FT RAMAN AND FTIR STUDY

OF
NICKEL FERRITE

2013

PHYSICS
1

CONTENTS

Page No.

Chapter

INTRODUCTION

1.1

NANOSCIENCE

1.2

NANOTECHNOLOGY

1.3

APPLICATIONS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY

1.3.1

Nanotechnology application medicine

1.3.2

Nanotechnology application in electronics

1.3.3

Nanotechnology application in space

1.3.4

Nanotechnology application in battery

1.4

METHOD OF PREPARATION OF NANOPAETICLES

7-20

CHAPTER 1
NANOSCIECE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY

1.1

Nanoscience
Nanoscience is an emerging area of science which concerns itself

with the study of materials that ha ve very small dimensions .It cannot reall y
be called chemistry, physics or biology; All sorts of scientists are studying
very small

things

means 10 so a

inorder to better un derstand

nanometer is one billionth of a

our world. The word nano

meter. One definition of

nanoscience is that it concerns itself with the study of objects which are
anywhere from hundreds to tens of nanometers in size.

When particle sizes are reduced to nano scales, the ratio of surface
area to volume increases to dramatically. Since many important chemical
reactions including these involving catalysts -occur at surfaces, it is no t too
surprising that very small particles are staggeringl y reactive. This is one of
the reason that chemists are very excited about nano

science - if they can

make surface area, they get more catal ytic action , giving the potential to
speed up almost all physical and manufacturing process .

Physics is different on the nanometer scale. Properties not seen on

a macroscopic scale now become important - such as quantum mechanical and
thermodynamic properties. Rather than working with bulk materials, one
works with individual atoms and molecules. By learning about an individual
molecules properties, we can put them together in very well -defined ways to
produce new materials with new and amazing characteristics. There are
multiple reasons fo r nanoscience to suddenl y become such a big field. One is
availabilit y of new instruments able to see and "touch" at this scale. In the
earl y 1980s the scanning tunneling microscope was invented at IBM -Zurich
in Switzerland. This was the first instrumen t that was able to see atoms. A
few years later, the Atomic Force Microscope was invented, expanding the
capabilities and t ypes of materials that could be investigated. Hence,
Scanning Probe Microscopy was born, and since then multiple similar
techniques have evolved from these instruments to see different properties
at the nanometer scale. In addition, older techniques such as electron
microscopy have continued to evolve as well, and now can image in the
nanometer range. Currentl y, there are a large number of complementary
instruments that help scientists in the nano realm.

Figure 1.1 Different ranges of natural and manmade materials

1.2

Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is the engineering of functional systems at the

molecular scale. This covers both current work an concepts that are more
advance. In its original sense, nanotechnology refers the projected abilit y to
construct items from the bottom up, usi ng techniques and tools being
5

developed today to make complete, high performance

products. Two main

approaches are used in nanotechnology. In the bottom - up approach,

materials and devises are built from molecular components which assemble
themselves chemically by principles of molecular recognition In the top own approach,

nano -objects are

constructed from larger entities without

atomic-level control.

Nanotechnolo gy as defined

by size is naturall y very broad,

including fields of science as diverse as surface science, organic chemistry,

molecularbioloy, semiconductor physics, microfabrication, etc. Scientists
currentl y debate the future implication of nanotechnology. Nnanotechnology
may be able to create many new materials and dev ises with a wast range of
applications, such as in medicine , electronics, biomaterials and energy
production.

As Nanotechnology consists in techniques for designing and

manufacturing these structures well as applications arising from these or it is
defined as fabrication of devices with atomic precession. Device with
minimum feature sizes less than 100 nanometer are considered to be
produced. Then a nanoscale marks the nebulous boundary between the
classical and quantum mechanical world. A more generalized description of
nanotechnology was subsequentl y established by National

Nanotechnology

Initiative, which defines nanotechnology as the manipulation of matter with

at least one dimension sized from 1 to100 nanometers.

Fabrication of nano mechanics, nano electronics an d other nano

devises will undoubtedl y solvea n enormous amount of problems

faced

by

mankind today. It is not clear when human first began to take advatage of
nanosized materials. The concept that seeded
discussed

in 1959 by renowned physicist

nanotechnology where first

Richard Feyman in his talk

There's Plent y of Room at the Bottom .The term nanotechnology was first
used by Norio Taniguchi in 1974 thou gh it was not widel y

known.

It is hoped that developments in nano technology will make

possible their c onstruction by some other means , perhaps using biomimetic
principles. However, Drexler and oth er researchers have proposed that
advanced

nanotechnology,

although

perhaps

initiall y

implemented

by

biomimetic means, ultimatel y could be based on mechanical engine ering

principles , namel y , a manufacturing technology based on the mechanical
functionalit y of these components (such as gears , bearings , motors, and
structural members ) that would enable programmable, positional assembl y to
atomic specification.

Now

nanotechnology

is

emerging

as

the

next

technological

revolution, with effect on virtuall y every aspects of our life. It is expected

that emerging nanotechnology will focus on challenges of min iaturization and
energy saving, covering di fferent technology that exist today. In advanced
computing, nano electronic devises based on quantum dots or molecular
switches will enable us to produce next generation memory and lo gic chips.
In environment, nano materials based photo catal ysts clean the environment
and yield surface with self cleaning properties . This self cleaning method
now a days is used in textile ind ustry as an application of nano technology. In
pharmaceuticals, antimicrobial nanocoating o n wound dressing kill bacteria,
reduce inflammation and pro mote healing for cancer treatment nano particles
are being developed for targeting and destruction of breast cancer cells.

Researches already have some capacit y to control many aspects of

nanoworld. However, many of the structures being built are two dimensions
and are relativel y simple compared to some of nature's handiwork. Living
cells, for example are nano scale devises that are constantl y assembling
complex

structures

one

or

two

molecules
7

at

time

(e.g.: -DNA

structures).Molecular

nanotechnology,

sometimes

called

molecular

manufacturing, describes engineered nano systems (nano scale machines)

operating on the molecular s cale. Molecular nano technology is especiall y
associated with molecular assembler, a machine that can produce a desired
structure or device atom -by-atom using the principle of mechanosynthesis.

1.3

Applications of nanotechnology
As of August 21, 2008, the project on emerging Nanotechnologies

estimates that over 800 manufacturer -identified nanotech products are

publicl y available , with new ones hitting the market at a pace of 3 -4 per
week. Most applications are limited to the use of first generation passive
nanomaterials which include s titanium dioxide in sunscreen , cosmetics,
surface coatings , and some food products ; carbon allotropes used to produce
gecko tape; silver in food packaging , clothing , disinfectants and household
appliances; zinc oxide in sunscreens and cosmetics , surface coatings , paints
and outdoor furniture varnishes ; and cerium oxide as a fuel catal yst .

There are several important modern developments. The atomic

force microscope (AFM) and the scanning tunneling microscope (STM) are
two earl y versions of scanning probes that launched nanotechnology. various
techniques of nanolithography such as optical lithography , X -ray lithography
dip pen nanolithography , electron beam lithography or nano i mprint
lithography

were also developed. Another group of nanotechnological

techniques include those used for fabrication of nano tubes and nano wires,
those used in semiconductor fabrication. Recentl y strong nano magnets have
been developed which would b e useful for treatment of cancer. Nano
materials can be characterized using high resolution transmission electron
spectroscopy , small angle X ray scattering , small angle neutron scattering,
X-ray diffraction , low frequency Raman scattering , optical ab sorption,
photo luminescence spectroscopy and longitudinal optical photon Raman
scattering etc.
8

Figure 1.2 Applications of nanotechnology in various fields of science

Nanoemulsion is one form of nanotechnology that produce liquid

products like cleaners and disinfectants for swimming pools that are not
harmful to humans. Liquids that kill the bacteria in pools are mixed with
drops that are about a million smaller than th e head of a pin inorder to spread
toward the bacteria. This means nanotechnology has produced highl y
effective pool antibacterial liquids that require a lesser amount of chemical
in the water. This product makes swimming pools safer on people for two
levels. Bacteria is controlled more effectivel y and exposure to harsh
chemicals that have the potential to cause health problems. Nanosize powder
9

particles are potentiall y important in ceramics powder, metallurgy, the

achievement of uniform nanopolosit y and sim ilar applications The strong
tendency of small particles to form clumps (agglomerates) is serious
technological problem that impedes such applications.

1.3.1

Nanotechnology applications in Medicine

One application of nanotechnology in medicine currentl y being

developed involves employing nanoparticles to deliver drugs, heat, light or

other substances to specific t ypes of cells (such as cancer cells). Particles are
engineered so that they are attracted to diseased cells, which allows direct
treatment of those cells. This technique reduces damage to healthy cells in
the body and allows for earlier detection of disease.

For

example,

nanoparticles

that deliver

chemotherapy

drugs

directl y to cancer cells are under development. Tests are in progress for
targeted delivery of chemotherapy drugs and their final approval for their use
with cancer patients is pending. One company, C yt Immune has published the
preliminary results of a Phase 1 Clinical Trial of their first targeted
chemotherapy drug and another company, BIND Biosciences, has published
preliminary results of a Phase 1 Clinical Trial for their first targeted
chemotherapy drug. Researc hers have developed "nanosponges" that absorb
toxins and remove them from the bloodstream. The nanosponges are pol ymer
nanoparticles coated with a red blood cell membrane. The red blo od cell
membrane allows the nanosponges to travel freel y in the bloodstream and
attract the toxins.

10

Fig.1.3 Nanoshells as Cancer Therapy

Researchers have demonstrated a method to generate sound waves

that are powerful, but also tightl y focused, that may eventuall y be used for
noninvasive surgery. They use a lens coated with carbon nanotubes to convert
light from a laser to focused sound waves. The in tent is to develop a method
that could blast tumors or other diseased areas without damaging healthy
tissue.

1.3.2

Nanotechnology applications in electronics

Researchers are looking into the following nano electronics

projects. Cadmium selenide nanocrystals deposited on plastic sheets have

been shown to form flexible electronic circuits . Researchers are aiming for a
combination of flexibilit y, a simple fabrication process and low power
11

requirements.

Integrating silicon

nanophotonics components

into

CMOS

integrated circuits. This optical technique is intended to provide hi gher speed

data transmission between integrated circuits than is possible with electrical
signals. Building transistors from carbon nanotubes to enable minimum
transistor dimensions of a few nanometers and developing techniques to
manufacture integrated circuits built with nanotube transistors .

Using electrodes made from nanowires that would enable flat

panel displays to be flexible as well as thinner than current flat panel
displays. Transistors built in single atom thick graphene film to enable very
high speed transistors. Researchers have developed an interesting method
of forming PN junctions, a key component of transistors, in graphene . They
patterned the p and n regions in the substrate. When the graphene film was
applied to the substrate electrons were either a dded or taken from the
graphene, depending upon the doping of the substrate. The researchers
believe that this method reduces the disruption of the graphene lattice that
can occur with other methods. Combining gold nanoparticles with organic
molecules to create a transistor known as a NOMFET ( Nanoparticle Organic
Memory Field-Effect Transistor ).Using carbon nanotubes to direct electrons
to

illuminate

pixels,

resulting

in

lightweight,

millimeter

thick "nanoemmissive" display panel .

1.3.3

Nanotechnology applications in space

Researchers

are

looking

into

the

following

applications

of

nanotechnology in space flight. Employing materials made from carbon

nanotubes to reduce the weight of spac eships like the one shown below while
retaining or even increasing the structural strength.

Using carbon nanotubes to make the cable needed for the space
elevator, a system which could significantl y reduce the cost of sending
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material into orbit. Nova has a nice video explaining the concepts . Including
layers of bio -nano robots in spacesuits. The outer layer of bio -nano robots
would respond to damages to the spacesuit, for example to seal up punctures.
An inner layer of bio -nano robots could respond if the astronaut was in
trouble, for example by providing drugs in a medic al emergency. For more
about this see page 30 of this report on Bio-Nano-Machines for Space
Applications.

Fig.1.4 Photo courtesy o f NASA

Deploying a network of nanosensors to search large areas of
planets such as Mars for traces of water or other chemicals. To read more
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about this, see page 27 of this report on Bio-Nano-Machines for Space

Applications. Producing thrusters for spacecraft that use MEMS devices to
accelerate nanoparticles. This should reduce the weight and complexity of
thruster s ystems used for interplanetary missi ons. One cost-saving feature of
these t ype of thrusters is their abilit y to draw on more or less of the MEMS
devices depending upon the size and thrust requirement of the spacecraft,
rather than designing and building different engines for different size
spacecraft. Using carbon nanotubes to build lightweight solar sails that use
the pressure of light from the sun reflecting on the mirror -like solar cell to
propel a spacecraft. This solves the problem of having to lift enough fuel into
orbit

to

power

spacecraft

during

interplanetary

missions.

Working

with nanosensors to monitor the levels of trace chemicals in spacecraft to

monitor the performance of life support systems.

1.3.4

Nanotechnology applications in battery

Researchers at USC are developing a lithium ion battery that can

recharge within 10 minutes using silicon nanoparticles in the anode of the

battery. The use of silicon nanoparticles, rather than solid sili con, prevents
the

cracking

of

the

electrode

which

occurs

in

solid

silicon

electrodes. Researchers at Rice University have developed electrodes made

from carbon nanotubes grown on graphene with very high surface area and
very low electrical resistance. The researchers first grew graphene on a metal
substrate then grew carbon nanotubes on the graphene sheet. Because the
base of each nanotube is bonded, atom to atom, to the graph ene sheet the
nanotube-graphene structure is essentially one large molecule with a huge
surface area.

Researchers

at

Stanford

Universit y

have

grown silicon

nanowires on a stainless steel substrate and demonstrated that batteries using

these anodes could have up to 10 times the power densit y of conventional
lithium ion batteries. Using silicon nanowires, instead of bulk silicon fixes a
14

problem of the silicon cracking, that has been seen on electrodes using bulk
silicon. The cracking is caused because the silicon swells it absorbs lithium
ions while being recharged, and contracts as the battery is discharged and the
lithium ions leave the silicon. Howev er the researchers found that while the
silicon nanowires swell as lithium ions are absorbed during discharge of the
battery and contract as the lithium ions leave during recharge of the battery
the nanowires do not crack, unlike anodes that used bulk sili con.

Researchers at MIT have developed a technique to deposit aligned

carbon nanotubes on a substrate for use as the anode, and possibl y the
cathode, in a lithi um ion battery. The carbon nanotubes have organic
molecules attached that help the nanotubes align on the substrate, as well as
provide many ox ygen atoms that provide points for lithium ions to attach to.
This could increase the power densit y of lithium io n batteries significantl y,
perhaps by as much as 10 times. A battery manufacturer called Contour
Systems has licensed this technology and are planning to use it in their next
generation Li -ion batteries. Researchers at MIT have used carbon nanofibers
to make lithium ion battery electrodes that show four times the storage
capacit y of current lithium ion batteries.

1.4 Methods of preparation of nanoparticles

The two methods possible for the synthesis of nanoparticles are physical method
and chemical method.
1. Physical methods
The main physical methods used for the synthesis of nanostructured materials are:a. Inert gas condensation
b. Mechanical alloying
c. Sputtering

15

d. Laser ablation
e. Plasma pyrolysis
2. Chemical Methods
For the synthesis of nanoparticles, chemical methods are widely used. The most
important chemical method is the solution processing method. This technique consists of an
initial solution preparation step followed by solvent removal and then decomposition of the
dried product to the final desired ceramic powders. The important solution based chemical
synthesis methods used for the preparation of fine-gained ceramic products are

a. Co-precipitation Method
The co- precipitation process involves the formation of a solid precipitate followed
by the separation of the solids with a filtration step. The precipitate of multi-component
system is termed as co-precipitation. In actual practice one takes oxides or carbonates of
relevant metals digest them with an acid and to solution thus obtained, the precipitating
reagent is added. The precipitate after drying is heated to the required temperature in a
desired atmosphere to get the final product.

b. Sol- Gel Method

This method has provided a very important means of preparing inorganic oxides.
The name Sol-Gel is given to the process because of the distinctive viscosity increase that
occurs at a particular point in the sequence of steps.

The six important steps are:I.

II.

Hydrolysis
Polymerization

III.

Gelation

IV.

Drying

V.

Dehydration
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VI.

Densification

c. Precursor Compound Method

This method involves preparation of a precursor compound. This precursor
compounds are usually complex combinations of cations in the proper ratio in the crystal
structures, together with ionic and molecular species containing the necessary oxygen for the
formation of solid solutions or the crystalline compounds, the remainder being volatile or
decomposable into volatile elements. The pyrolysis of the complex combinations at
temperatures between 2000C and 5000C gives nanoscale particles of the desired mixed oxide
system.

d. Combustion Method
Combustion synthesis or the self propagating high temperature synthesis (SHS) is
a versatile method for the synthesis of a variety of solids. The method make use of a highly
exothermic reaction between the reactants to produce a flame due to spontaneous
combustion, which then yields the desired product or its precursor in finely divided form. In
order for combustion to take place, one has to ensure that the initial mixture of reactants is
highly dispersed and contains high chemical energy.

Although several chemical methods are available for the preparation of a variety of
ceramic powders, there is scope for improvement of existing methods, so that less
cumbersome, more versatile and cost effective methods can be developed. The methods are:

1. Metal ion- Polymer based precursor solution methods

2. Metal ion- ligand complex based precursor solution methods
3. Metal ion- polymer based precursor solution methods

e. Solution Processing Methods

17

This technique can be described as consisting of an initial solution preparation step

followed by solvent removal and then decomposition of the dried product to the final desired
ceramic powders. In general, the solution processing methods offer the advantages of easy
preparation of nearly any composition maintaining compositional homogeneity and high
purity.Of these different preparation methods, we used the co-precipitation method in the
present study.

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