There are billions of different kinds of living things (or organisms) on earth.

To help study them, biologists have

devised ways of naming and classifying them according to their similarities and differences.
The system most scientists use puts each living thing into seven groups (or taxons), organized from most general to
most specific. Therefore, each species belongs to a genus, each genus belongs to a family, each family belongs to an
order, etc.
From largest to smallest, these groups are:
Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species
Kingdoms are huge groups, encompassing millions of kinds of organisms each. All animals are in one kingdom (called
Kingdom Animalia); all plants are in another (Kingdom Plantae). In the most widely-used system, there are five
kingdoms, containing animals, plants, fungi, prokaryotes, and protoctists (the last two are different sorts of onecelled organisms). Other systems have six or more kingdoms.
Species are the smallest groups. A species consists of all the animals of the same type, who are able to breed and
produce young of the same kind. For example, while any two great white sharks are in the same species, as are any
two makos, great whites and makos are in different species (since they can't interbreed).
A Sample Classification
The lion belongs to the following groups:
Kingdom Animalia (includes all animals)
Phylum Chordata (includes all vertebrate animals, as well as some other more primitive ones)
Class Mammalia (includes all mammals)
Order Carnivora (includes carnivorous mammals, from bears to raccoons to harbor seals)
Family Felidae (includes all cats)
Genus Panthera (includes the great roaring cats: lions, tigers, jaguars, and leopards)
Species leo (lions!)
CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS
INTRODUCTION: WHAT'S IN A NAME?
"A rose is a rose," it has been said. And most of us know a rose when we see one, as we know the African marigolds
we plant beside the potatoes and beans in our gardens, and the maples, elms, cedars, and pines that shade our
backyards and line our streets. We usually call these plants by their common names. But if we wanted to know more
about the cedar tree in our front yard, we would find that "cedar" may refer to an eastern red cedar, an incense
cedar, a western red cedar, an Atlantic white cedar, a Spanish cedar, a banak cedar, or the biblical cedar of Lebanon.
In fact, we would find that cedars are found in three separate plant families.
Later, after discovering that our "African" marigolds are in fact from Mexico and our "Spanish" cedar originated in
the West Indies, we would realize how misleading the common names of plants can be. The same plant can have
many different common names. The European white lily has at least 245, while the marsh marigold has at least 280.
Clearly, if we use only the common name of a plant, we cannot be sure of understanding very much about that
plant.
It is for this reason that the scientific community prefers to use a more precise way of naming, or classification.
Scientific classification, however, is more than just naming: it is a key to understanding. Botanists name a plant to
give it a unique place in the biological world, as well as to clarify its relationships within that world. Classification is
sometimes difficult. As modern botany has advanced, producing an increasing understanding of complex
biochemical mechanisms, the criteria for the way plants are classified has undergone transformation. Even further,

Nature is not fixed and plants, like us, are capable of change. Plants can vary for reasons we don't entirely
understand. To be sure, plant classification is not the dull field that some might assume!
HOW ARE PLANTS CLASSIFIED?
Science classifies living things in an orderly system through which they can be readily identified. Living things are
grouped into categories of increasing size, based upon relationships within those categories. For example, all plants
can be put in order from the more primitive to the more advanced. Such a ranking would look like this:
Plant Kingdom
Bryophytes: Small with leaflike, stemlike, and rootlike structures.
Disseminated by spores: mosses, liverworts, hornworts.
Vascular Plants: Larger with true leaves, stems, and roots.
Seedless: Ferns, horsetails, club mosses.
Seed Plants:
Gymnosperms: Usually have cones, no flowers, seeds not enclosed in fruit: pines, spruces, firs, hemlocks, cycads,
ginkgo.
Angiosperms: Have flowers, seeds enclosed in fruit
Monocotyledons: Leaves have parallel veins, one seed leaf: grasses, orchids, lilies, palms.
Dicotyledons: Leaves have netted veins, two seed leaves: cherry trees, maples, coffee, daisies, etc.
This informal way of describing plant classification gives an overview of how plants are classified. Botanists use a
more complex system. A botanist divides the plant kingdom into Divisions, similar to the Phyla used to divide the
animal kingdom. There are twelve divisions. Referring to the above ranking, three of these divisions are Bryophytes,
four are seedless plants, four are Gymnosperms, and one is Angiosperms. Each Division is further divided into
Classes, which are divided into Orders, which are divided into Families, which are divided into Genera (singular,
Genus), which are divided into species, which is the "basic unit" of classification. Put somewhat simply, individuals in
a species are able to breed with each other, while in broader categories individuals do not interbreed.
THE BINOMIAL SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION
The foxglove plant is the source of digitalis.
Photo by Steven R. King, 1996.The scientific or botanical name of a plant is the means by which we give it its unique
place in the scientific and biological world. Begun by Carolus Linneaus, a Swedish botanist, in the eighteenth century,
this name is binomial (has two parts), consisting of genus and species, both of which are expressed in Latin. The
genus or generic name is a noun which usually names some aspect of a plant, such as Coffea, the Latinized form of
the Arabic word for beverage, kahwah. The species or specific name is usually an adjective that describes the genus.
In the case of coffee, the species is arabica, indicating that the plant was thought to originate in Arabia. The coffee
plant botanical name, Coffea arabica, refers to only one plant and cannot be confused with any other. Its botanical
name is unique to that particular plant the world over.
The botanical name is often followed by a letter or letters which stand for the botanist who named that plant. The
coffee plant's complete botanical name is Coffea arabica L., the L. standing for Linneaus. If the original botanical
name of a plant is later changed, the original classifier is still noted in parentheses. Other often used abbreviations
are Sarg. for Charles Sprague Sargent, founder of Harvard University's Arnold Arboretum; Lam. for Jean Baptiste
Lamarck, French evolutionist and botanist; and Audub. for John James Audubon, ornithologist, naturalist, and
painter. (Interestingly, this convention of naming the discoverer is not found in the naming of animals.) Sometimes
the Family name is included, which groups the genera. It can usually be distinguished by its ending--"eae."

Linneaus's book Species Plantarum (The Species of Plants), published in 1753, continues to influence the naming of
plants today. It is the starting point for checking whether a name has been used previously to insure that each plant
is given a unique name. The earliest name for a plant is usually the official name should a dispute arise.
WHAT THE NAMES MEAN
Coca leaves and scale for sale in Bolivian market to local coca chewers. Photo by Steven R. King, 1996.The genus and
species names often tell something about the plant. They can describe the appearance of the plant, reflect the
common name of the plant, indicate a chemical present in the plant, tell how the plant tastes or smells, or describe
how the plant grows. The genus or species name can honor someone, a botanist, a person in power, someone
historically prominent. The name can reflect the country or origin of a plant.
For example, Erythroxylum coca, the plant from which we derive cocaine, is named after erythro meaning red and
xylo meaning wood, literally "red stem." (Coca, the species name, is the common name of the plant.) The jaborandi
tree Pilocarpus jaborandi has a genus name which indicates that the alkaloid pilocarpine can be extracted from the
plant. The species name jaborandi means "one who makes saliva or one who spits," referring to the use of the plant
as an expectorant.
Plant classification can be painstakingly difficult. Plant species can resemble one another quite closely; plants can
sometimes interbreed within species or across species, producing hybrids and varieties that complicate
classification. A case in point is the cinchona tree, a plant instrumental in world history as a result of its alkaloid
derivative, quinine, which helped to reduce the incidence of the terrible disease malaria. The cinchona tree, with its
many species and hybrids and varieties within species, has resisted absolute classification. It's ambivalent ways have
left botanists puzzled as to the exact number of species which exist. In fact, one species grouping of cinchona has
been labeled 'Cinchona officinalis.' Officinalis (meaning 'of the workshop') is a common species name used for many
medicinal plants, particularly, it seems, under the trying circumstances of difficult taxonomy.
PLANT CLASSIFICATION IN OUR MODERN WORLD
Despite the great advances made in botany, there are many, many plants yet to be discovered, classified, and
utilized; unknown plants are treasures waiting to be found. Today's ethnobotanists are combing regions of the
world, looking for tomorrow's medicines and food crops. They are exploring the functional properties and
relationships of plants within ecosystems to help us to understand the need for diversity in the way we manage our
plant resources.
The plant world, our world, is in constant flux. Due to human and other factors, we are seeing the possibility of
extinction for many plants and animals. Plant classification aids in keeping track of our planet's endangered
inhabitants. Just as importantly, we are realizing the need to understand ecological systems which preserve
biodiversity. Today's scientists are exploring how genetic diversity and ecological sensitivity are necessary in solving
such problems as feeding the population and fighting disease. Plant classification is vital to these endeavors. As is
plain to see, a name is not just a name.
An Ecological relationship is the relationship between organisms in an ecosystem. All organisms in an ecosystem are
connected. Each interaction depends on the one before it. Each population interacts with one another in a complex
web of relations. Ecological relationships help better describe how they are connected.
There are six ecological relationships in which two are oppositional and four are symbiotic. The oppositional
relationships are predation and competition. The symbiotic relationships are mutualism, commensalism,
amensalism, and parasitism.
The ecological relationship an organism has depends on the way the organism adapted to its environmental
pressures on evolutionary bases.

Predation[edit]
This is where one organism hunts and eats the other organism. The organism hunting is called predator, while the
organism being hunted is called prey. Energy received from the sun is transferred from animals when the prey is
eaten by the predator. The predator now has its preys energy.
Corn snake swallowing cropped.jpg
A predator is usually a carnivore that hunts, kills and eats other animals. For example a snake eating a mouse, the
snake is considered the predator because it is consuming the mouse. In another example, a striped marlin is a
predator. It lives in the Pacific Ocean and preys on sardines, also a Pacific animal. Similarly, various birds eat
earthworms.
However, a predator can become the prey of another larger predator. For instance, a snake may become a meal for
a hawk.
"In ecology, predation is a mechanism of population control. Thus, when the number of predators is scarce, the
number of preys should rise. When this happens, the predators would be able to reproduce more and possibly
change their hunting habits. As the number of predators rise, the number of preys decline. This results in food
scarcity for predators that can eventually lead to the death of many predators." (www.Biology-Online.org)
Because of this, predation is called a "positive-negative" relationship. (Campbell) There is also Cannibalism. It is a
more grade of predation. This is where in one population the organisms eats each other because of scarce of the
food sources. (Lurdes Isufaj) Ex. Frogs are known for cannibalism too.
Herbivore/plant predation[edit]
Galapagos giant tortoise feeding.jpg
The prey does not necessarily have to be an animal, but can also be a plant. When prey is a plant, the relationship
would be called an herbivore plant relationship.
A perfect example of this would be, Galapagos tortoises e cactus plants that grow on the Galapagos Islands. (BarYam, 2011).
Another example are the koalas. They have a special digestive system that allows them to break down tough
eucalyptus leaves and remain unharmed by its poison (National Geographic).
Finally, a squirrel is the herbivore (predator) and the nuts he eats are the plant (prey).
Diagraming predator/prey relationships[edit]
Food Webs
Lake Ontario food web.pdf
The species that make up an ecosystem are connected in complex "food webs" of eater and eaten. Food webs show
interconnectedness, especially between predators and their prey.
When one species disappears, its predators can no longer eat it and its prey is no longer eaten by it. Changes in
these populations affect others.
Energy Pyramids
Ecological pyramid.svg
An energy pyramid is a way of showing how energy flows through an ecosystem specifically on a certain food chain
(predators and their prey).
Energy The energy for all living things comes from the sun
Producers Plants that capture the light energy and turn it into chemical energy (stored in sugar)
Consumers Carnivores are consumers that eat meat
Ex. Lion eat Zebra
Herbivores Consumers that eat plants (producers)

Ex. Chipmunks and Armadillos

Scavengers are consumers that eat dead animals
Ex. Vultures
Decomposers are consumers that eat and/or break down waste products
Ex. Fungus and Mold
Process for making an energy pyramid
1. Start with a food web
2. Find a food chain within the food web
3. Identify the trophic levels (Trophic Level-Steps in a food chain/energy pyramid)
4. Add the source of energy (usually the sun, but may also be chemosynthetic bacteria found near underwater
volcanoes.)
5. Show the amount of energy in every movement
6. Show the energy that is lost
Competition[edit]
Competition is when organisms compete for the same resources. This is a negative relationship because both
organisms are harming each other (Campbell).
2004327 Fighting Elephants.png
Intraspecies competition[edit]
Organisms competing can be from within the same species for example, two male elk fighting for a female mate.
Elephants also fight each other so that the dominant elephant will get to breed with the female.
Another species that shows great competition between each other are the dolphins. Dolphins go along together and
play with each other, but when it is time to eat; all dolphins have to compete for a meal.
Interspecies competition[edit]
Competition can be also found in two different species. A lizard and a frog can compete for a similar food they eat
such as a small insect. This type of competition is only found when two different species share an ecological niche
that they must compete over.
Competitive exclusion principle[edit]
Direct competition between different species almost always produces a winner and a loser- and the losing species
dies out, or is forced to migrate to another ecosystem which can support them (Levine, 2010). This is the
competitive exclusion principle. This principle says that two species that need the same resources cannot survive
together in the same habitat. One organism will eventually die off, thus, called.
Symbiotic relationships[edit]
Mutualism[edit]
Impala mutualim with birds wide.jpg
Common clownfish.jpg
Mutualism is a relationship in which organisms benefit from each other. This is a positive, positive relationship.
(Campbell)
An example of this would be the bee and the flower. The bee gets nectar and honey from the flower. The bee
contributes back to the flower by spreading the pollen so that the flowers can reproduce.This is a very common
contribute to both the flower and the bee, they both rely on each other to survive. (Katarina Krizka)
Another example would be when the ox pecker lands on an impalas back and eats the ticks that are a parasite to the
impala. The ox pecker is benefited because it gets a meal from the tick and the impala gets benefited because the
tick is no longer on it. Similarly, monkeys pick fleas from other monkeys which benefits both because its like a treat.

There is a mutualistic relationship between spider crabs and algae. The algae live on the crabs' backs, allowing the
spider crab to blend in with its environment, so that predators can't find them. The algae get a nice place to live,
while in turn, the spider crab gets camouflaged. Thus, both organisms are benefited. (Bar-Yam)
The Clownfish and Anemone would also be a good fit for mutualism because the Anemone protects the clownfish
while the clownfish protects the Anemone. "The clownfish benefits by having a protected home territory." (Katarina
Krizka)
Finally, there is even a mutualistic relationship within the human body. Bacteria live inside our intestines (getting a
good place to live) and help us break down our food and get vitamins.
Commensalism[edit]
Commensalism is a relationship in which one organism benefits from another organism that is not affected. This is a
positive, neutral relationship. (Campbell)
Carcharhinus longimanus 1.jpg
Belize13.jpg
For example a small fish called the Pilot Fish follows underneath a shark and when the shark eats something the pilot
fish eats the scrap pieces of the shark original kill.(Blue Planet BBC Documentary 2001).
Another example is of a birds nest in a tree. The bird is benefitting because the tree is giving the bird shelter and the
tree is not getting anything in return.
Similarly, the transparent shrimp benefits from a reef because it hides within it (camouflaging), but the coral is not
affected.
Additionally the relationship between an infectious disease and its carrier, an animal such as a mosquito, could be
classified as commensalism because the mosquito is unaffected by the presence of the disease, but the mosquito
transfers it to a host in which the disease can reproduce or spread more easily to others.
"Often, the host species provides a home and/or transportation for the other species." (www.Biology-Online.org)
The whale and barnacles are a perfect example of this. Barnacles are crustaceans that have jointed legs and shells
of connected overlapping plates. Instead of crawling after food, they glue themselves to rocks, ships, pillings,
abalones, and maybe even whales and wait for food to wash by. (Oracle, 2000). The barnacles attach themselves to
the whale. This way, the barnacle can get food faster. This does not affect the whale so he does not take the
barnacle off.
Parasitism[edit]
Mosquito Tasmania.jpg
Ticks 5.jpg
Parasitism is a relationship in which one organism (the parasite) benefits while the other(the host) is harmed. This is
a positive, negative relationship. (Campbell)( Dionne L Rice Jr)
The parasite usually lives on or inside the other organism.
For example, mosquito is a parasite, feeding on a human while transferring the disease called Malaria. Other
examples would be ticks or fleas that live off of many large mammals. Similarly, head lice are an example of
parasitism because they feed on blood from the humans head.
In Colorado, the pine bark beetle is a common parasite. The pine beetles lays its eggs in the pine trees, and then
when the babies are born, they eat the layers of the tree which stops the tree from growing. (Robbins)
Natural Selection favors parasites that are best able to locate hosts and feed on them.(Cambell, 1996)