Petroleum exploration without stratigraphic
analysis degrades to simply drilling the largest
structures seen on seismicwithout attempting
to determine whether the source, reservoir, and
seal exist.
Stratigraphy includes two related subfields:
lithostratigraphy and biostratigraphy.
Stratigraphy
Lithostratigraphy, or lithologic stratigraphy, is
deals with the physical lithologic, or rock type,
change both vertically in layering or bedding
of varying rock type and laterally reflecting
changing environments of deposition, known
as facies (a body of rock with specified
characteristics) change.
Lithostratigraphic correlation should only be
applied with great care, and only within a
well-defined biostratigraphic and/or sequence
stratigraphic framework.
Stratigraphy
Stratigraphy
Biostratigraphy or paleontologic stratigraphy is
based on fossil evidence in the rock layers.
Strata from widespread locations containing the
same fossil fauna and flora are correlatable in
time.
Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of
animals, plants, and other organisms from the
remote past.
Biologic stratigraphy was based on William
Smith's principle of faunal succession.
Stratigraphy
Principle of faunal succession states that
fossils succeed each other vertically in a
specific, reliable order that can be identified
over wide horizontal distances.
Stratigraphy
Correlation:
Matching rocks or to
fit together
sedimentary strata
of similar age found
in different areas.
Correlation involves
comparing the rocks
and fossils in
separate rock
exposures.
Stratigraphy
Sequent Stratigraphy was developed from
seismic stratigraphy in the 1970s by Exxon.
Examines sedimentary packages over a large
area (entire sedimentary basin).
Sequence stratigraphy focuses on the
relationships between sequences of
conformable layers and the unconformities that
bound them. The strata patterns were as
distinctive as the biostratigraphic correlations.
Stratigraphy
It can provide a predictive tool for
determining the likely presence of
source rocks, and the distribution of
reservoirs and seals.
The basic unit in sequence stratigraphy
is the sequence (succession of strata
bounded by unconformities).
Unconformities: represent a gap in the
rock record.
Smaller units of subdivision are beds
and laminae.
A marine
transgression is a
geologic event during
which sea level rises
relative to the land
and the shoreline
moves toward higher
ground, resulting in
flooding.
The opposite of
transgression is
regression, in which
the sea level falls
relative to the land
and exposes former
sea bottom.
Generalized Stratigraphy of Malay Basin
Stratigraphy of Zagros Foreland Sediment Iran
CHAPTER 5
CLASTIC RESERVOIR
ROCKS
Reservoir Geology
Deals with the origin, spatial distribution, and
petrological characteristics of reservoirs.
Utilizes information from sedimentology,
stratigraphy, structural geology, sedimentary
petrology, petrography, and geochemistry to
prepare reservoir descriptions.
Direct observations of depositional textures,
constituent composition, principal and accessory
minerals, sedimentary structures, diagenetic
alterations, and pore characteristics provide the
foundation for reservoir descriptions.
Reservoir Geology
The goal of such interpretations is to formulate
geological concepts to guide in predicting
reservoir size, shape, and performance
characteristics.
Reservoir characterization; like reservoir
geology, deals with physical characteristics of
the reservoir.
It differs from geological description in that data
on petrophysics and fluid properties are
included.
Reservoir Geology
Sandstone and limestone (including dolomite)
are the most common reservoir lithologies.
The main reasons to study clastic and
carbonate reservoirs and aquifers are to learn
more about how to find, extract, and manage
the oil, gas, usable water, or other resources
they contain.
Clastic Reservoir Rocks

(i) Sandstones
Environments: Coastal/shelf marine, fluvial,
sub-aerial.
Composition: Grain Size: framework fraction:
particles 63 to 2000m in diameter.
Mineralogy:
Quartz (SiO2) dominant mineral -- 50 - 60%
framework.
monocrystalline form - single large grains.
polycrystalline chert nodules.
Quartz
M
P
P
M with overgrowth
(formed during
diagenesis)
Polycrystalline (P)
Monocrystalline (M)
P&S, Fig. 5.8
Sandstones Reservoir Rocks

Feldspars (AlSi3O8) second most abundant
mineral - 10-20% of the framework
less stable than quartz; alters to clays
Alkali (Potassium -K) Feldspars (orthoclase,
microcline), Plagioclase.
Clay Minerals < 5% matrix
Accessory Minerals - < 1 to 2%
micas (muscovite, biotite)
heavy minerals (zircon, rutile, magnetite,
pyroxenes, amphiboles).
Feldspars
Feldspar
crystal
Blue = pore space (crystal largely dissolved during deep burial)

Mineral Cements:
Silicate (SiO2) based cements (mainly
Quartz).
Carbonate (CaCO3) based cements

Sandstones Classification:
Provides information about:
Provenance (source rocks from which components
derived)
Transport processes
Concept of maturity:
Physically mature
All grains well rounded/ spherical
All grains same size
No matrix

Chemically
mature;
All grains are
quartz
Stable Grains 100% = HIGHLY MATURE
Matrix
100%
Unstable
Grains
100%
- Folks classification
Sandstones Classification
- Pettijohns classification
- Pettijohns classification
based on QFL triangles
uses matrix %
no simple scheme for physical maturity
needs thin section -- rarely possible in hand
specimen
Arenites - grain supported, well sorted
sandstones (<15% matrix).
1. quartz arenite
extensive chemical weathering - product of
multiple recycling, mature
Marginal marine facies (beach)
2. arkosic arenites (>25% feldspar)
Abundant feldspar, micas low maturity
Poorly sorted, angular grains
limited chemical weathering - either very cold
and dry climate, or rapid erosion and
deposition
3. lithic (rock fragments) arenites
limited chemical weathering - mountainous
region, rapid transport
alluvial fans, or other fluvial environments
Laminations, cross-bedding possible.

4. Wackes - abundant matrix, poorly sorted
(>15% matrix)
Deep water facies waning turbidity current.
a. quartz wacke, feldspathic wacke
b. lithic (rock fragments) wacke
c. graywacke
matrix rich sandstone of any composition
very hard, and dense undergone deep
burial

Examples of sandstone reservoir
rocks. (A) clean, well sorted
sandstone, (B) angular,
feldspathic sandstone, and (C)
argillacious, very poorly sorted
sandstone.
Photomicrograph of a quartz arenite under ordinary

light. Simpson Group, Ordovician, Oklahoma, USA.
Photomicrograph of a greywacke under polarized light.

Jurassic, UK North Sea. Note the poorly sorted texture
and abundance of matrix and twinned feldspar..
Photomicrograph of quartz wacke under polarized

light. Carboniferous, Chios, Greece. Note the poorly
sorted texture and abundance of matrix.
Photomicrograph of arkose under polarized light.

Torridonian, Precambrian, Scotland. Note the
abundance of twinned feldspar and the better sorted
texture
Conglomerates
A coarse grained siliclastic rock with a muddy
or sandy matrix.
Associated with High Energy environments:
mountains, margins-fans, glacial, turbidity
current.
Composition:
Grain Size:
30% gravel size (>2mm in diameter) rounded
clasts.
Conglomerates
Conglomerates
1% of all sedimentary rocks.
High energy environments - mountains,
margins-fans, glacial.
Composition:
Grain size 30% gravel size (>2mm in
diameter) rounded clasts.
Conglomerates
Classification:
Orthoconglomerates consist primarily of
framework grains and <15% matrix.
Paraconglomerates have a matrix of sand and
finer clasts and are matrix-supported.
Diamictite is another term for a
paraconglomerate, and is often used to denote
glacial rocks.
Shales
LOW ENERGY Environments;
Deep-quiet water
Abundant fine sediment
Composition:
Grain Size:
silt and clay (< 63 m)
Mineralogy:
fine grain quartz
clay
Shales
Classification:
1. siltstone (>66% silt)
2. mudstone (<66% silt,
>33%clay)
3. claystone: (>66% clay)
Pelagic
clay
silt
Pore Space Properties

The basic framework of a sandstone reservoir
is formed by the sand grains between which the
pore space may or may not contain interstitial
fine material and/or cement.
Framework of reservoir sand with

interstitial clay and cement.

The amount of this intergranular pore space or
porosity is controlled primarily by sorting of the
sediment.
The porosity of a reservoir rock is defined as
that fraction of the bulk volume of the reservoir
that is not occupied by the solid framework of
the reservoir.
Vb Vgr Vp
Vb
Vb

Grain textures are the chief factors that control
the porosity and permeability of sediments in
siliciclastic settings.
These include:
1) grain size distribution (mean, median, and
sorting),
2) shape (sphericity),
3) packing,
4) composition, and
5) cementation.

In sandstones, porosity is controlled primarily
by sorting, cementation and, to a lesser extent,
by the way the grains are packed together.
Porosity is at its maximum for spherical grains
but becomes progressively less as the
angularity of the grains increases because such
grains pack together more closely.
However, porosities of packed sands show a
general decrease as sorting becomes poorer.

This is because the smaller grains partially fill
the interstices between the larger grains.

Packing is the mutual spatial relationships
between grains. Close packing reduces
porosity and permeability.

Packing:
Cubic
arrangements:
47.6% - low
packing.
Rhombus
arrangements:
26%.

Porosity Ranges:
Sand and gravel
20-50 %
Till
10-20 %
Silt
35-50 %
Clay
33-60 %
Clastic sediments
typically 3-30 %
Limestone
<1 to 30 %
Basalt
1-12 %
Tuff
14-40 %
Pumice
- 87 %
Fractured crystalline rock
1-5 %
Unfractured crystalline rock
~0.1 %

Permeability is a measure of the ability of a fluid
or a gas to cross a network of pores.
Measured in Darcy (D, or mD)
A measure of the degree of interconnectedness
of pores.
Permeability depends primarily upon the size,
shapes and extent of the interconnections
between individual pores (pore-throat diameter)
rather than the size of the pores themselves.

What influences the throughput of a fluid (Q)
through a porous solid?
Length, l
Fluid viscosity,
Cross-sectional area, A
Pressure difference, p
lTherefore: permeability (proportionality

constant), k
A p
Qk
l
The general darcys equation is:

L
Q
A
P1
P2
Q = flowrate (cm3/sec)
k = permeability (darcy)
Q k dP

A dL
A = cross section area (cm2)

= fluid viscosity (cp)
P = pressure (atm)
L = length (cm)
41
L
Q
Q = 1cm3/sec
A
P1
P2
A = 1cm2
= 1 cp
Find k ?
P = 1atm
L = 1cm
1 darcy is defined as the permeability that will

permit a fluid of 1 centipoise viscosity to flow at
a rate of 1 cubic centimeter per second through
a cross sectional area of 1 square centimeter
when the pressure gradient is 1 atmosphere
per centimeter.
42

Experimental data show a marked decrease in
permeability as grain size decreases and as
sorting becomes poorer.
Composition:
The amount and kind of clay, as well as
distribution throughout the reservoir rock, has
an important bearing on liquid permeability,
whereas a small amount has little effect on
porosity.

Three general types
of dispersed clay in
sandstone reservoir
rocks and their
effects on
permeability: (a)
discrete particles of
kaolinite;
(b) pore lining by
chlorite; (c ) pore
bridging by illite/
montmorillonite.
EaES 350-2
45
EaES 350-2
46

Cementation:
The highly cemented sandstones have low
porosities, whereas the soft, unconsolidated
rocks have high porosities.
Both permeability and porosity of sedimentary
rocks are influenced by the extent of the
cementation and the location of the cementing
material within the pore space.

Conclusions:
Porosity is independent of grain size.
Porosity is dependent of packing, sorting,
composition and cementation.
Permeability depends upon the size,
shapes and pore-throat diameter.
Packing is dependent on depositional and
diagenetic history.
Classification of Porosity
Primary Porosity
The porosity preserved from
deposition through lithification.
1. Intergranular or interparticle:
voids between grains, i.e.,
interstitial voids of all kinds in all
types of rocks.
2. Intercrystalline: voids
between cleavage planes of
crystals, voids between
individual crystals, and voids in
crystal lattices.
3. Bedding planes: voids of
many varieties are concentrated
parallel to bedding planes.
4. Miscellaneous sedimentary voids:
(i) voids resulting from the accumulation of
detrital fragments of fossils, (ii) voids resulting
from the packing of oolites, (iii) vuggy and
cavernous voids of irregular and variable sizes
for at the time of deposition, and (iv) voids
created by living organisms at the time of
deposition.
Intergranular porosity
Intragranular porosity
Microporosity
Intergranular porosity (X)
in limestone
Biomoldic porosity
Intercrystalline porosity
(X) within dolomite
Cavernous porosity
Secondary Porosity: The porosity created
through alteration of rock (diagenesis and
catagenesis), after the deposition of sediment.
1. Solution porosity: channels due to the
solution of rocks by circulating warm or hot
solutions; openings caused by weathering,
such as enlarged joints and solution caverns;
and voids caused by organisms and later
enlarged by solution.
2. Dolomitization: a process by
which limestone is transformed into
dolomite according to the following
chemical reaction:
2CaCO3+ Mg2+ CaMg(CO3) + Ca2+
Because the ionic volume of
magnesium is considerably smaller
than that of the calcium, which it
replaces, the resulting dolomite will
have greater porosity.
3. Fracture porosity: openings created by
structural failure of the reservoir rocks under
tension caused by tectonic activities.
4. Miscellaneous secondary voids:
(1) saddle reefs, which are openings at the
crests of closely folded narrow anticlines; (2)
pitches and flats, which are openings formed by
the parting of beds under gentle slumping; and
(3) voids caused by submarine slide breccias
and conglomerates resulting from gravity
movement of seafloor material after partial
lithification.
Diagenesis & Reservoir Quality

Diagenesis of sandstones
All changes, physical, chemical, and biological, that
occur in a sediment after deposition and before
metamorphism (<150-200oC).
These changes happen at sediment-water interface
and after burial.
Two important processes
Compaction - decrease in volume, largely by
squeezing out of water
Cementation - introduction of chemical
precipitates between grains

Muds can be compacted because grains are ductile
(flexible) and can pack easily.
Sands are not easily compacted because they are
supported by grain-to-grain contacts
The diagenetic history of a sandstone is controlled
principally by the chemistry of the pore fluids that
have moved through its pore system. The main
factors that determine mineral precipitation or
solution are:
the chemistry of the sediment, and
the composition, concentration, Eh, and pH of the
pore fluids.

Although many reactions occur during sandstone
diagenesis, only a few are of major importance in
sandstone cementation and porosity evolution:
those that control the precipitation of silica,
carbonate, and clay minerals.
Clay minerals are similarly sensitive to pH.
Kaolinite tends to form in acid pore waters, whereas
illite develops in more alkaline conditions. Siderite,
glauconite, and pyrite are all stable under reducing
conditions.

SEM images displaying morphological features of
grain-replacing, disordered kaolinite that has been
transformed partly into well-ordered kaolinite.

Optical micrographs of grain-coating, infiltrated
clay layer saround sand grains.

SEM images of
smectitic clays, which
have a honeycomb
crystal shape and are
common in
sandstones rich in
volcanic rock
fragments.

of Malay Basin
Porosity in the sandstones at Angsi, Besar,
Duyong, Duyong Barat, and Sotong varies with
facies and diagenesis.
It ranges from 7 to 27% in thin sandstones (less
than 10 m) and from 14 to 24% in thicker
channelized sandstones. Porosity loss is due to
compaction and quartz overgrowths and
ferroan-calcite cement.

of Malay Basin
Composition of clays in the massive sandstones in
the north and northeast of Malay basin varies from
predominantly kaolinite to a mixture of kaolinite
(60%), smectite-illite (17), and chlorite (23%).
Authigenic kaolinite exhibits a high crystallinity, with
crystals ranging up to several tens of micrometers.
They occur as an alteration product of feldspar; as
booklets or aggregates on grain surfaces filling
pores and associated with authigenic quartz.

of Malay Basin
Kaolinite booklets (KA) on smectite-illite (SL) coated framework grain. Tiong-5, 2312.8 m msl.
SEM photograph. Scale = 10 m.
Assignment No. 1
Title :
DIAGENESIS AND
RESERVOIR QUALITY EVOLUTION
OF SANDSTONES
Assignment No. 2
Title
:
DIAGENESIS OF
CARBONATE RESERVOIRS
CHAPTER 6
CARBONATE RESERVOIR
ROCKS
Carbonates Reservoir
Rock composed mainly of carbonate minerals.

3 most common carbonates
minerals:
Calcite - CaCO3 (Rhombohedral)
Aragonite - CaCO3 (Orthorhombic)

Dolomite - CaMg(CO3)2
(Rhombohedral).
Textures: (3 primary textures)

A. Carbonate Grains Silt size or larger particles of calcite:
clasts - rock fragments derived
from weathering of limestones.
skeletal particles - microfossils
or fragments or macrofossils
zooplankton (foraminifera),
corals, molluscs.

ooids - coated carbonate grains
with seed nucleus (ie., qtz grain, shell frag.)
that have a concentric or radial internal
structure.
mainly aragonite.
ooids
peloids - spherical aggregates of

microcrystalline calcite.
B. Microcrystalline calcite - (micrite)

Clay size or smaller particles of calcite:
mud - needle shaped
aragonite crystals (1 - 5m)
nannofossils (coccoliths) calcareous phytoplankton

(1 - 5m)

C. Sparry calcite (spar)
Large crystals of calcite (0.02 to
0.1 mm)
limestones/marbles
Primarily diagenetic in origin 1. Precipitation of secondary
calcite in voids
2. Recrystallization of fossil calcite
Recrystallized
mollusc
Classification of Carbonates
Divided into limestones (CaCO3 ) and dolomites
CaMg(CO3)2 .
Two carbonate classification systems are in
common use today, one by R.L. Folk
(1959,1962) and the second by R.J. Dunham
(1962) .
Dunham System: can be divided into
Mudstones, Wackestones, Packstones,
Grainstones and Boundstones according to the
limestones depositional textures.
Classification of carbonates by texture

(Dunham, 1962)
Classification of carbonates by texture

(Dunham, 1962)
Examples of boundstones
Examples of grainstones
Examples of grainstones
Photomicrograph of limestone under ordinary light. This is a wellsorted oolite grainstone from the Upper Jurassic Portland
Limestone, Dorset, UK
Examples of dolomite
Photomicrograph of dolomite under ordinary light. This is a

coarsely crystalline variety from the Zechstein (Upper
Permian) of the UK North Sea. Some porosity (pale blue) is visible
Folk System using the allochem/interstitial
material system is very systematic and straight
forward. The allochem name is combined with
the interstitial name (micrite or spar).
Allochemical rocks are those that contain
grains brought in from elsewhere (i.e. similar to
detrital grains in clastic rocks). Orthochemical
rocks are those in which the carbonate
crystallized in place.
Allochemical rocks have grains that may consist
of fossiliferous material, ooids, peloids, or
intraclasts. These are embedded in a matrix
consisting of microcrystalline carbonate (calcite
or dolomite), called micrite, or larger visible
crystals of carbonate, called sparite.
Sparite is clear granular carbonate that has
formed through recrystallization of micrite, or by
crystallization within previously existing void
spaces during diagenesis.
Classification scheme developed by Folk
Pore Morphology
The porosity, permeability and pore space
distribution in carbonate reservoir rocks are
related to both the depositional environment
and the diagenesis of the sediment.
They are most commonly of secondary
(diagenetic) origin although residual primary
pore space does occur.
Carbonates have a large range of pore
structures. The pore structures (porosity) have
been classified by Choquette and Pray, 1970):
Pore Morphology
Fabric-selective porosity includes:
Interparticle porosity.
Intercrystalline porosity - typical of dolomites.
Fenestral porosity - by solution along bedding
planes or joint surfaces.
Skeletal, framework, molding, or shelter
porosity - selective solution of, within, or around
fossil material.
Oomoldic porosity - selective solution of ooliths.
Depositional
origin
Depositional
origin
Diagenetic
Origin
Diagenetic
Origin
Choquette & Pray (1970)
Pore Morphology
Non fabric-selective porosity includes:
Fracture porosity - by stress or shrinkage.
Channel porosity - widening and coalescence
of fractures.
Vuggy or cavernous porosity.
Fabric selective or not:
Bioturbation porosity - from boring and
burrowing.
Breccia porosity - in some cases, really high
fracture porosity.
Mechanical
origin
Tectonic or solution
collapse origin
Biogenic
Diagenetic
origin
Diagenetic origin
Choquette & Pray (1970)
Oolite gnst: depositional

intergranular
porosity
Lower RE
Purely Diagenetic Porosity Intercrystalline Pores in

Dolostone
Higher RE
Pore Morphology
Lucias (1983) classification of carbonate pore types into
vuggy and interparticle categories.
This scheme is especially important because it
emphasizes that interparticle (grains or crystals)
porosity and separate or touching vuggy porosity have
profound effects on such reservoir petrophysical
characteristics.
Interparticle influence is reflected by the Pd values in
psia, which indicate the mercury displacement pressure
required to enter the pore systems.
Pore Morphology
Lucia (1983) Classification
A New Classification (Wayne M. Ahr, 2008) - Helps

identify, correlate, & map readily traceable rock/stratigraphic
attributes that covary with genetic .
A New Classification (Wayne M. Ahr, 2008)

Why Add Another Classification?
Two main reasons:
1. Methods for correlating & mapping pore types
and related flow units at reservoir scale is not
addressed in previous schemes. How do I predict
spatial distribution of these pore types?
2. Ways to assess contribution of genetic pore
types to reservoir performance (petrophysical rock
typing) has not been adequately developed and
tested.
Example 1: Depositional Porosity
N Haynesville Smackover field, LA
Oolite gnst; depositional

intergranular porosity
Example 2: Purely Diagenetic Porosity Intercrystalline Pores in Dolostone
Example 3: Fracture Systems
Corbett et al., (1991)
Carbonate Depositional
Environments
Carbonates are predominantly shallow water
(depths <10-20 m) deposits.
Carbonate deposition in general only occurs in
environments where there is a lack of siliciclastic
input into the water.
Most carbonate deposition also requires
relatively warm waters which also enhance the
abundance of carbonate secreting organisms and
decrease the solubility of calcium carbonate in
seawater.
Environments
The principal carbonate depositional
environments are as follows:
Carbonate Platforms and Shelves.
Warm shallow seas attached the continents, are
ideal places for carbonate deposition.
Tidal Flats.
Tidal flats are areas that flood during high tides
and are exposed during low tides.
Environments
Deep Ocean.
Carbonate deposition can only occur in the
shallower parts of the deep ocean unless organic
productivity is so high that the remains of
organisms are quickly buried.
Non-marine Lakes.
Carbonate deposition can occur in non-marine
lakes as a result of evaporation.
Environments
Hot Springs.
When hot water saturated with calcium
carbonate reaches the surface of the Earth at hot
springs.
Diagenesis and Porosity of

Carbonates
Carbonate diagenesis begins at deposition and
continues during burial and uplift.
Carbonates undergo cementation, leaching and
diagenesis (mineral alteration, mineral
inversion, neomorphism).
When carbonates are brought into contact with
waters of varying chemical composition, they
have a great susceptibility to mineralogical and
textural change, cementation and dissolution.

Carbonates
During uplift, fracturing, additional cementation
and leaching may occur.
The diagenesis of carbonates can take place in
many settings: the marine environment during
deposition of the sediment, near the sediment
surface where fresh waters penetrate the
sediments, or in brines of the deeper
subsurface.

Carbonates
Purely diagenetic " in vadose-phreatic caves

Carbonates
Porosity: the original primary porosity in
carbonates may be totally destroyed during
diagenesis and significant new secondary
porosity may be created.
The types of porosities encountered are quite
varied. Interparticle, intraparticle, growthframework, shelter and fenestral porosities are
depositional porosities.
Depositional porosity is a function of rock
texture, grain sorting and shape.

Carbonates
Porosity formed during diagenesis may be
moldic, channel, inter-crystalline, fracture or
vuggy porosity.
The relationship between porosity and
diagenesis is complex and variable.
The major diagenetic processes affecting
porosity are dissolution, cementation and
dolomitization.
Fractured reservoir
Fractured reservoir
Fractures are defined as naturally occurring
macroscopic planar discontinuities in rock due
to deformation or physical diagenesis (Nelson,
2001 ).
Most fractured reservoirs, especially in
carbonates, are brittle fractures.
In brittle behavior, different fracture types can
result depending on whether compression,
extension, or shear stresses caused failure.
Fractured reservoir
Conjugate shear fractures are produced at an
acute angle to the maximum principal stress 1 ,
and a single extension fracture is oriented in a
plane parallel to 2.
Extension fractures are always oriented parallel
to 1 and 2 and perpendicular to 3 and only
when principal stresses are compressive.
Tension fractures have the same spatial
orientation but occur only when 3 is negative.
Fractured reservoir
The typical orientation of conjugate shear and extension fractures with

respect to the axes of maximum principal stress. When the maximum
principal stress ( 1 ) is vertical, fractures typically occur in pairs called
conjugate shear sets.
Fractured reservoir
Fractured reservoir Genetic

classification
Nelson s (2001) genetic classification of natural
fractures identifies (1) tectonic fractures, (2)
regional fractures, (3) contractional fractures,
and (4) surface related fractures.
Stearns and Friedman (1972) focused attention
on the fracture sets associated with folds that
are important for exploration and development
models. They pointed out that two main sets of
fractures are typical on anticlinal folds.
Fractured reservoir
(From Stearns and Friedman (1972)
Fractured reservoir
A. A set of conjugate shear fractures and an extension
fracture indicating that 1 is oriented in the dip direction
of the bedding on the fold limb, 1 and 3 are in the
plane of bedding, and 2 is normal to bedding.
B. The other fractures consist of a conjugate set of
shear fractures and an extension fracture, but the
principal stresses are oriented differently.
In this case, 1 is parallel to the strike of bedding and 3
is oriented in the dip direction of bedding on the fold
limb.
Fractured reservoir
Corbett et al. (1991) classification:
Tectonic fractures commonly occur in
predictable patterns determined by the
geometry of the associated faults or folds.
The four structural types included anticlinal
folds, monoclinal flexures, listric normal faults,
and graben-in-graben normal faults.
Fractured reservoir
(Corbett et al. (1991)
Fractured reservoir
A fracture system may contain all of the pore
volume for the reservoir as well as controlling
the permeability, or provide permeability for a
porous but otherwise low-permeability reservoir.
Open fractures can enhance the permeability of
an already permeable reservoir.
Conversely, closed fractures and faults with clay
smear or nonreservoir-to-reservoir juxtaposition
will increase the compartmentalization in a
reservoir.
Zagros Mountain Upper beds of Asmari Limestone showing the bedding

plane distribution and related variations in fracture density
CHAPTER 7
ORIGIN AND MIGRATION OF

PETROLEUM
Origin of Petroleum
Inorganic theories
Cosmic sources: hcs found in meteorites
Consolidation of H and C during earth cooling.
Reaction of metal carbides in the earth
CaC2 + 2H2O = C2H2 + Ca(OH)2
Adopted by Mendeleve (1902) and then Porfirev,
1974) iron carbide react with percolating water
to form methane and other oil hidrocarbons.
There is little evidence for the existence of iron
carbide in the mantle.
Origin of Petroleum
Organic theory
From transformation of biomatter.
The biogenic origin of petroleum is widely
accepted on the basis of geochemical studies.
The deposition of an organic-rich sediment is
favored by a high rate of production of organic
matter and a high preservation potential.
The preservation of organic matter is favored by
anaerobic bottom conditions and a rapid
sedimentation rate.
Origin of Petroleum
Basic Components of Organic Matter

The principal biological components of living organisms
are:
PROTEINS
More abundant in animals: O, C, N, H
CARBOHYDRATES
Occur in both. Cn(H2O)n
sugars, cellulose, starch
LIPIDS (Fats)
Occur in both: C, H, O
Fats, oils, waxes (e.g. leaf cuticles)
LIGNIN
Occurs in plants: complex aromatic ring structures, large
molecules
Average Composition of Biomolecules

Average Composition of
C
C
Lipids
76
12
12
Proteins
53
22
17
Carbohydra
tes
44
50
Lignin
63
31.6
0.1
0.3
83-87
10-14
0.1-1.5
0.5-6
0.1-1.5
Petroleum
Basic Components of Organic Matter (OM)

How do living organisms become Organic Matter?
Organism dies: decay begins
Complex molecules break down rapidly.
How then does OM accumulate in the vast

quantities needed for identified oil volumes?
Accumulation of large quantities of living organisms
requires Oxygen.
To facilitate oil generation, the OM produced by the
death of these organisms must be preserved.
Preservation of large quantities of dead organisms
requires Anoxia (anoxic environment).
Productivity and Preservation of

Organic Matter
Geochemical evidence that oil source beds were
deposited in four main anoxic environments in
the geological record.
Large anoxic lakes
Anoxic silled basins
Anoxic layers caused by upwelling
Open-ocean anoxic layers

Organic Matter
Large anoxic lakes
Permanent stratification promotes development of
anoxic bottom waters, particularly in large lakes not
subject to seasonal overturn.
E.g. Lake Tanganyika: warm equitable conditions all
year.
Lake Tanganyika
NW
SE
PERMANENT THERMOCLINE
1.5km
CH4 , H2S
Longitudinal section
525km

Organic Matter
Anoxic silled basins
Landlocked silled basins with positive water balance:
good chance of developing anoxia.
E.g. Black Sea, Baltic Sea.
In arid-condition silled basins (Red Sea,
Mediterranean).

Organic Matter
Anoxic layers caused by upwelling
Only develop when surface biological processes
exceed deep water oxygen supply
E.g. Benguela current, Peru coastal upwelling.
Total Organic Carbon (TOC)

-Source rock evaluation
If a rock contains significant amounts of organic carbon,
it is a possible source rock for petroleum or gas.
The TOC content is a measure of the source rock
potential and is measured with total pyrolysis.
The table below shows how TOC (in weight percent)
relates to the source rock quality.
TOC
0.0-0.5
0.5-1.0
1.0-2.0
2.0-4.0
>4.0
Quality
poor
fair
good
very good
excellent
How does OM become Oil?

2 stages:
Conversion of OM to kerogen
Conversion of Kerogen to oil
and gas
Transformation of OM into Kerogen

As the organic matter is buried, it transforms from basic
biological components into new polymeric organic
compounds that eventually become kerogen.
What is kerogen?
Insoluble in organic solvents
Complex mixture of high molecular weight organic
materials
Kerogen is composed of varying proportions of C, H,
and O. General composition may be described as:
(C12H12ON0.16)x
Type of Kerogen
- Source rock evaluation
It is important to identify the type of kerogen in a source
rock.
Type I : algal kerogen
best oil source
Lipid-rich
Type II: herbaceous (liptinic) kerogen/ lipid-rich kerogen

Good oil source
Includes zooplankton (sapropelic)
Type III: woody (coaly/humic) kerogen

Good gas source
Rich in humic components
Type IV: amorphous kerogen
Type I Kerogen
Rare
High-grade algal sediment
Generally lacustrine
Contains sapropelic OM
Oil shales, coorongite & tasmanite,
Boghead coals
H:O = 1.2- 1.7; H:C = 1.6 1.8
Lipids are the dominant compounds
Type II Kerogen
Intermediate derivation
Commonly marginal marine
Mixture of continental and aquatic
(planktonic) OM
Algal tissue, pollen, spores
Principal source for oil
H:C = about 1.4
Type III Kerogen
Sediment containing primarily humic OM

Terrestrial (woody) origin
Equivalent of coal vitrinite
Deposited at the oxic water/ sediment
interface
Gas-prone
H:C < 1.0 (more C than H)
Type IV Kerogen
From any source
Oxidized, recycled or altered during an
earlier thermal event
Inert carbonaceous material
H:C < 0.4
No evolutionary path left: no hydrocarbons
generated.
What happens to kerogen as it is

buried and heated?
Large molecules crack to smaller low mol. wt.
Geomonomers: 1000-6000m depth; 50-175C
Initial products are H2O and CO2
Increased temp and burial:

Volatile products lost (hydrogen, CH4) and liquids
(C13 C30)
O2 lost rapidly by dehydration and decarboxylation
(loss of CO2 from fatty acids)
C and N lost least readily
Thus with increasing temperature:

C-content of kerogen rises
H:C ratio decreases
Two fractions are produced by thermal

transformation of kerogen:
Fluid high in H (petroleum and natural gas
precursor)
Residue high in C (e.g. bituminous coal, bitumen)
What happens when we subject kerogen to

subsurface conditions?
KEROGEN
Diagenesis
Shallow subsurface
Normal pressure and temperature
Released: CH4, CO2, H2O
Overall decrease in O
Overall increase in H and C
Catagenesis
Deeper subsurface
Increased pressure and temperature
Released: oil & gas
Overall decrease in H and C
Metagenesis
Metamorphism
High temperature and pressure
Only C remains: becomes graphite
When is oil expelled?
The result of this?

The amount of oil generated increases
linearly with time
The amount generated increases
EXPONENTIALLY with temperature.
Thus, TIME IS AN IMPORTANT FACTOR
Time and oil generation

The younger the source, the higher the
temperature required to generate oil
RESIDENCE TIME
This Introduced the Concept of the

OIL WINDOW
A range of temperatures through which oil
generation can occur
Below 60C: sediments are immature
Above the critical temperature (Approx
120C): sediments are post-mature
Assumes that no migration of the oil has
occurred (I.e. into lower temperature regimes)
The principal zone of oil formation

during the thermal generation of
petroleum hydrocarbons
Temperature is the single most important factor in thermal maturation
Time is the second most important factor in thermal maturation
Maturation of Kerogen
- Source rock evaluation
Establishing the level of maturation of kerogen in the
source rocks is vital in petroleum exploration.
The maturity of a source rock is a measure of the degree
to which reactions have proceeded in the generation of
petroleum products from organic matter.
With increasing maturity, first oil and then gas are
expelled.
The rate of maturation may be dependent on
temperature, time, and, possibly, pressure.
Purposes of Maturation Indicators

To recognize and evaluate potential source rocks for
oil and gas by measuring their contents in organic
carbon and their thermal maturities
To correlate oil types with probable source beds
through their geochemical characteristics and the
optical properties of kerogen in the source beds
To determine the time of hydrocarbon generation,
migration and accumulation
To estimate the volumes of hydrocarbons generated
and thus to assess possible reserves and losses of
hydrocarbons in the system.
Several techniques have been developed.

Two commonly used maturation indices are:
1) Thermal maturity index (TTI)
2) Level organic maturation (LOM)
TTI is calculated from a formula that integrates
temperature with the time spent in each temperature.
LOM is based on the assumption that reaction rate
doubles for each 10oC increment of temperature.
LOM values of 7 13 (oil generation occurs), LOM = 1318 (gas generation occurs).
Techniques for determining temperature:
Paleothermometers: two major groups of techniques are
used:
1. Chemical Paleothermometers
a) Organic
i.
Carbon ratio
ii.
Electron spin resonance
iii.
Pyrolisis
b) inorganic
i.
Clay mineral diagenesis
ii.
Fluid inclusion
2. Biological Paleothermometers
a) Pollen coloration
- measure the color of organic matter (spores and
pollen)
- essential colorless and then change to yellow,
orange and brown.
b) Vitrinite reflectance
- used a reflected-light microscope to measure the
degree of reflectivity of vitrain (coal maceral).
Migration of hydrocarbons
Oil (& gas) migrates from the source, through
carrier beds and accumulates in the reservoir.
Primary migration
From source rock to carrier bed.
Secondary migration
Through the carrier bed/ structure to the reservoir.
Migration of hydrocarbons
How does migration occur?
As long as the oil droplets expelled are < pore throats,
buoyancy will migrate the droplets until they reach a
throat through which they cannot pass.
Further movement can only occur when the
displacement pressure of the oil exceeds the capillary
pressure of the pore.
This process progresses until the oil column reaches
a rock whose pores are so small that the oil column
pressure cannot force further movement: the oil is
trapped against a CAP ROCK (seal).
Primary Migration
Hypotheses
1. Migration of hcs in clay compaction water

2. Migration by molecular solution in water
Migration in micellar solution
Migration in gas charged solution
Migration via microfracturing of source rocks
Diffusion along kerogen network
Arguable that all of these processes are in

operation
Primary Migration
Porosity Decrease with Compaction.

Shown are shale porosities from various regions.
Secondary Migration
Oil must be capable of continuous phase flow
Availability of continuous pore spaces allows
continuous flow
Physical requirements for secondary migration
are:
1. Adequate supply of hydrocarbons
2. Adequate continuous migration pathways
3. Adequate pressure gradient to drive
migration
Main Mechanisms of Secondary

Migration
Migration by water drive
Migration by gas flushing
Fracture-bound migration
Buoyancy
Difference in densities between H2O and
oil = main mechanism of secondary
migration
All crude oils float on saline water, nearly
all on freshwater
Thus, oil tends to migrate upwards through
the heavier water
Subject to a buoyant force (Pb)
Gas Flushing
2 fluids of
different
densities try
to occupy the
same trap
Heaviest fluid
is displaced
as lighter one
moves above
it
Secondary Migration
Different stages in the migration and accumulation of oil and gas in

interconnected traps (after Gussow, 1968)
Gas Flushing
CHAPTER 8
TRAPPING MECHANISMS
The Petroleum System
Traps
A trap
In order to prevent the hydrocarbons rising
to the surface and escaping they must be
caught in a confined space, termed a trap.
i.e. the source, reservoir and seal must be
arranged in such a way that the petroleum
is trapped.
Traps
For a trap to be efficient and commercially
viable, a large variety of factors have to be
considered. These include:
The presence of a positive porous permeable
structure
The imperviousness of the seal
The absence of leaking faults
The migration of sufficient quantities of HC
The Trap
Classified (broadly) into:
Structural Traps
Formed by tectonic deformation, diapirism,
gravitational and compactional processes, e.g.
folds and faults.
Stratigraphic Traps
Caused by depositional differences between
adjacent rock types, e.g. pinchout and permeability
traps
Hydrodynamic Traps
Caused by water flow
A simplified map and cross-section of the Zagros orogenic belt (Iran)

Compressive tectonic
Structural Traps
Structural traps are formed where the
space for petroleum is limited by a
structural feature
Anticlinal traps (or Convex Trap Reservoirs) are
formed by folding in the rocks.
Porosity extends in all directions beyond the
reservoir
Reservoir is surrounded by water (edge
water)
Convex Trap Reservoirs
Structural Traps
Tilted fault-block traps are formed where the
upward flow of the petroleum is prevented by
impermeability along the fault plane and by an
overlying cap or seal.
Reservoir is defined partly by edge water and
partly by a fault boundary.
Unconformity traps are generated where an
erosional break in the stratigraphic succession is
followed by impermeable strata.
Structural Traps
Unconformity Traps
Structural Traps
Piercement Trap Reservoirs
Formed by diapirs or volcanic necks
Reservoir defined by edge water and a
piercement contact.
Examples of Structural Traps : Iran
Stratigraphic Traps
Stratigraphic traps are traps created
by the limits of the reservoir rock
itself, without any structural control.
Pinchout Trap Reservoirs
Permeability Trap Reservoirs
Pinchout Trap Reservoirs

Formed by lenticular structures (e.g. reefs)
Periphery defined by edge water and the
pinchout of the reservoir bed
Here is an example of a reef trap. The diagram shows a

vertical slice (cross-section) through the reservoir and
overlying rocks.

Form due to changes in reservoir power
Reservoir partly defined by edge water
and partly by a permeability barrier

Stratigraphic traps are also formed in clastic rocks: here,
in a cross-section through a continental margin, two
sandstone beds form traps within muddy coastal
deposits.
River channels may form long, thin traps corresponding
to the former position of the river or delta distributary.
Beach sands may form sheet-like bodies along an ancient
shoreline etc.
Hydrodynamic and Combination Traps

Hydrodynamic traps occur where the downward
movement of water prevents the upward
movement of oil.
Such traps are rare.
Combination traps are formed by a combination
of two or more of the previously defined genetic
processes.
Hydrodynamic Traps
Combination Traps
This type of structural trap is
very common in fold-andthrust belts at the front of
mountain ranges like the
Rocky Mountains of Alberta,
where older rocks are pushed
sideways over younger rocks
(e.g., the yellow unit is here
pushed over the light-blue
unit).
Oil is pooled in anticlinal folds.
The traps may also be partly
faulted, as in the upper one
shown here.
Combination Traps
Combination Traps
Cross-section of the Ras Gharib field, West coast of Suez

graben, Egypt. Oil is found in faults and unconformity traps of
the Carboniferous Nubian sandstone.
CHAPTER 9
SUBSURFACE GEOLOGY
MAPS & BULK VOLUME
ESTIMATION
Topographic Maps
Topographic maps not only display the
locations of rivers, streets, buildings, etc. as
planimetric maps (such as road maps) do, but
also show the topography (land elevation and
shape).
Map Grids:
Latitude: Rings around Earth parallel to
equator .
Divided into 90S and 90N around the equator
(0).
Topographic Maps
Longitude: Circles that pass through both poles
(MERIDIANS).
Divided into 180E and 180W around the Prime
Meridian. The Prime Meridian passes through
Greenwich, England.
Ex: Latitude: 3714'32"N Longitude: 9732'15"E
Conversions:
1 degree() = 60 minutes(') = 3600 seconds(")
Topographic Maps
Contour Lines:
Contour Line: Connects all points of equal
elevation on the land surface.
Contour Interval: The difference in elevation
between adjacent contour lines.
Relief: The difference in elevation between local
high and low spots.
Topographic Maps
Important Rules obeyed by Contour Lines:

Contour lines never run into a body of water
Contour lines never cross one another
ALL contour lines are closed loops
Contour lines point, or "V" upstream
Additional things to know about Contour Lines:
If contour lines are closely spaced it represents a steep
slope.
Conversely, if contour lines are widely spaced it
represents a gentle slope.
Review methods on how to contour a map and know the
symbol for a depression.
Topographic Maps
Types of Map Scales:
Ratio Scale: ratio where 1 unit on the map equals X
units on the ground
Ex; 1:24000 (1 inch on map = 24000 inches in the real
world). Note that the units are the same (a ratio of
inches to inches or feet to feet...).
Verbal Scale: 1 inch = 2000 feet
Bar Scale: a map "ruler"; graphical scale (example
below)
Topographic Maps
Note that unlike the other map scales, the bar scale will
always remain accurate for a map even when the map is
reduced or enlarged.
Gradient
The gradient tells you the slope of the land between two
points. It is calculated by dividing the relief by the path
distance. Path distance is the distance measured along
the path travelled (NOT necessarily the straight line
distance!).
Topographic Maps
Vertical Exaggeration
Vertical Exaggeration gives the number of times the
vertical scale is exaggerated relative to the horizontal
scale.
Ex; Horizontal Scale: 1 inch = 2000 feet, Vertical Scale:
1 inch = 500 feet
VERTICAL EXAGGERATION = (1/500)/(1/2000)= 4
times
Geologic Map
Geologic Map: contains geologic units and
structures displayed upon a topographic base

the term "units" refers to geologic formations
the term "structures" refers to faults and folds
Usually the rock units are colored on the map using the
same standard colors as on a geologic time scale.
Formation: a distinctive body of rock that is large
enough to symbolize on a geologic map.
The map symbol for a formation contains an
abbreviation for its age of origin followed by an
abbreviation of its name in lower-case letters
(ex., Kgr for the Cretaceous age Glen Rose formation).
Geologic Map
Geology Map of Batu Pahat, Johor
Geologic Map
Geologic cross-sections are like topographic profiles
(review the one which we drew for the topographic map
lab).
They show "side views" of the topography along with the
inferred underground geology. For example, the geologic
cross-section below (in two parts) shows a slice of the
topography along a straight line (a "transect") running
northeast to southwest across the geologic map.
Look for this line on the geologic map above -- it is a
diagonal line that cuts across the Corstorphine Hill. It is
along this line that the cross-sections below have been
drawn.
Geologic Map
SUBSURFACE GEOLOGY MAPS

Many different types:
Structure contour maps
Isopach maps
Structure contour maps:
This map shows the configuration of a particular horizon
with respect to a particular datum, generally sea level.
This information may be based on seismic data.
Indicating the morphology of basins and traps and are
essentially for reserve calculations.
STRUCTURE CONTOUR MAP
ISOPACH MAPS
Graphical representation of the vertical thickness
of a particular unit or feature.
Vertical thickness of reservoir
Vertical thickness saturated with oil
Vertical thickness saturated with gas.
Not to be confused with Isolith maps
True stratigraphic thickness of a lithological
horizon.
In reserves estimation, the Isopach maps are
projected onto the flat map surface.
ISOPACH MAPS
Overlying a structure contour map with an
isopach map allows determination of the true
vertical thickness of the unit of interest within a
particular structure
Designing an isopach map:
Lots of available data and reservoir is
irregular: make the contour intervals small.
Little data and/or reservoir regular: make
larger contour intervals.
ISOPACH MAPS
The subsurface isopach map is based
primarily on formation thicknesses
determined from well cuttings, cores or
geophysical logs.
Different types of isopach map
Gross sand thickness isopachs
Net pay thickness isopachs
Variable reservoir thickness isopachs
Net Pay thickness isopachs

Refers to the gross reservoir thickness with
tight zones thrown out.
If the reservoir is homogeneous we can
simply take the net to gross of the reservoir
and multiply the thickness of the unit by
this reduction.
Otherwise, heterogeneity can considerably
complicate matters.
Net Pay thickness isopachs
Variable reservoir thickness isopachs

Reservoir thickness changes rapidly
e.g. edge of reef, channel
Requires a net reservoir thickness isopach
map
Basically, the thicknesses are modified so that
the net gas or net oil thickness isopachs do not
exceed the thickness of the reservoir.
ISOPACH MAPS
An example of an isopach map is shown in
following Figures.
Close spacing of contours from zero to
200 feet on the west side of the map
indicates the area of truncation where the
formations are tilted along the granite
mass.
ISOPACH MAPS
Top and cross-sectional views of an isopach map of the

thickness of sediments between an unconformity and basement.
ISOPACH MAPS
Top and cross-sectional views of an isopach map of reservoir

shale-out.
ISOPACH MAPS
An isochore map (more precise term) is one that shows
by contours drilled thicknesses of formations without
regard to true stratigraphic thicknesses.
Isopach (or isochore) maps are generally used:
a) for predetermining drilling depths to specific horizons
in wildcat wells;
b) to locate buried structures in regions where formations
habitually become thinner over structural crests.
c) In estimating the elevation of a datum bed below the
total depth of a well that penetrated a higher known
stratigraphic horizon.
d) To calculate the volume of oil in a formation
ISOPACH MAPS
A typical geological net pay isopach map
ISOPACH MAPS
Isometric view of dipping plane
Isometric view of
dipping plane
intersecting three
horizontal planes
Bulk Volume Estimation

Two common methods to estimate volumes
from an isopach map:
The first is to use a planimeter to estimate
the average thickness within the isopach
area.
The second method utilizes a software
package that includes digitizing the isopach
map and applying geostatistics to determine
the volumetrics.
Planimeter
Planimeter
Part #
1
Name
Tracer Arm
Part #
9
Name
Revolution
Recording Dial
Measuring Wheel
Pole Arm
10
Pole Weight
11
4
5
Hand Grip
12
Tracing Magnifier (Tracing Pin)
Measuring Wheel
Vernier
Idler Wheel
13
Carriage
Clamp Screw
14
Zero Setting Slide Bar
7
8
Fine Movement Screw

Tracer Arm Vernier
15
Checking Bar
Reserve Estimation
Reserve estimation methods
Volumetric
Material balance
Decline curve
Reservoir Simulation
Hydrocarbon in Place by the

Volumetric Method
Most commonly used after discovery and
early stage of production.
The bulk reservoir volume Vb is commonly expressed
in acre-feet, and the standard cubic feet of gas in
place, G, is given by
G = 43,560 Vb (1 - Sw) Bg
Similarly for an oil well, the standard barrel of oil in
place N is given by
N = 7758 Vb (1 - Sw) Bo

Volumetric Method
The contour map is used in preparing the
isopachous maps where there is an oil-water,
gas-water, or gas-oil contact. The contact line
is the zero isopach line.
The volume is obtained by planimetering the
areas between the isopach lines of the entire
reservoir or of the individual units under
consideration.

Volumetric Method
.
Two
methods are commonly used to determine
the approximate volume of the productive zone
from the planimeter readings.
1) Pyramidal Method
The volume of the frustum of a pyramid is given by
h
Vb A An1 A An1
3
where Vb is the bulk volume in acre-feet, An is the area
enclosed by the lower isopach line in acres, An+1 is the
area enclosed by the upper isopach line in acres, and h is
the interval between the isopach lines in feet.

Volumetric Method
2). Trapezoidal Method
The volume of a trapezoid is
h
Vb A An1
2
so, for a series of successive trapezoids

h
Vb A0 2A1 2A2....2An1 2An tavgAn,
2
where A0 is the area enclosed by the zero isopach line
in acres; A1, A2, . . . An are the areas enclosed by
successive isopach lines in acres; tavg is the average
thickness above the top or maximum thickness isopach
line in feet; and h is the isopach interval.
GROSS SAND THICKNESS ISOPACH

MAP (GST)
GST = total thickness of rock saturated with oil
or gas irrespective of:
Tight/shaly intervals
Low porosity areas
Low permeability areas etc..
Zero contour is the down-dip limit (GOC, GWC
or Spill Point)
Gross isopachs should increase up-dip
correspondingly with the structure contour
elevations
GROSS SAND THICKNESS ISOPACH

MAP (GST)
E.g. if OWC is at -7,000 subsea, then the
following isopach lines should overlay the
structure contour lines as shown:
Structure Contour Line Gross
-7000
Isopach Line
0
-6995
5
-6990
10
-6985
15
-6980
20
-6975
25
Until sand becomes full or top of structure is reached.
GST
Trapezoidal Rule
Used to calculate rock volume from an isopach:
BV = (h/2) [A0 + 2A1 + 2A2 + + 2An-1 + An] +hn An/2
Where
BV = bulk volume (acre feet)
h = contour interval
A0 = area enclosed by zero contour line
A1 = area enclosed by first contour line
An-1 = area enclosed by first contour line above top contour
An = top contour line
hn = vertical distance from top contour to top of reservoir
i.e. take the average area between two intervals and multiply that
area by contour interval thickness to get the volume it encloses.
Volumetric Method
Figure 1: Cross section and isopachous map of an idealized

reservoir (Net oil isopach over a dome structure).
Procedures to Calculate Hydrocarbon Pore

Volume from Planimeter Measurements
.
Calculating the net volume of an idealized

reservoir from the iopachous map shown in
Figure 1.
Given: The planimetered areas in Figure 1
within each isopach line, A0, A1, A2, etc.
The volume between areas A4 and A5, by the
trapezoidal equation is 570 ac-ft, compared
with the more accurate figure of 558 ac-ft by
the pyramidal equation.

Producti
ve Area
Planimet
er
Area
Sq in.
Area
Acres
Ratio of
Areas
Interval
h, ft
Equation
V
ac-ft
Ao
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
Total
19.64
16.34
13.19
10.05
6.69
3.22
0.0
450
375
303
231
154
74
0
0.83
0.80
0.76
0.67
0.48
0.0
5
5
5
5
5
4
Trap.
Trap.
Trap.
Trap.
Pyr.
Pyr.
2063
1695
1335
963a
558b
99c
6713

For a map scale of one inch = 1000 ft; one
square inch = 22.96 acres.
a V = 5/2(231+154) = 963 ac-ft.
b V = 5/3(154+74+(154x74)0.5 = 558 ac-ft.
c V = 4/3(74) = 99 ac-ft.

For a map scale of one inch = 1000 ft; one
square inch = 22.96 acres.
a V = 5/2(231+154) = 963 ac-ft.
b V = 5/3(154+74+(154x74)0.5 = 558 ac-ft.
c V = 4/3(74) = 99 ac-ft.
Volumetric Method
Q = 7758 x At x (1 SW) x FVF x RF
Amount of oil in reservoir
Q=
7758 =
A=
T=
=
(1-SW) =
FVF =
RF =
Amount of recoverable oil

reserves
conversion from acre ft to barrels
area of porous rock
thickness in feet
porosity
water saturation of reservoir
Formation Volume Factor
Recovery Factor
Oil Reserve Estimation

- Volumetric Method
Example:
Porosity = 8%
Average Swi = 45%
Initial reservoir pressure, pi = 2980 psia
FVF (or Bo) at pi = 1.68 bbl/STB
Q = 7758 x 6713 x 0.08(1-0.45) x 1/1.68
Q (STOIIP) = 1.36MM STB
Lecture 12
Burial History
Sand Fairway
68 Ma 60 Ma
NonMarine
Nearshore
Coastal
Plain
38 Ma
29 Ma
18 Ma
10 Ma
0 Ma
Slope
Basin
Trap Analysis
Synclinal Spill Point
Controls HC Level
Cross-Section View
L12 Data Analysis
48 Ma
Synclinal Spill Point
Low
Courtesy of ExxonMobil
Map View
Low
CHAPTER 10
Reserves & Resources
Reserves Estimation
Production is measured in barrels (= 35 imperial
gallons or 42 US Gallons)
Recorded as barrels of oil per day (BOPD) over
a short period (2 hours, multiplied to 24 hours)
Complicated when changes in pressure occur
through time.
2 main methods of estimating reserves:
Volumetric method
Decline curve method
Volumetric Method
Most accurate and widely used methods of
reserves estimation.
Carried out by geologists as they are based on
geological structure and isopach maps.
Rock volumes are established that are assumed
to contain hydrocarbons (e.g. seismic bright
spot).
Volumetric Method
Can be a simple volume calculation or a
complex net gas or net oil isopach approach,
determined by structure contours modified by
fluid contacts and net reservoir thickness
isopachs.
Most rock volumes established through use of
net gas and net oil isopachs.
Constructed from structure contour maps with
well defined OWC and/or GOC.
Volumetric Method
Once rock volume is estimated, the in place oil
and/or gas is calculated by:
1. Determination of pore volume
Rock volume x average porosity
Average porosity is generally obtained from
well logs (or from reservoir engineers)
2. By subtraction of water saturation, connate or
free water in the reservoir rocks.
Water saturation numbers generally calculated
by petrophysicists or engineers
Volumetric Method
3. Correcting to sales line temperature and
pressure by using Formation Volume Factors
(FVF)
FVF generally determined by reservoir
engineers
Note the difference:
In place volume = total oil / gas
Recoverable volume = that percentage that
can actually be produced as estimated by a
recovery efficiency (average 35%)
Volumetric Method
All reserves are expressed in surface or pipeline
units
Gas at reservoir pressure expands as it is
brought to the surface
Conversely, oil shrinks on its way to the
surface
Both are converted to a common sale pressure
base
Volumetric Method
Recovery
The amount of hydrocarbon in place (the
STOIIP or GIIP) is not the amount that can be
brought to the surface and sold.
Part of the oil or gas in the ground will
remain behind for a number of reasons:
The permeability is too low for it all to
escape
It is bound to the pores in which it sits
Volumetric Method
STOIIP:
Stock Tank barrels of Oil Initially In Place
1 barrel = 35 Imperial gallons (42 US gallons)
GIIP:
Gas Initially In Place
Measured in Cubic Feet (at atmospheric
pressure)
Volumetric Method
Q = (7758 x At x (1 Sw) x FVF x RF)
Amount of oil in reservoir . Amount of recoverable oil
Where,
Q = reserves
7758 = conversion from acre ft to barrels
A = area of porous rock
t = thickness in feet
= porosity
(1-SW) = water saturation of reservoir
FVF = Formation Volume Factor
RF = Recovery Factor
Reservoir Simulation: Decline

Curves
After wells have been producing for a while:
Decline rate of production is graphed
Generally 6 months-1year after start of
production
Good reserves estimates can be derived.
Often compared with volumetric technique
results.

We must always speak the same language: terminology
is essential in understanding what reserves have been
offered to you for investment.
Reserves are anything that can be recovered
economically under current economic and technological
conditions.
Reserves are classified as Proved or Unproved
what do we mean by this?
A Reserve is not a Resource: A resource is anything
that could become economic given certain developments
in the future.
Another way of defining the different prospects.

Geological knowledge decreases from left to right.
Resources Classification System (SPE, WPC,

and AAPG, 2000)
Petroleum Resources Classification and

Definitions
Resource Definitions (SPE, WPC, and AAPG,
2000):
Total Petroleum-Initially-in-Place = Quantity of
petroleum which is estimated to exist originally in
naturally occurring accumulations. Total
Petroleum-initially-in-place is, therefore, that
quantity of petroleum which is estimated, on a
given date, to be contained in know
accumulations, plus those quantities already
produced there from, plus those estimated
quantities in accumulations yet to be discovered.

Definitions
Total Petroleum-initially-in-place may be
subdivided into Discovered Petroleum-initially-in
place and Undiscovered Petroleum-initially-inplace, with Discovered Petroleum-initially-in-place
being limited to known accumulations.

Definitions
Discovered Petroleum-initially-in-place is that
quantity of petroleum which is estimated, on a
given date, to be contained in known
accumulations, plus those quantities already
produced there from.
Discovered Petroleum-initially-in-place may be
subdivided into Commercial and Sub-commercial
categories, with the estimated potentially
recoverable portion being classified as Reserves
and Contingent Resources respectively.

Definitions
ReservesThose quantities of petroleum
which are anticipated to be commercially
recovered from known accumulations from a
given date forward (SPE, WPC, and AAPG,
2000).

Definitions
Contingent ResourcesThose quantities of
petroleum which are estimated, on a given date,
to be potentially recoverable from known
accumulations, but which are not currently
considered to be commercially recoverable.
Prospective ResourcesThose quantities of
to be potentially recoverable from undiscovered
accumulations.
Proved Reserves
- Estimated to reasonable certainty
- Often based on well logs but normally requires
actual production or formation tests.
Proved reserves are those quantities of petroleum
which, by analysis of geological and engineering
data, can be estimated with reasonable certainty
to be commercially recoverable, from a given date
forward, from known reservoirs and under current
economic conditions, operating methods, and
government regulations.
Proved Reserves
Can be categorized:
Proved developed reserves
Reserves that are expected to be recovered
from existing wells
Proved undeveloped reserves
To be recovered by new drilling, deepening
wells to a new reservoir or where additional
finance is required to produce
Unproved Reserves
Based on similar data but contractual, technical or
financial constraints prevent them from being classified
as proved.
Can be:
Probable Reserves
Less certain than proved but can be assessed to some
degree of certainty.
May include logging estimates, improved recovery
technique estimates.
Possible Reserves
Not as certain as probable reserves and can only be
estimated to a low degree of confidence.

Definitions
Undiscovered Petroleum-initially-in-place is
that quantity of petroleum which is estimated, on
a given date, to be contained in accumulations
yet to be discovered. The estimated potentially
recoverable portion of Undiscovered Petroleuminitially-in-place is classified as Prospective
Resources.
Prospective Resources are those quantities of
to be potentially recoverable from undiscovered
accumulations.
Estimates of Producible Reserves
Cumulative probabilities of speculative,

possible, and probable gas reserves in
South Louisiana and their summation.
Decision Making: protocol

Despite these defined terms, there is still some latitude in
their application. In general, we use this:
Proved Reserves
= minimum case economics. Financial investment is
based on proved reserves.
Proved + Probable Reserves
= most likely case economics. Internal company
decisions usually based on this.
Proved +Probable + Possible Reserves
= maximum case economics. This is the best that could
reasonably happen for a venture. Companies try to sell
ventures based on this.
Assignment No.3
Title:
Evaluation of Petroleum Reserves and
Resources

Applied Geology

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Void space

Sedimentary rock contains sucient organic matter

0% < x < 40%

High concentrations of organic matter

Unit - Darcy (D)

Common - milidarcies (mD)

Basin - responsible for continental drift

Seal (cap rock)

Applied Geoscience & Geophysics

Rock + Void Space

Eon - greatest expense of time

Petroleum + Water in Pore space

Timing of Petroleum migration

APPLIED GEOSCIENCE &

Basic Geological Principles

Basic Geological Principles

Basic Geological Principles

Cross Section Of A Petroleum System

Petroleum Reservoir (O)

Basic Geological Principles

Basic Geological Principles

Basic Geological Principles

Basic Geological Principles

Basic Geological Principles

Basic Geological Principles

The mapping and remapping of trap geometry is

Basic Geological Principles

Basic Geological Principles

Basic Geological Principles

Basic Geological Principles

2. Critical moment - the time that best depicts the

3. Preservation time - begins immediately after the

Prudhoe Bay: Event Timing Favors

Timing of formation of the major elements of a

From Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary

Basic Geological Principles

The Geologic Timescale

The Geologic Timescale

Generalized Stratigraphy of Malay Basin

The Geologic Timescale

The Geologic Timescale

Plate Tectonic Context of

Plate Tectonic Context of

Plate Tectonics Context of

Plate Tectonic Context of

Plate Boundaries: there are three basic types

Where two plates converge, they produce a

a low area of the earth's surface underlain by a thick

Crust move laterally with respect to each other

Smaller than other types of basin described before

Developed on convergent plate motion

occur when a thermal plume or sheet impinges on

crustal tension at the zones of seafloor spreading

Outer rise on the oceanic plate

Active rifting (Rift basin)

bounded by major fault systems (Grabens)

continental stretching + thinning

Chapter 2 : Sedimentary Basin

Floored by oceanic litho

shallow marine shales, carbonates & tidal shelf sands

abundant res. rock in both terrigenous & carbonate

lie on the edge of continental crust

sediment infill package increases from edge to center

Outrank outher basin in term of Petroleum province