Its not just !

what you
know . . .!

its how you!

know it.!

therefore, always ask . . .!

How do!
you know?!

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Understanding is based on
knowledge that can be verified
through objective measurement,
and which others can verify
independently for themselves

MYTH OR FACT?

We only use 10% of our

brains capacity!

Opposites attract!

How were!
children!
affected by the events!
of September 11 ?!

RESEARCH
METHODS!
Two principles:!

1. There is no best way

of doing research in
psychology (the best
method depends on the
question you are studying)!

2. Psychologists focus
on behavior in their
research -- even when
they are studying
internal processes (like
thoughts, memories, and
emotions)!

OPERATIONAL
DEFINITIONS!
Definitions of
psychological processes
that specify the
objective procedures for
measuring that process!

BASIC QUESTIONS IN
PSYCHOLOGICAL
RESEARCH!

1. Where should I do
the research?!
NATURALISTIC SETTING!
LABORATORY SETTING!

Naturalistic setting!
people act naturally: easy
to generalize to everyday
behavior (external validity)!
many different influences
on behavior run together!

Laboratory setting!
provides control over
many influences on
behavior (internal validity)!
sometimes people act
unnaturally!

2. What specific
methods for
gathering information
should I use?!

OBSERVATION!
Watching carefully and
recording what a person is
doing - without interfering!

much useful information about!

people!
offers descriptions, but not
necessarily explanations, of
behavior!

INTERVIEWS OR
SURVEYS!
Asking people directly about
their experiences or opinions!

people can be quite informative!

people may not always be
accurate or truthful!

Dont you agree that

social workers should earn
more money than they
currently earn? !

Do you oppose the

decision by House
Republicans to end
Medicare while protecting
tens of millions of dollars
in subsidies for Big Oil?!

PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS
AND PERFORMANCE
MEASURES!
Standardized instruments
for systematically
discovering what a person
knows, thinks, or can do!

people may be more revealing!

when indirect measures are !
used!
poorly designed tests can
lead to misleading
conclusions!

ARCHIVAL DATA!
Information has been gathered
prior to the beginning of the
study!

large amounts of data, often !

inexpensive!
researchers have no control of how!
data were collected, may be!
unreliable!
!

CASE STUDY!
An intensive, in-depth study
of the life of one individual,
gathering as many sources
of information as possible!

understanding people with unusual!

experiences or characteristics!
conclusions may not
generalize to anybody else!

REPORTS FROM
SECONDARY SOURCES!
psychologists learn about
research subjects from other
people who know them well!

informants know a lot about !

the people we study!
informants may not be
objective!

PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL
MEASURES!

Measures of body functioning

that reflect psychological
processes!

physiological reactions may be!

more truthful, informative!
psychophysiological measures
are affected by many things!

ANIMAL STUDIES!
Used to study processes that
cannot be easily or ethically
studied in humans!

provides knowledge of great!

practical importance!
animals are not humans!

EXPERIMENT!
A procedure in which a
researcher measures the
reactions of individuals to
specific influences, as other
influences are controlled!

helpful for understanding the!

causes of behavior!
isolating influences to study
their effects may distort the
behavior we seek to
understand!

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE!
The variable a researcher
manipulates to study its
effects!
DEPENDENT VARIABLE!
The variable a researcher
thinks will be affected by
the independent variable!

CAUSE!
(independent variable)!
and!
EFFECT!
(dependent variable)!

EXPERIMENTAL
CONDITION!
Specific procedures that
manipulate the independent
variable !
(the experimental group)!

CONTROL
CONDITION!
The same procedures as the
experimental condition
except for the manipulation
of the independent variable!
(the control group)!

Please consider in small groups . . .!

What research method(s) would you use
to answer the following questions:!
!
Does expressing negative emotions
enable us to feel better?!

3. How do we
maintain objectivity?!

OBJECTIVE MEASURES!
OPERATIONAL
DEFINITIONS!
REPRESENTATIVE
SAMPLE!
(a sample that matches the broader!
population on important characteristics)!

STATISTICS!
calculations that!
provide a more objective
judgment of the meaning of
research results than our
intuitions allow!

Performance by Condition

Performance

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Experimental

Control

Condition

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS!
organize and summarize
research findings!
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS!
evaluate the reliability or !
meaningfulness of research!
findings!

STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE!
is a statistical estimation !
of the reliability of research!
results!
(statistical significance --
fewer than 5 chances in 100
that findings could be random
or due to chance)!

 CAUTIOUS
INTERPRETATIONS OF
FINDINGS!

4. How do we maintain
ethical standards?!

Minimizing stress!
Informed consent!
Confidentiality of all
research materials!
Freedom to withdraw!