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November, 2009
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
I further certify that this material has not been submitted for any other
degree by any person to the best of my knowledge.
I arm also that all the sources from which material borrowed are ade-
quately referred to.
I here by declare that the work presented in this dissertation original and
has been the supervision and guidance of Dr. V. Muruganandam, Reader,
Department of Mathematics, Pondicherry University, Puducherry. I further
state that this work has not formed the basis for the award of any other degree
of this university or any other university.
Place :
and my all well wishing friends for their in getting this dissertation successful.
Place :
Introduction iv
1 Generalities 1
2 Representation theory of groups 10
2.1 General theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Representations of group algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Peter-Weyl theory of compact groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.1 Irreducible representations are nite dimensional . . . . 18
2.3.2 Schur's theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.3 Peter-Weyl theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3.4 Representation theory of SU (2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3 Fourier algebras 33
3.1 Fourier-Stieltjes algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2 Fourier algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
List of symbols 77
Bibliography 79
iv
Introduction
the intimate relation that exists between the Fourier algebras of locally
locally compact groups which are not necessarily abelian. In fact it consists
and turns out to be the classical Fourier algebra when the group is abelian.
Amenability, on the other hand is the most useful and widely studied
by the legendary mathematician John von Neumann for groups and later by
Johnson for Banach algebras. Briey put, this dissertation expounds theory
theory of amenable Banach algebras and show that these Fourier algebras
over non-abelian groups are far from being amenable Banach algebras.
?-representations of its group algebra L1 (G). In section 2.3 we study the no-
tion of Peter-Weyl theory of compact groups. Main results in this section are
v
Chapter 3 is one of the main chapters of this dissertation. In this chapter
we associate a C? algebra for every locally compact group in such a way that
understand the groups. It has two sections. In Section 3.1, we construct the
Stieltjes algebra and Fourier algebra, which we study in end of Section 3.1
result due to Leptin, which states that G is amenable if and only if the Fourier
algebra has a bounded approximate identity.
prove the most celebrated Johnson's theorem which says that a group is
amenable if and only if its group algebra is amenable. Section 5.3 we study
amenability among Banach algebras and show that the Fourier algebras of
vi
Chapter 1
Generalities
As the title suggests, we write down the denition and basic results which we
may need in the sequel. This chapter contains prerequisites that would help
which we may adhere to in the future. The main section of this chapter
compact groups.
(iii) For every xed n, let GL(n, R) be the group consisting of n×n invertible
matrices with real entries. Then GL(n, R) is a locally compact group
n2
as it is an open subset of R .
1
(iv) SL(n, R) = {x ∈ GL(n, R) : det(x) = 1} and O(n) be the group
(vi) Let F2 denote the free group generated by a,b with ab 6= ba.It is a
Theorem 1.0.3. Let (xα )α∈ I is a net in a normed space that converges
weakly to some x, then some sequence of convex combinations of members of
{xα : α ∈ I} converges to x with respect to the norm topology.
follows, we briey show that the underlying group structure gives rise to
2
two additional structures on M (G), with respect to which M (G) forms an
It is easy to see that δe is the identity for M (G). In what follows we exhibit
said to be left invariant if m(xE) = m(E) for every Borel set E, and for all
x in G.
is called Haar integral. The proof in its full generality, can be seen in the
matrix groups, we refer to Hewitt and Ross [6]. Let Lp (G), 1 ≤ p < ∞ denote
as usual, the Banach space consisting of all measurable functions f such that
R p
G
|f (x)| dx is nite. Recall that by Radon-Nikodym theorem we can view
1
L (G) as a closed subspace of M (G) consisting of all measures which are
3
absolutely continuous with respect to Haar measure. For every f, g ∈ L1 (G),
since
Z Z Z Z Z
φ(x)d(f ∗g)(x) dx = φ(xy)f (x)g(y) dx dy = φ(x)f (y)g(y −1 x) dydx
G G G G G
we dene convolution
Z
f ∗ g(x) = f (y)g(y −1 x) dy. (1.0.1)
That is,
Summarizing we observe that with the above convolution product and the
Z
µ ∗ g(x) = g(y −1 x) dµ(y).
G
Z
f ∗ µ(x) = ∆(y −1 )f (xy −1 ) dµ(y).
G
Banach ?-algebra. With a little more eorts, one can prove the converse
1
also. That is, if L (G) is commutative with the convolution product then
χVα
fα = , µ(Vα ) is a measure on Vα . (1.0.3)
µ(Vα )
4
Then {fα }α∈I is a bounded approximate identity for L1 (G). Let us end our
the results from abelian harmonic analysis which we might require in the
∆(A) is identied with the group consisting of characters. Let T denote the
characters of G is denoted by G
b. It can be seen that G
b is forms a locally
G
b
5
Theorem 1.0.10. (Plancherel theorem) Let G be a locally compact abelian
group. If f ∈ L1 (G) ∩ L2 (G) then
kf kL2 (G) = kfˆkL2 (G)
b .
The Fourier transform extends to a unitary operator from L2 (G) onto L2 (G).
b
For the proofs and more details we refer to Loomis[10] and the recent
kxyk ≤ kxkkyk, ∀ x, y ∈ A
Equipped with weak ?-topology ∆(A) forms a locally compact space called
6
Theorem 1.0.13. If G is commutative then the group algebra L1 (G) is
semisimple and Tauberian. Moreover, it is regular.
Denition 1.0.14. If Banach algebra A admits a map: x → x? ∈ A with
the following properties,
1. (x? )? = x
2. (x + y)? = x? + y?
3. (αx)? = ᾱx?
4. (xy)? = y? x?
5. kx? k = kxk
for every x, y ∈ A and α ∈ C, then A is called an involutive Banach algebra
or Banach ?-algebra and the map x → x? , is called the involution of A.
Denition 1.0.15. Let A, B be two involutive Banach algebras. Then a
homomorphism φ : A → B is said to be a ?-homomorphism if φ(x? ) = φ(x)? .
Denition 1.0.16. An element x in an involutive Banach algebra is said
to be self-adjoint if x = x? . A self-adjoint element x is said to be positive if
x = y ? y for some y in A. We say that x ≥ y is x − y is positive. Similarly,
A linear functional φ on A is called positive if it takes positive elements to
positive reals.
Denote the set of all positive elements of A by A+ . In what follows, we
shall recall the convolution algebras dened over locally compact groups.
kx? xk = kxk2 , x ∈ A.
7
Remarks
1. Let X be a compact Hausdor space. The space C(X) of continuous
theorem implies that the preceding examples are indeed the prototype.
kφ(x)k ≤ kxk
for every x ∈ A.
Theorem 1.0.20. Let A, B be two C ? -algebras. If φ is a ?-isomorphism of
A into B , then
kφ(x)k ≥ kxk
for every x ∈ A.
Corollary 1.0.21. A ?-isomorphism of a C ? -algebra into another C ? -algebra
is an isometry.
1T ∗ is a adjoint of T
8
Theorem 1.0.22. If A is a C ? -algebra then there exists a approximate iden-
tity {υi } satisfying the following conditions
1. 0 ≤ υi ≤ υj if i ≤ j
2. kυi k ≤ 1 ∀ i.
Denition 1.0.23. Let A be a C ∗ -algebra and φ a linear functional on A.
We say that φ is a positive linear functional on A if φ is such that φ(x) ≥ 0
for every x ≥ 0, i.e. for every positive element x ∈ A.
Let φ be a positive linear functional on A. Then
Cauchy-Schwartz inequality
φ(x) = hπ(x)(ξ), ξi ∀ x ∈ A.
The references for this section are the books by Takesakai[15] and Peder-
son [11].
9
Chapter 2
Representation theory of groups
The main theme of this chapter is representation theory of groups and Peter-
Weyl theory of compact groups. It has three sections. Section 2.1 is devoted
ences for this chapter are Sugiura [14] and G.Folland [4].
10
Denition 2.1.2. Let G be a topological group. A unitary representation
of G is a pair (π, H) where H is a Hilbert space and π : G → U (H) is a
homomorphism such that the mapping of G × H → H that sends (g, v) to
π(g)v is continuous. Here U (H) denotes the set of unitary operators of H.
The group G is said to act unitarily on H or sometimes, G is said to act by
unitary representation on H.
Examples
1. Let Sn be the symmetric group on n symbols {1, 2, ..., n}. We may
tation.
is uniformly bounded.
11
Denition 2.1.4. Let (π1 , H1 ) and (π2 , H2 ) be two representations of G. A
bounded linear map T : H1 → H2 is called a G-map or intertwines with π1
and π2 if
T ◦ π1 (g) = π2 (g) ◦ T, for all g ∈ G.
subspace.
12
Notation Let G
b be the set of equivalence classes of irreducible
unitary representation of G.
13
(Bu, Bv) = (T S −1 u, T S −1 v)
= hS −1 u, T ∗ T S −1 vi
= hS −1 u, S 2 S −1 vi
= hS −1 u, Svi
= hS ∗ S −1 u, vi
= hu, vi.
equivalent.
14
Lemma 2.2.5. If (π, H) is a (uniformly bounded) unitary representation of
G, then to each µ in M (G) if we dene π̃(µ) by
Z
hπ̃(µ)u, vi = hπ̃(g)u, vidµ(g), for all u, v ∈ H.
G
kπ(g)k ≤ M, ∀ g. Therefore,
Z
|hπ̃(µ)u, vi| = hπ(g)u, vi dµ(g)
ZG
≤ |hπ(g)u, vi| d |µ| g
G
≤ M kukkvkkµk.
Z
hπ̃(µ)ξ, ηi = hπ(x)ξ, ηi dµ(x).
G
15
Z
hπ̃(µ ∗ ν)ξ, ηi = hπ̃(µ)π(y)ξ, ηi dν(y)
G
Z
= hπ(y)ξ, π̃(µ)? ηi dν(y)
G
= hπ̃(ν)ξ, π̃(µ)? ηi
= hπ̃(µ)π̃(ν)ξ, ηi.
= hπ̃(µ)η, ξi
= hπ̃(µ)? ξ, ηi.
given >0 there exists Vα0 such that, x ∈ Vα0 ⇒ kπ(x)ξ − ξk < .
For every α > α0 ,
Z
kπ̃(fα )ξ − ξk =
fα (x)π(x)ξ dx − ξ
G
Z
=
fα (x)(π(x)ξ − ξ) dx
Vα
Z
≤ |fα (x)| kπ(x)ξ − ξk dx
Vα
Z
< . |fα (x)| dx.
Vα
= .
16
Therefore, lim π̃(fα )ξ = ξ. Hence π̃(fα ) → I in strong operator topology. By
α
Lemma 2.2.4, π̃|L1 (G) is non-degenerate.
We claim that π(x) is bounded on K. We know that δx ∗fα ∗f → δx ∗f, for all
1
f ∈ L (G), x ∈ G. So that lim ρ(δx ∗fα ∗f )ξ = ρ(δx ∗f )ξ. By Theorem 1.0.19,
α
we have kρ(δx ∗ fα )k ≤ 1. Therefore,
17
Since ρ is a bounded linear map on L1 (G), it commutes with integration.
1
Therefore for every g ∈ L (G),
Z
ρ(f )(ρ(g)ξ) = f (y)ρ(δy ∗ g)(ξ)dy.
G
Z
= f (y)π(y)(ρ(g)ξ)dy.
G
= π̃(f )(ρ(g)ξ).
18
R
Bη1 ,η2 (ξ1 , ξ2 ) = hπ(g)ξ1 , η1 i hπ(g)ξ2 , η2 idg
G
there exists a linear map say Tη1 ,η2 from H1 into H2 and
hπ(x)Tη1 ,η2 ξ1 , ξ2 i = hTη1 ,η2 (ξ1 ), π(x−1 )ξ2 i = Bη1 ,η2 (ξ1 , π(x−1 )ξ2 )
Z
= hπ(g)ξ1 , η1 ihπ(g)π(x−1 )ξ2 , η2 idg
ZG
= hπ(g)ξ1 , η1 ihπ(gx−1 )ξ2 , η2 )idg
ZG
So, Tη1 ,η2 is an intertwining operator. By Schur's lemma, we know that the
19
But
Therefore
Z
hπ(g)ξ1 , η1 i hπ(g)ξ2 , η2 idg = λ hξ1 , ξ2 i hη1 , η2 i
G
If H is not a nite dimensional space Then for every n there exist a set
{ei : 1 ≤ i ≤ n}. Let us apply the above formula for a set of orthonormal
vectors.
n
! n Z
X X
λ hξ, ξi hej , ej i = hπ(x)ξ, ej i hπ(x)ξ, ej i dx (2.3.2)
j=1 j=1
n
Z X
= hπ(x)ξ, ej i hπ(x)ξ, ej i dx (2.3.3)
j=1
n
Z X
nλ ≤ | hπ(x)ξ, ej i |2 dx
j=1
20
by Parseval's inequality. So,
Z
nλ ≤ kπ(x)ξk2 dx = 1
1
Hence, for every n, |λ| ≤n
which forces that λ = 0.
R
But then, if λ=0 then, | hπ(x)ξ1 , η1 i |2 dx = 0 for every ξ1 , η1 and x∈G
i.e., hπ(e)ξ, ξi = 0. But, hξ, ξi =
6 0. So, λ is nonzero which is a contradiction.
So, our supposition that H is not nite dimensional is wrong. Hence, every
2. If π is equivalent to σ
Then, Z
1
hπ(g)ξ1 , η1 ihπ(g)ξ2 , η2 idg = hξ1 , ξ2 ihη1 , η2 i
dπ
where ξi , ηi i=1,2 are xed vectors in Hi i=1,2 respectively.
Proof. Let η1 , η2 be the xed vectors in H1 , H2 respectively. Let us dene a
21
We know that all representations of a compact group are uniformly bounded
theorem, then there exists a linear map say Tη1 ,η2 from H1 into H2 and
Z
1
∀ ξ1 , ξ2 , η1 , η2 ∈ H, hπ(x)ξ1 , η1 ihπ(x)ξ2 , η2 i dx = hξ1 , ξ2 ihη1 , η2 i.
dπ
22
Let {ei : 1 ≤ i ≤ dπ } be an orthonormal basis and e0 be the identity element.
Proceeding as we did in the proof of theorem 2.3.4 we get the equation (2.3.2)
as,
n
Z X Z
2 1
dπ λ = |π(x)e0 , ej | dx = ||π(x)e0 ||2 dx = 1 i.e., λ=
G j=1 G dπ
1
R
Hence, hπ(g)ξ1 , η1 ihπ(g)ξ2 , η2 idg = hξ , ξ ihη1 , η2 i where
dπ 1 2
ξi , ηi i=1,2
23
2.3.3 Peter-Weyl theory
Denition 2.3.11. Let G be the compact group and (π, H) be a repre-
sentation of G. For every u, v in H the function ψu,vπ
(x) = hπ(x)u, vi is a
continuous function and is called matrix coecients of representation (π, H).
Note:Some times we will denote ψu,v
π
by πu,v .
π
π(g) = (ψi,j (g))1≤i,j≤n .
Recall that
X
π
π(g)ei = ψi,j (g)ej
So that
π
hπ(g)ei , ej i = ψi,j (g)
This shows that the function
π
g −→ hπ(g)ei , ej i = ψi,j (g)
Notation: Let B(G) denote the set of all matrix coecients of represen-
dimensional representation.
π
λφ(x) = λψu,v (x)
= λhπ(x)u, vi
= hπ(x)λu, vi
π
= ψλu,v (x)
24
So, for every φ ∈ B(G), λφ ∈ B(G).
Let φ1 = ψuπ1 ,v1 , φ2 = ψuρ2 ,v2 are any two arbitrary elements of B(G)
Claim:- φ1 + φ2 = ψ(u
π⊕ρ
1 ,u2 ),(v1 ,v2 )
. For,
π⊕ρ
ψ(u1 ,u2 ),(v1 ,v2 )
(x) = hπ ⊕ ρ(x)(u1 , u2 ), (v1 , v2 )i
= h(π(x)u1 , ρ(x)u2 ), (v1 , v2 )i
= hπ(x)u1 , v1 i + hρ(x)u2 , v2 i
= φ1 + φ2 .
π π (x) = hπ(x)u, vi = ψ π 1
Let φ(x) = ψu,v (x). Then, φ(x) = ψu,v v,u (x)
e
.
below.
25
Let x, y ∈ G and x 6= y . Now we claim that there exists φ ∈ B(G),
φ(x) 6= φ(y). By Gelfand Raikov's theorem there exists an irreducible repre-
sentation π on G such that π(x) 6= π(y) i.e., there exists at least one element
say u∈H such that π(x)u 6= π(y)u. So, there exists at least one element
π π
say v ∈H such that hπ(x)u, vi =
6 hπ(y)u, vi i.e., ψu,v 6 ψu,v
(x) = (y). Hence
the claim.
dπ
X X
π
π
f= dπ f, ψi,j ψi,j (2.3.5)
b i,j=1
π∈G
π
π
f ∗ χπ = f, ψi,j ψi,j
i,j
Now
Z
f ∗ χπ (x) = f (xy −1 )χπ (y)dy
Z
= f (y −1 )χπ (y, x)dy
Z X
= f (y −1 ) ψiiπ (y, x)dy
i
26
Z X
f ∗ χπ (x) = f (y −1 ) π
ψi,k π
(y)ψk,i (x)dy
i,k
X Z
= π
ψk,i (x) f (y −1 )ψi,k
π
(y)dy
i,k
X Z
= π
ψk,i (x) π
f (y)ψi,k (y −1 )dy
i,k
X Z
π π
= ψk,i (x) f (y)ψi,k (y)dy
i,k
X
π
π
= f, ψi,j ψi,j .
i,j
In particular,
1. f (e) = (Fourier inversion formula)
P
dλ tr(fb(λ)
λ∈G
b
27
Proof. Now we prove 1
X
tr(fb(λ)λ(g)) = (fb(λ)λ(g))i,i
i
XD E
= fb(λ)λ(g)ei , ei
i
XZ
= f (x−1 ) hλ(x)λ(g)ei , ei i dx
i
XZ
= f (x−1 )ψi,i
λ
(xg)dx
i
XZ X
= f (x−1 ) λ
ψi,j λ
(x)ψj,i (g)dx
i j
X Z
= λ
ψj,i (g) λ
f (x)ψi,j (x−1 )dx
i,j
X Z
λ λ
= ψj,i (g) f (x)ψj,i (x)dx
i,j
X
λ λ
= ψj,i (g) f, ψj,i
i,j
28
For all n≥0 , let Hn be the set of homogeneous polynomials of degree n in
( n
)
X
Hn = φ(z1 , z2 ) = αk z1k z2n−k : αk ∈ C
k=0
hϕk , ϕr i = 0 if k 6= r
and
It is easy to see that the map g → πn (g) from SU (2) to GL(Hn ) is represen-
tation of SU (2)
T is clearly Homomorphic to S 1 .
29
Proof. By Schur's lemma ,it is sucient to show that if A : Hn −→ Hn is
linear such that A ◦ πn (g) = πn (g) ◦ A for all g∈G then A = λI for some
λ∈C iθ
n e 0 o
Consider the subgroup T = t(θ) = : 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π . Then
0 e−iθ
πn (t(θ))ϕr = ei(n−2r)θ ϕr , for all θ and 0 ≤ r ≤ n Thus one dimensional
subspace Cϕr , is invariant under πn (T ) for any r.
Thus each ϕr is a common eigenvalue for all πn (t(θ) with eigenvalue for
i(n−2r)θ
all πn (t(θ)) with eigenvalue e . Since Hn = ⊕Cϕr , Hn is the direct sum
of simultaneous eigen subspaces of πn (T ) In particular πn (t(θ))ψ = ei(n−2r)θ ψ
for some ψ ∈ Hn i ψ is a scalar multiple of ϕr . We now show that each Cϕr
is invariant under A.
Thus Aϕr is a eigen vector of πn (t(θ)) with eigen value ei(n−2r)θ . Therefore
To conclude the proof of the clime we must show that all λr 's are equal.
30
From 2.3.6 and 2.3.7 and the fact that πn (k(θ)) ◦ A = A ◦ πn (k(θ)) for all
an irreducible representation of G.
Remarks
1. Let f be a continuous function on SU (2) such that f (hgh−1 ) = f (g)
∀ h, g ∈ SU (2) (Recall that such functions are called class function).
Then Z Z π
2
f (g)dg = f (h(θ)) sin2 θdθ
SU (2) π 0
Let ψ(θ) = χπ (θ) sin θ; then ψ is an odd function on [−π, π]. Hence ψ(0)
b = 0,
and for n≥1
Z π
1
ψ(n)
b = ψ(θ)e−inθ dθ
2π −π
−i π
Z
= ψ(θ) sin nθdθ
π 0
−i π
Z
= χπ (θ) sin θ sin nθdθ
π 0
−i π
Z
= χπ (θ)χπn−1 (θ) sin2 θ
π 0
i
= − hχπ , χn−1 i
2
31
i
Similarly ψ(−n)
b = hχπ , χn−1 i . Hence by the Plancherel theorem for L2 (S 1 ),
2
we get
1X
is an irreducible representation.
32
Chapter 3
Fourier algebras
This chapter constitutes the main chapter of this dissertation. In this chapter
we associate a C? algebra for every locally compact group in such a way that
this C ? -algebra so that the full force of the C ? -algebra theory can be used to
understand the groups. It has two sections. In Section 3.1, we construct the
Stieltjes algebra and Fourier algebra, which we study in end of Section 3.1
33
Suppose that kf k0 = 0. Then λ(f ) = 0 where λ : L1 (G) −→ BL(L2 (G))
is the left regular representation. As λ is a faithful representation, we have
Therefore,
2
kf ? ∗ f k0 = (kf k0 )
From the preceding proof we observe that instead of taking all unitary rep-
Proposition 3.1.4. Suppose that the group G is abelian. Then the full C ? -
algebra of G is identied with C0 (G).
b
34
Now
Z
π(f ) = f (x)π(x) dx.
G
Z
= f (x)χπ (x) dx.
G
Z
= f (x)χπ (x−1 ) dx.
G
Therefore,
kρ(f )k ≤ kf k0
So, ρ denes a bounded ?-homomorphism from (L1 (G), k.k0 ) into BL(Hρ ).
Thus ρ gets extended to C ? (G).
Remarks :-
1. If ρ is any non-degenerate representation of L1 (G) then it is irreducible
?
if and only if the extension of ρ to C (G) is irreducible.
35
3. We observe that there is a bijective correspondence between the unitary
kψ(f )k = kf k, ∀ f ∈ C ? (G).
Theorem 3.1.9. B(G) forms a Banach algebra with unity under point wise
product.
Proof. As it is the dual space of C ? (G) it forms a Banach space. We show
1 2
that it forms a Banach algebra. Let φ = πξ,ξ 0 and ψ = πη,η 0 be two functions
36
in B(G) as given in (3.1.2). Let ρ denote the unitary representation given by
the tensor product
1
π ⊗π . 2
Then if ζ =ξ⊗η and ζ 0 = ξ 0 ⊗ η0 then we have
paper by Eymard [3] for the proof. Hence it forms a Banach algebra.
Moreover, if (ρ, Hρ ) denotes the trivial representation then for any unit vector
ξ in Hρ , we have φ(x) = ρξ,ξ (x) = hξ, ξi = 1 and so 1 belongs to B(G) and
Remarks
1. Without resorting into C? -algebras, on can compute the norm of an
where the inrmum is taken over all πξ,η such that φ = πξ,η .
For the proof we refer to Eymard [3].
2. Since the matrix coecients are continuous we see that B(G) is con-
37
But then by inverse Fourier-Stieltjes transform we have the following identi-
cation.
But then this is precisely Fourier Stieltjes algebra on G. Refer the classical
book by Rudin [12] for more details on harmonic analysis over abelian groups.
Before doing so, let us recall how it is being dened for the case of abelian
groups.
Recall that the when the group is abelian, the Fourier algebraA(G) is de-
ˇ 1 b ˇ
ned to be the space {f : f ∈ L (G)} where the f denote the inverse Fourier
transform of f and
fˇ
1 b
A(G)
= kf kL1 (G)
b . As L (G) is closed ideal of M (G)
b
consisting of all measures which are absolutely continuous with respect to
the Haar measure, we infer that A(G) is a closed two sided ideal of B(G).
But this denition cannot be carried over to non-abelian groups as there is
But we have one more characterization of A(G) when the group is abelian.
be found in Rudin [12]. Taking a cue from this theorem we dene Fourier
Denition 3.2.2. Let G be locally compact group. The closure of the ideal
B(G) ∩ Cc (G) in B(G) is called the Fourier algebra and is denoted by A(G).
38
Observe that A(G) is a closed two sided ideal in B(G). Moreover, if G is
It is one of the important results of Eymard [3] that the preceding result is
true for non-abelian groups also. But since it involves deep theory of operator
algebras we do not give the proof but merely record the statement.
where λf,g is the matrix coecient associated to the left regular representation
λ of G.
belongs to A(G).
39
In what follows we list out some of the important properties of A(G) which
1. A(G) has identity if and only if A(G) = B(G) since A(G) is a two sided
ideal in B(G). Equivalently, A(G) = B(G) if and only if G is compact.
40
Chapter 4
Fourier algebras and amenable
groups
important result due to Leptin, which states that G is amenable if and only
41
Denition 4.1.3. Let E be a subspace of L∞ (G) containing the constant
functions. A mean on E is said to be left invariant mean if m( g f ) = m(f ),
for all g ∈ G, f ∈ E.
Example 4.1.4. Let λ denote normalized left Haar measure on G, and dene
Z
hf, mi = f (g) dλ(g), f ∈ L∞ (G) ⊆ L1 (G).
G
42
Lemma 4.1.9. Let H be a locally compact group, and let φ : G → H be a
continuous, open homomorphism with φ(G) is dense in H. If G is amenable
then H is amenable.
Corollary 4.1.10. Let G be amenable, and let N be a closed normal subgroup
of G. Then G/N is amenable.
Theorem 4.1.11. Let H be a closed subgroup of G. If G is amenable, then
H is also amenable.
Theorem 4.1.12. Let N be a closed normal subgroup such that both N and
G/N are amenable. Then G is amenable.
Note that w(a), w(b), w(a−1 ), w(b−1 ), w(e) = {e} are disjoint.
If / w(a−1 ),
x∈ then ax ∈ w(a). Therefore,
Now,
1 = m(χF2 )
= m(χw(e) ) + m(χw(a) ) + m(χw(b) ) + m(χw(a−1 ) ) + m(χw(b−1 ) ) by (4.1.1)
≥ m(χw(a) ) + m(χw(b) ) + m(χw(a−1 ) ) + m(χw(b−1 ) ).
43
Therefore, by (4.1.2), we have
Weak containment
Let A be a C ? -algebra. Let as usual, Ae denote the class of all non-degenerate
?-representations of A.
Notation Let P (G) be the set of all continuous positive denite functions
on G.
44
Denition 4.1.17. Let A be a C ? -algebra. Any positive linear functional φ
is said to be a state if kφk = 1.
For the denition of weak containment among the representations of C ?-
algebra and for the proof of the three theorems that follow, we refer to the
Remark 4.1.18. If Σ ⊆ A,
e and if I = T ker(π), then it is an ideal. If
π∈Σ
e ξ ∈ Hπ , then πξ,ξ is a positive linear functional in A. For every
π ∈ A,
ξ, η ∈ Hπ , πξ,η ∈ A? and kπξ,η k ≤ kξk.kηk.
45
As we explained earlier, there exists a bijective correspondence between uni-
Theorem 4.1.24. Let G be a locally compact group. Then the following are
equivalent:
1. π Σ.
2. Every positive denite function ψ associated to π is limit of sum of
positive denite functions associated to Σ with respect to the topology
of uniformly convergence on compact sets. If π is further assumed to
be irreducible, then the above if equivalent to the following.
3. If πξ,ξ for some ξ in H, is the limit of sum of positive denite functions
associated to Σ with respect to the topology of uniformly convergence
on compact sets.
Proof. The proof follows by Theorem 4.1.19, Theorem 4.1.20 and Theo-
rem 4.1.23.
46
Tensor products
Denition 4.1.25. (Algebraic tensor products) Let M and N be any two
vector space over F. Then there exists a pair (S, g) consisting of a vector space
S over F and a bilinear map g : M × N → S with the following properties,
given any vector space P over F and any bilinear map f : M × N → P, there
exists a unique linear mapping f 0 : S → P such that f = f 0 ◦ g.
Let H1 and H2 be two Hilbert spaces. Let H0 be the algebraic tensor
n
X m
X
(ξ, η) = (ξ1,i , η1,j ) (ξ2,i , η2,j ) (4.1.3)
i=1 j=1
Pn Pn
Where ξ= i=1 ξ1,i ⊗ ξ2,i ∈ H0 and η = i=1 η1,i ⊗ η2,i ∈ H0 .
47
Denition 4.1.30. (Injective cross-norm) For each x =
Pn
i=1 x1,i ⊗ x2,i ∈
E1 ⊗ E2 , we dene
( n )
X
kxkλ = sup f (x1,i )g(x2,i ) : f ∈ E1? , kf k ≤ 1; g ∈ E2? , kgk ≤ 1
i=1
(iv) For given > 0, for every compact set K, there exists g ∈ S(G) such
that kλ(x)g − gk1 < , ∀ x ∈ K.
48
Remark 4.2.2. Condition (iv) of the preceding theorem is called P1 -property.
Denition 4.2.3. We say that a locally compact group G is said to have the
property Pp , 1 ≤ p < ∞ if the following holds.
Forgiven > 0, for every compact set K, there exists g ∈ Lp (G) such that g
is non-negative and kgkp = 1 satisfying kλ(x)g − gkp < , ∀ x ∈ K.
Theorem 4.2.4. G is amenable if and only if there is a net {fi } in the
unit sphere of L2 (G) such that {fi ∗ fei } converges to 1 uniformly on compact
subsets of G.
Theorem 4.2.5. Let G be a locally compact group. Then G has property P1
if and only if G has the property Pp , ∀ p such that 1 ≤ p < ∞.
For proofs we refer to Runde [13].
by equation
Z Z
f ∗ f˜(x) = f (y)f˜(y −1 x) dy = f (y)f (x−1 y) dy
G G
= 2Re 1 − (f ∗ f˜)(x)
≤ 21 − (f ∗ f˜)(x)
< .
49
If we take g = |f | then,
Z
λ(x)g − g
2 = g(x y) − g(y)2 dy
−1
2
G
Z
|f (x−1 y)| − |f (y)| 2 dy
=
G
Z
f (x−1 y) − f (y)2 dy
≤
G
2
=
λ(x)f − f
2
< .
P2 . Then for given > 0, for any compact set K, there exists f ∈ L2 (G)
such that kλ(x)f − f k2 < 2 , f ≥ 0 and kf k2 = 1, ∀ x ∈ K. Since Cc (G) is
2
dense in L (G), given >0 there exists g ∈ Cc (G) with kgk2 = 1 such that
Therefore ,
|g ∗ g̃(x) − 1| ≤ kg − f k kgk + kf k + kλ(x)f − f k
< .2 + = .
4 2
We deduce that there exists {g} in Cc (G) with kgk2 = 1 such that g ∗ g̃ → 1
uniformly on compact subsets of G. Hence the theorem.
there exists {fi } ⊆ Cc (G) such that kfi k2 = 1 and fi ∗ f˜i → 1 uniformly
50
Theorem 4.2.7. (Godement) Let φ be any square-integrable continuous
positive denite function on G. Then there exists a square-integrable function
ψ such that φ = ψ ∗ ψ.e
Refer Dixmier [1, Theorem 13.8.6] for a proof and more details.
amenable. Then there exists {fi } in Cc (G) such that kfi k = 1 and fi ∗ f˜i → 1
in topology of uniform convergence on compact sets. That is, if φi = fi ∗ f˜i
Theorem 4.2.4 we observe that G is amenable. Now we shall show that (2)
and (3) are equivalent. Of course one has to show only that (3) implies (2).
π is weakly contained in λ.
Proof. The proof follows by the preceding theorem and Remark 4.1.22.
51
4.3 Leptin's Theorem
Lemma 4.3.1. If {uα } is a bounded approximate identity in A(G). Then
{uα } → 1 uniformly on compact sets.
Therefore
Let K be a compact set. Since A(G) is regular, there exists φ ∈ A(G) such
Proof. Let G be amenable. Then there exists {fi } ⊆ Cc (G) such that
Cc (G) ∩ P (G) spans a dense subsets of A(G) and kψi kA(G) ≤ kfi k2 kf˜i k2 = 1,
it is sucient to show that lim kψi φ − φkA(G) = 0, ∀ φ ∈ Cc (G) ∩ P (G). Let
i
φ ∈ Cc (G) ∩ P (G). Take χi = ψi φ. Then χi ∈ P (G). For f ∈ Cc (G), we let
ρ(f )g = g ∗ f, f ∈ L2 (G).
χi = hi ∗ h̃i , φ = h ∗ h̃
52
and
We shall show that lim khi − hk2 = 0. Let S = supp(φ). Then supp(χi ) ⊆ S.
i
Since ψi → 1 uniformly on S, we have
ρ(χi ) − ρ(φ)
=
f ∗ (χi − φ)
2
Z
χi (y) − φ(y) ∆(y)−1 fy dy
=
2
G
Z !
χi (y) − φ(y) ∆(y)−1/2 dy
≤ kf k2
G
Z !
∆(y)−1/2 dy
≤
χi − φ
kf k2 .
∞
S
Therefore, by (4.3.1), we have lim
ρ(χi ) − ρ(φ)
= 0 and the number
i √
c = sup kρ(χi )k is nite. By approximating the function t with
lim
ρ(χi )1/2 − ρ(φ)1/2
= 0.
i
53
Moreover,
Z Z
2 2
hi
=
2
| hi (x)| dx = hi (x)hi (x)dx
G G
Z
= hi (x)h̃i (x−1 )dx = (hi ∗ h̃i )(e).
G
Since Cc (G) ∗ Cc (G) is dense in L2 (G) and sup khi k22 = sup χi (e) < ∞, we
have
Now,
ψi φ − φ
= kχi − φkA(G)
A(G)
=
hi ∗ h̃i − h ∗ h̃
A(G)
=
hi ∗ (h̃i − h̃) + (hi − h) ∗ h̃kA(G)
54
We show that A(G)+ is weak ?-dense in B(G)+ = P (G). Since A(G)+ is
Godement's theorem, there exists {fi } in L2 (G) such that φi = fi ∗ f˜i . Hence
G is amenable. This completes the proof of the Theorem 4.3.2.
The preceding theorem is due to Leptin [9]. But the proof given here is
55
Chapter 5
Amenable Banach algebras
theorem which says that a group is amenable if and only if its group algebra
characterization we show that the Fourier algebra of such a simple group like
56
We need the following important theorem in the sequel.
It is easily seen that adx is a derivation. Derivations of this form are called
inner derivations.
Notation Let Z 1 (A, X) be the set of all derivations from A into X and let
1
B (A, X) be the set of all inner derivations from A into X. Then clearly
L(A, X).
Remarks
57
(ii) If X is a right Banach A-module, then X? becomes a left Banach A-
module through
A-bimodule.
eA .x = x.eA = x, (x ∈ X).
58
Proof. By using Cohen's factorization Theorem 5.1.3, we see that X is
pseudo unital.
have
1
H (A, (X/X0 ) ) = 0. ?
That is, H 1
(A, X0⊥ ) = 0, since (X/X0 )? = X0⊥ .
Then there exists a ψ ∈ X0⊥ such that D̃ = adψ . That is, D = adφ +
adψ = adφ+ψ . Hence H1 (A, X ? ) = 0, for any Banach A-bimodule, proving
the proposition.
59
Proposition 5.1.12. Let A be an amenable Banach algebra. Then A has a
bounded approximate identity.
Proof. Let E be the Banach A- bimodule whose underlying space is A. We
Note that
= ab
= i(ab)
φ ∈ E ?? such that i = adφ . That is, i(a) = a.φ − φ.a = a.φ, by (2).
Now for every f ∈ E ?, we have
60
Since lim kaeα − ak = 0, we have lim kaẽα,β − ak = 0. Similarly, we get
α α
a = lim ẽα,β .a, for all a ∈ A.
α,β
Virtual diagonal
Let A be a Banach algebra. Then A⊗A
b is a Banach A -bimodule through
Denition 5.1.14. Let A be a Banach algebra. Then a bounded net {mα }α∈I
in (A⊗A)
b is called an approximate diagonal for A if
n
1 X
T hen ∆m = ∆(ej,k ⊗ ek,j )
n j,k=1
n
1 X
= ej,k .ek,j
n j,k=1
n
1X
= n.ej,j
n j=1
n
X
= ej,j
j=1
61
n
Therefore, a.∆m = a.
P
ej,j = a.
j=1
Let l, m ∈ {1, 2, ..., n}. We then have
n
1 X
el,m .m = el,m ej,k ⊗ ek,j
n j,k=1
n
1X
= el,j ⊗ ej,m
n j=1
n
1 X
= ej,k ⊗ ek,j el,m
n j,k=1
= m.el.m .
62
know that ker(∆?? ) ∼
= (ker ∆)?? . So that ker(∆?? ) is a dual Banach A- bimod-
ule. Since A is amenable, there exists a N ∈ ker(∆?? ) such that adX = adN .
Take M = X − N. Then we claim that M is virtual diagonal. We have,
a.∆?? M = a.∆?? (X − N )
= a. (∆?? (X) − ∆?? (N ))
= a.∆?? (X), since N ∈ ker(∆?? )
= w? - lim ∆(a.(eα ⊗ eα ))
α
= w - lim a.e2α
?
α
= a.
Therefore a.∆?? M = a, a ∈ A.
Hence (1) ⇒ (2). Suppose M is a virtual diagonal for A. Let {mα }α∈I be a
and
a = a.∆?? M
= a.∆?? (w? - lim mα )
α
= a.w? - lim ∆mα
α
= w- lim a.∆mα .
α
approximate diagonal for A. Hence (2) ⇒ (3). Let {mα }α∈I be an approx-
63
for A. Let X be a Banach A-bimodule. We claim that H1 (A, X ? ) = {0}.
By Proposition 5.1.10, without loss of generality, we may assume that X is
∞
1
P (α) (α)
pseudo-unital. Let D ∈ Z (A, X), and let mα = an ⊗ bn be such that
n=1
∞
α) (α)
b → X ? by
P
kan kkbn k < ∞. Then we dene D̃ : A⊗A
n=1
m
! m
X X
D̃ an ⊗ b n = an D(bn ).
n=1 n=1
For,
!
m
X
m
X
D̃ an ⊗ b n
≤ kan kkDkkbn k, since D is bounded.
n=1 n=1
m
X
= kDk kan kkbn k
n=1
But,
64
Thus,
* ∞
+
X
hx, a.φi = lim x, a(α) (α)
n .D(bn .a)
α
n=1
* ∞
+
X
= lim x, a(α) (α)
n bn .D(a) + a(α) (α)
n .D(bn ).a
α
n=1
* ∞
+ * ∞
+
X X
= lim x, a(α) (α)
n bn .D(a) + lim x, a(α) (α)
n .D(bn ).a
α α
n=1 n=1
* ∞
+ * ∞
+
X X
= lim x. a(α) (α)
n bn , D(a) + lim x, a(α) (α)
n .D(bn ).a
α α
n=1 n=1
= limhx.∆mα , D(a)i + hx, φ.ai
α
= hx, D(a)i + hx, φ.ai
= hx, D(a) + φ.ai.
65
we dene b.x = ba.y. Then b.x is well dened. For, if x = a.y = a0 .y 0 , then
the theorem.
We claim that D̃ is well dened. It is enough to prove that the above limit
does exist. Let x ∈ X, and let a∈A and y∈X be such that x = y.a. Then
66
Therefore, for every x ∈ X, we have
hx, D̃(bc)i
= w? - limhx, D(bc.eα ) − bc.D(eα )i
α
?
= w - lim (hx, D(bc.eα )i − hx, bc.D(eα )i)
α
= w? - lim (hx, b.D(c.eα ) + D(b).ceα i − hx.b, c.D(eα )i)
α
= w? - lim (hx.b, D(c.eα ) − c.D(eα )i + hx, D(b).ceα i) (5.2.1)
α
But,
hx, D̃(bc)i = w? - lim (hx.b, D(c.eα ) − c.D(eα )i + hc.x, D(b.eα ) − b.D(eα )i)
α
67
Also
= hy, D̃(b).ai
= ha.y, D̃(b)i.
= hx, D̃(b)i.
68
Theorem 5.2.3. (Johnson's theorem) Let G be a locally compact group.
Then G is amenable if and only if H1 (L1 (G), X ? ) = {0}, for each Banach
L1 (G)-bimodule X .
Proof. Suppose G is amenable. Let X be a Banach L1 (G)-bimodule. By the
proposition 5.1.10, without loss of generality, we may assume that X is a
pseudo unital.
exist a y in K such that x.y = y, for all x ∈ G. Therefore, x.η = η, for all x∈
G, η ∈ K. That is, δx .η.δx−1 + D̃(δx ).δx−1 = η, which implies that
69
Therefore D̃(µ) = ad(−η) (µ), for all µ ∈ M (G) and D̃(f ) = ad(−η) (f ), for all
1 1 1 ? 1 1 ?
f ∈ L (G). Hence D ∈ B (L (G), X ). We therefore get, H (L (G), X ) = 0,
for each L1 (G)-bimodule X.
Conversely, dene an L1 (G)- bimodule action on L∞ (G) by
Z
f.φ = f ∗ φ and φ.f = f (x)dmG (x) φ, ( f ∈ L1 (G), φ ∈ L∞ (G)).
G
70
Since f.n − n.f = f.τ̃ − τ̃ .f ⇒ f.(n − τ̃ ) = (n − τ̃ ).f, we have
For proof and other details we refer to Johnson [8] and Runde [13].
71
5.3 Non-amenability of Fourier algebras
Denition 5.3.1. If G is compact and π is irreducible, π̃ is a ?-homomorphism
into M, so that T r(π̃(f )) is well-dened for f ∈ L(G) where T r is the canon-
ical trace on Mdπ . Note that, if π1 and π2 have the same equivalence class
in G, then T r(π̃1 (f )) = T r(π̃2 (f )) for f ∈ L(G) In the sequel,we denote the
nuclear norm on Mn by k . kN .
Proposition 5.3.2. Let G be a compactgroup.Then:
1. An element f ∈ L(G) has a representative in A(G) if and only if
X
dπ kπ̃(f )kN < ∞ ;
π∈Ĝ
π ∈ G̃ and
X
(dπ )kφ(π)kN < ∞ ,
π∈Ĝ
3. If f ∈ A(G) , then X
f (eG ) = dπ T re
π (f ).
π∈G
e
72
Proposition 5.3.5. Let G be a compact group.
(i) An element f ∈ L1 (G) has a representative in Aγ (G) if and only if
X
d2π kπ̃(f )kN < ∞
π∈Ĝ
Proof. First observe that,for each π∈G e, the operator γ drops to a metric
surjection b d π → Md π
γπ : Mdπ ⊗M , where Mdπ is equipped with k . kN . The
73
Proof. Let (mα )α be an approximate diagonal for A(G). Dene
γ̌ : A(G)⊗A(G)
b → A(G), f ⊗ g → γ(f ⊗ ǧ)
Let f ∈ A(G)⊗A(G)
b belong to ker ∆A(G) . Then it follows easily that
It is not hard to see that (∆∗ (γ̌(mα )))α is also an approximate diagonal
on G × G we thus obtain:
Z
fα (eG ) = γ̌(mα )(eG ) = mα (g, g)dmG (g) → 1.
G
For (iii), replace the net (fα )α be the net (f 0 α )α dene through
Z
fα0 := fα (ghg −1 )dmG (g) (h ∈ G),
G
where mG (G) = 1.It is not hard to check that,if (fα )α satises (i) and (ii),
Z(L1 (G)).
We can now show that A(G) is not amenable for certain compact groups G.
Theorem 5.3.8. Let G be an innite compact group such that, for each
n ∈ N, the set {π ∈ G
b : dπ = n} is nite. Then A(G) is not amenable.
74
Proof. Assume that A(G) is amenable, and let(fα )α be a net in Aγ (G) as
X
d2π ke
π (fα )kN ≤ C.
π∈G
b
C
Let > 0, and choose N ∈N so large that
N
≤ 2
. We obtain:
X X
dπ ke
π (fα )kN ≤ dπ ke
π (fα )kN + . (5.3.1)
2
π∈G
b π∈Gb
dπ <N
The hypothesis on G implies that the second sum in equation 5.3.1 is nite,
so that
X
dπ ke
π (fα )kN < .
2
π∈Gb
dπ <N
X
dπ ke
π (fα )kN <
π∈G
b
X
dπ ke
π (fα )kN −→ 0 . (5.3.2)
π∈G
b
75
By Lemma 5.3.7(iii), the net(fα )α belongs to Z(L1 (G)). Consequently, for
each π∈G
b, the net (π(fα ))α lies in Z(Mdπ ) = CEdπ ,
so that ke
π (fα )kN = |T re
π (fα )|. It follows that
X
|fα (eG )| = dπ T re
π (fα ) , by Proposition 5.3.2(iii),
π∈Gb
X
= dπ |T re
π (fα )|
π∈G
b
X
= dπ |e
π (fα )|N
π∈G
b
→ 0 by 5.3.2
Example 5.3.9. The special unitary group SU (2) and we know that every
irreducible representation on SU (2) is equivalent to (πn , Hn ) for some n
(refer theorem 2.3.21), so it satises the hypothesis of Theorem 5.3.8. Hence,
A(SU (2)) is not amenable.
Example 5.3.10. The special orthogonal group SO(3) satises the hypothe-
sis of Theorem 5.3.8. Hence, A(SO(3)) is not amenable.
76
List of symbols
adx : inner derivation implemented by x
At : transpose matrix of A
A(G) : Fourier algebra of G
B(G) : Fourier-Stieltjes algebra of G
B 1 (A, X) : set of all inner derivations from A into X .
C : complex numbers
C(Ω) : continuous functions on Ω
Cb (Ω) : bounded continuous functions on Ω
C0 (Ω) : continuous functions on Ωvanishing at innity
Cc (Ω) : continuous functions onΩ with compact support
C n ([0, 1]) : n-times continuous dierentiable functions on [0, 1]
C ∗ (G) : group C ∗ -algebra of G
Clu (G) : left uniformly continuous functions on G
Cru (G) : right uniformly continuous functions onG
Cu (G) : uniformly continuous functions on G
dπ : dimension of representation π
eG : identity of the group G
Fn : free group with n-generators
G
b : equivalence classes of irreducible unitary representation of G
G
e : equivalence classes of unitary representation of G.
Gd : G equipped with discrete topology
GL(n, C) : general linear group over C
GL(n, R) : general linear group over R
H1 (A, X) : rst Hochschild cohomology group
La : multiplication with a from left
L1 (G) : group algebra of G
Lp (G) : p-integrable functions on G
L∞ (G) : essential bounded functions on G
mG : (left) Haar measure on G
M (G) : space of complex Borel measures on G
Mm,n (E) : m × n matrices with entries in E
Mn (E) := Mn,n (E)
Mm,n := Mm,n (C)
Mn := Mn,n
77
N : positive integers(excluding zero)
N0 : positive integers with zero
O(n) : orthogonal matrices of order n
P (G) : continuous positive denite functions on G
P1 (G) : positive functions of L1 -norm one
Q : rational numbers
R : real numbers
SO(n) : special orthogonal matrices of order n
SU (n) : special unitary matrices of order n
T∗ : adjoint of T
U (n) : unitary group of order n
Z 1 (A, X) : set of all derivations from A into X
∆ : modular function on group
∆A : diagonal operator
∆(A) : non-zero complex homomorphism from A to C
λp : left regular representations of G on Lp (G)
λp : representations of M (G) induced by λp
ρp : right regular representations of G on Lp (G)
ρp : representations of M (G) induced by ρp
δx : Dirac measure at x
π
ψu,v (x) := hπ(x)u, vi
πu,v : matrix coecient function of π
k . kH.S : Hilbert Schmidt norm i.e., kAk2H.S = tr(AA∗ )
k . kλ : injective cross norm
k . kπ : projective cross norm
k . kβ : cross norm
⊗ : algebraic tensor product
ˇ
⊗ : injective tensor product
⊗
b : projective tensor product
78
Bibliography
1977.
79
[11] Gert K. Pederson, C? -algebras and their automorphism groups, London
Math. Society Monographs, no. 14, Academic Press, London-New york,
1979.
80