Rings and Elds

Rings and fields
Definition. Examples. Immediate properties
Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 1 / 31

Rings and fields
Definition
A universal algebra (R, +, ·) formed by a set R endorsed with two
binary operations + and ·, traditionally called addition and
multiplication, is called a ring if the following properties hold:

Rings and fields
Definition
1) (R, +) is an abelian group.

Rings and fields
Definition
2) (R, ·) is a semigroup.

Rings and fields
Definition
3) the left distributivity of the multiplication with respect to addition
x · (y + z) = x · y + x · z , (∀)x, y , z ∈ R
and the right distributivity of the multiplication with respect to addition
(x + y ) · z = x · z + y · z , (∀)x, y , z ∈ R .

Rings and fields
Definition
3) the left distributivity of the multiplication with respect to addition
x · (y + z) = x · y + x · z , (∀)x, y , z ∈ R
and the right distributivity of the multiplication with respect to addition
(x + y ) · z = x · z + y · z , (∀)x, y , z ∈ R .

Remark
A ring is a universal algebra (R, +, ·, 0, −) which satisfies the
polynomial identities
(x + y ) + z = x + (y + z)
x +0=0+x =x
x + (−x) = (−x) + x = 0
x +y =y +x
(x · y ) · z = x · (y · z)
x · (y + z) = x · y + x · z
(x + y ) · z = x · z + y · z

Immediately from the axioms one can deduce the following properties:
Proposition
Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and x, y ∈ R two arbitrary elements. Then
i) x · 0R = 0R · x = 0R .
ii) (−x) · y = x · (−y ) = −(x · y ).
iii) (−x) · (−y ) = x · y .

Immediately from the axioms one can deduce the following properties:
Proposition
Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and x, y ∈ R two arbitrary elements. Then
i) x · 0R = 0R · x = 0R .
ii) (−x) · y = x · (−y ) = −(x · y ).
iii) (−x) · (−y ) = x · y .

Definition
A ring (R, +, ·) is called a commutative ring if the multiplication is
commutative.
A ring (R, +, ·) is called a unital ring if the multiplication allows a unit
element 1R .

Definition
A ring (R, +, ·) is called a commutative ring if the multiplication is
commutative.
A ring (R, +, ·) is called a unital ring if the multiplication allows a unit
element 1R .

Remark
1) On any abelian group (G , +) one can define a ring structure with
the multiplication
· : G × G −→ G : (a, b) 7−→ a · b := 0G .
2) If (R, +, ·) is a unital ring with 1R = 0R , then
x = x · 1R = x · 0R = 0R , (∀)x ∈ R ,
so that in this case R = {0R }.

Remark
the multiplication
· : G × G −→ G : (a, b) 7−→ a · b := 0G .
x = x · 1R = x · 0R = 0R , (∀)x ∈ R ,

Without explicitly stating it every time, by unital ring we shall
understand a ring R which allows a unit element 1R different from the
zero element 0R .

Remark
the multiplication
· : G × G −→ G : (a, b) 7−→ a · b := 0G .
x = x · 1R = x · 0R = 0R , (∀)x ∈ R ,

zero element 0R .
3) If (R, +, ·) is a ring, by the opposite ring associated to R we
understand the ring R op := (R, +, ) having the same additive group
as the ring R, in which the multiplication is given by
: R × R −→ R : (x, y ) 7−→ x y := y · x .
Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 op 2009 5 / 31
Remark
the multiplication
· : G × G −→ G : (a, b) 7−→ a · b := 0G .
x = x · 1R = x · 0R = 0R , (∀)x ∈ R ,

zero element 0R .
3) If (R, +, ·) is a ring, by the opposite ring associated to R we
understand the ring R op := (R, +, ) having the same additive group
as the ring R, in which the multiplication is given by
: R × R −→ R : (x, y ) 7−→ x y := y · x .
Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 op 2009 5 / 31
Definition
Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and a ∈ R an arbitrary element. The element a
is called
def
- nilpotent ⇐⇒ (∃)m ∈ N∗ : am = 0.

Definition
is called
def
- nilpotent ⇐⇒ (∃)m ∈ N∗ : am = 0.
def
- idempotent ⇐⇒ an = a, (∀)n ∈ N∗ (⇐⇒ a2 = a).

Definition
is called
def
- nilpotent ⇐⇒ (∃)m ∈ N∗ : am = 0.
def
def
- a left zero divisor ⇐⇒ (∃)b ∈ R \ {0} : a · b = 0.

Definition
is called
def
- nilpotent ⇐⇒ (∃)m ∈ N∗ : am = 0.
def
def
def
- a right zero divisor ⇐⇒ (∃)b ∈ R \ {0} : b · a = 0.

Definition
is called
def
- nilpotent ⇐⇒ (∃)m ∈ N∗ : am = 0.
def
def
def
def
- a zero divisor ⇐⇒ (∃)b ∈ R \ {0} : a · b = 0 ∨ b · a = 0.

Definition
is called
def
- nilpotent ⇐⇒ (∃)m ∈ N∗ : am = 0.
def
def
def
def
def
- a left regular element ⇐⇒ (∀)b, c ∈ R : a · b = a · c =⇒ b = c.

Definition
is called
def
- nilpotent ⇐⇒ (∃)m ∈ N∗ : am = 0.
def
def
def
def
def
def
- a right regular element ⇐⇒ (∀)b, c ∈ R : b · a = c · a =⇒ b = c.

Definition
is called
def
- nilpotent ⇐⇒ (∃)m ∈ N∗ : am = 0.
def
def
def
def
def
def
def
- a regular element ⇐⇒ (∀)b, c ∈ R : a · b = a · c ∨ b · a = c · a =⇒ b = c.

Definition
is called
def
- nilpotent ⇐⇒ (∃)m ∈ N∗ : am = 0.
def
def
def
def
def
def
def
- a regular element ⇐⇒ (∀)b, c ∈ R : a · b = a · c ∨ b · a = c · a =⇒ b = c.

Notation
N(R) := {a ∈ R| a − nilpotent}
I (R) := {a ∈ R| a − idempotent}
Ds (R) := {a ∈ R| a − left zero divisor}
Dd (R) := {a ∈ R| a − right zero divisor}
D(R) := {a ∈ R| a − zero divisor}
Rs (R) := {a ∈ R| a − left regular element}
Rd (R) := {a ∈ R| a − right regular element}
R(R) := {a ∈ R| a − regular element}

Remark
It is obvious that in any ring R we have 0R ∈ N(R), and if |R| ≥ 2,
then 0R ∈ Ds (R) ∩ Dd (R). By language abuse, if in a ring R we have
N(R) = {0R }(resp. D(R) = {0R }), we call the respective ring a ring
without nilpotent elements(resp. ring without zero divisors).
Definition
A ring (R, +, ·) which is unital, commutative and without zero divisors
is called an entire ring or integral domain.

Remark
It is obvious that in any ring R we have 0R ∈ N(R), and if |R| ≥ 2,
then 0R ∈ Ds (R) ∩ Dd (R). By language abuse, if in a ring R we have
N(R) = {0R }(resp. D(R) = {0R }), we call the respective ring a ring
without nilpotent elements(resp. ring without zero divisors).
Definition
A ring (R, +, ·) which is unital, commutative and without zero divisors
is called an entire ring or integral domain.

Proposition
If R is an arbitrary ring, with |R| ≥ 2, the following relations hold:
N(R) ⊆ Ds (R) ∩ Dd (R)

D(R) = Ds (R) ∪ Dd (R)
R(R) = Rs ∩ Rd (R)
.
R = Ds (R) ∪ Rs (R)
.
R = Dd (R) ∪ Rd (R)
.
R = D(R) ∪ R(R) .

Definition
A unital ring R such that U(R) = R \ {0} is called a division ring.
A commutative division ring is called a field.

Definition
Remark
A ring (R, +, ·) is a division ring(resp.a field) if and only if (R \ {0}, ·)
forms a group(resp. an abelian group).

Definition
Remark
A ring (R, +, ·) is a division ring(resp.a field) if and only if (R \ {0}, ·)
forms a group(resp. an abelian group).

Example
1) (Q, +, ·), (R, +, ·), (C, +, ·) are fields(=commutative division rings).
2) For any prime number p, (Zp , +, ·) is a field.

Example
3) Let A = {0, 1, a, b} be a set with four elements, on which we define
two binary operations whose Cayley tables are:
+ 0 1 a b · 0 1 a b
0 0 1 a b 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 b a 1 0 1 a b
a a b 0 1 a 0 a b 1
b b a 1 0 b 0 b 1 a
Then (A, +, ·) is a field.

Example
3) Let A = {0, 1, a, b} be a set with four elements, on which we define
two binary operations whose Cayley tables are:
+ 0 1 a b · 0 1 a b
0 0 1 a b 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 b a 1 0 1 a b
a a b 0 1 a 0 a b 1
b b a 1 0 b 0 b 1 a
Then (A, +, ·) is a field.

Example
We denote by H the set R4 which we endorse with two binary
operations, + and ·, defined by
(a, b, c, d) + (a0 , b 0 , c 0 , d 0 ) = (a + a0 , b + b 0 , c + c 0 , d + d 0 ) ,
(∀)a, b, c, d, a0 , b 0 , c 0 , d 0 ∈ R ,
respectively
(a, b, c, d) · (a0 , b 0 , c 0 , d 0 ) = (aa0 − bb 0 − cc 0 − dd 0 ,

ab 0 + ba0 + cd 0 − dc 0 , ac 0 − bd 0 + ca0 + db 0 , ad 0 + bc 0 − cb 0 + da0 ) ,
(∀)a, b, c, d, a0 , b 0 , c 0 , d 0 ∈ R .
Then (H, +, ·) is a noncommutative division ring.

Example
We denote by H the set R4 which we endorse with two binary
operations, + and ·, defined by
(a, b, c, d) + (a0 , b 0 , c 0 , d 0 ) = (a + a0 , b + b 0 , c + c 0 , d + d 0 ) ,
(∀)a, b, c, d, a0 , b 0 , c 0 , d 0 ∈ R ,
respectively
(a, b, c, d) · (a0 , b 0 , c 0 , d 0 ) = (aa0 − bb 0 − cc 0 − dd 0 ,

ab 0 + ba0 + cd 0 − dc 0 , ac 0 − bd 0 + ca0 + db 0 , ad 0 + bc 0 − cb 0 + da0 ) ,
(∀)a, b, c, d, a0 , b 0 , c 0 , d 0 ∈ R .
Then (H, +, ·) is a noncommutative division ring.

Proposition
Any finite nonzero ring without zero divisors is a division ring.
Corollary
Any finite entire ring is a field.

Proposition
Any finite nonzero ring without zero divisors is a division ring.
Corollary
Any finite entire ring is a field.

Theorem
(Wedderburn) Any finite division ring is a field.
Corollary
Any finite nonzero ring without zero divisors is a field.

Theorem
(Wedderburn) Any finite division ring is a field.
Corollary
Any finite nonzero ring without zero divisors is a field.

Definition
Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and S ⊆ R, S 6= ∅. We call S is a subring of the
ring R, and we write S ≤ R if S ≤ (R, +) and S ≤ (R, ·).
Remark
The conditions in the definition above may be written as:
1) x − y ∈ S, (∀)x, y ∈ S ,
2) x · y ∈ S, (∀)x, y ∈ S .

Definition
Remark
1) x − y ∈ S, (∀)x, y ∈ S ,
2) x · y ∈ S, (∀)x, y ∈ S .
Definition
If (R, +, ·) is a unital ring, and S ≤ R has the property that 1R ∈ S, we
call S a unital subring of R.

Definition
Remark
1) x − y ∈ S, (∀)x, y ∈ S ,
2) x · y ∈ S, (∀)x, y ∈ S .
Definition
If (R, +, ·) is a unital ring, and S ≤ R has the property that 1R ∈ S, we
call S a unital subring of R.

Example
1) The set
a b
Mut
2 (Z) = | a, b, c ∈ Z
0 c
of all upper triangular matrices of dimension 2 × 2 with integer
elements forms a unital subring of the ring M2 (Z).
2) If (R, +, ·) is a ring(resp. unital ring), then the centre of the ring
Z (R) := {a ∈ R| a · r = r · a, (∀)r ∈ R}
forms a subring(resp. unital subring) of the ring R.

Example
1) The set
a b
Mut
2 (Z) = | a, b, c ∈ Z
0 c
of all upper triangular matrices of dimension 2 × 2 with integer
elements forms a unital subring of the ring M2 (Z).
2) If (R, +, ·) is a ring(resp. unital ring), then the centre of the ring
Z (R) := {a ∈ R| a · r = r · a, (∀)r ∈ R}
forms a subring(resp. unital subring) of the ring R.

Proposition
T (R, +, ·) be a ring and {Si }i∈I a family of subrings ale lui R. Then
Let
Si ≤ R.
i∈I
Definition
Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and M ⊆ R. The subring of R generated by M is
then \
hMi := S.
M⊆S≤R

Proposition
Let
Si ≤ R.
i∈I
Definition
then \
hMi := S.
M⊆S≤R
Remark
If (R, +, ·) is a ring and M ⊆ R, then hMi is the least subring of R in
which the set M is included.

Proposition
Let
Si ≤ R.
i∈I
Definition
then \
hMi := S.
M⊆S≤R
Remark
If (R, +, ·) is a ring and M ⊆ R, then hMi is the least subring of R in
which the set M is included.

Definition
Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and I ⊆ R, I 6= ∅. We call I a left(resp. right,
resp. bilateral) ideal of R, and we write I Es R(resp. I Ed R, resp. E R)
if
1) I ≤ (R, +),
2) R · I ⊆ I (resp. I · R ⊆ I , resp. R · I ∪ I · R ⊆ I ).
Remark
The conditions above can be written as
1) x − y ∈ I , (∀)x, y ∈ I ,
2) r · x ∈ I (resp. x · r ∈ I , resp. r · x, x · r ∈ I ), (∀)r ∈ R, x ∈ I .

Definition
Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and I ⊆ R, I 6= ∅. We call I a left(resp. right,
resp. bilateral) ideal of R, and we write I Es R(resp. I Ed R, resp. E R)
if
1) I ≤ (R, +),
2) R · I ⊆ I (resp. I · R ⊆ I , resp. R · I ∪ I · R ⊆ I ).
Remark
The conditions above can be written as
1) x − y ∈ I , (∀)x, y ∈ I ,
2) r · x ∈ I (resp. x · r ∈ I , resp. r · x, x · r ∈ I ), (∀)r ∈ R, x ∈ I .

Proposition
If (R, +, ·) is a ring, and I an ideal of it(left, right, or bilateral), then I is a
subring of the ring R.

Proposition
Let (R, +, ·) be a ring, and {Iλ }λ∈Λ a family of left(resp. right, resp.
bilateral) ideals. Then
\
Iλ Es R (resp. Ed R , resp. E R) .
λ∈Λ
Definition
Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and M ⊆ R. The left ideal(resp. the right ideal,
resp. the bilateral ideal) of R generated by M is
\ \ \
(M)s := I (resp. (M)d := I , resp. (M) := I).
M⊆I Es R M⊆I Ed R M⊆I ER

Proposition
\
λ∈Λ
Definition
\ \ \
Remark
(M)s (resp. (M)d , resp. (M)) is the least left(resp. right, resp.
bilateral) ideal which includes the set M.
Proposition
\
λ∈Λ
Definition
\ \ \
Remark
(M)s (resp. (M)d , resp. (M)) is the least left(resp. right, resp.
bilateral) ideal which includes the set M.
Notation
If M = {a1 , a2 , . . . , an }, we write (a1 , a2 , . . . , an )s in stead of (M)s .
Definition
An ideal(left, right, or bilateral) I of a ring (R, +, ·) is called ideal of
finite type, if there is a finite set M, such that I = (M)s (resp. I = (M)d ,
resp. I = (M)).

Notation
Definition
resp. I = (M)). If the generating set M is formed by a single element a,
we call I the principal (left, right, or bilateral) ideal generated by a.

Notation
Definition
Definition
An entire ring (R, +, ·) such that any of its ideals is principal is called
ring with principal ideals or principal ring.

Notation
Definition
Definition
An entire ring (R, +, ·) such that any of its ideals is principal is called
ring with principal ideals or principal ring.

Proposition
Let (R, +, ·) be a unital ring, and I ⊆ R an ideal of it(left, right, or
bilateral). If 1R ∈ I , then I = R.
Proposition
Let (R, +, ·) be a unital ring. Then R is a division ring if and only if its
only ideals are (0) and R.

Proposition
Let (R, +, ·) be a unital ring, and I ⊆ R an ideal of it(left, right, or
bilateral). If 1R ∈ I , then I = R.
Proposition
Let (R, +, ·) be a unital ring. Then R is a division ring if and only if its
only ideals are (0) and R.

Proposition
Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and I E R. Then on the factor group (R/I , +) one
can define a binary operation by
· : (R/I ) × (R/I ) −→ (R/I ) : (a + I , b + I ) 7−→ (a + I ) · (b + I ) := (a · b) + I ,
and (R/I , +, ·) is a ring, called the factor ring of the ring R with respect
to the ideal I .

Ring homomorphisms. The isomorphism theorems for rings
Definition
Let (R1 , +, ·) and (R2 , ⊕, ) be two rings. A function f : R1 −→ R2 is
called a ring homomorphism if f is a group homomorphism between the
additive groups (R1 , +) and (R2 , ⊕) and a semigroup homomorphism
between the semigroups (R1 , ·) and (R2 , ).

Definition
between the semigroups (R1 , ·) and (R2 , ). If the rings R1 and R2 are
unital, and f also satisfies the equality 1fR1 = 1R2 , then f is called a
unital ring homomorphism.

Definition
Remark
The map f : (R1 , +, ·) −→ (R2 , ⊕, ) is a ring homomorphism if and
only if it satisfies the equalities
1) (a + b)f = af ⊕ b f , (∀)a, b ∈ R1 ,
2) (a · b)f = af b f , (∀)a, b ∈ R1 .

Definition
Remark
The map f : (R1 , +, ·) −→ (R2 , ⊕, ) is a ring homomorphism if and
only if it satisfies the equalities
1) (a + b)f = af ⊕ b f , (∀)a, b ∈ R1 ,
2) (a · b)f = af b f , (∀)a, b ∈ R1 .

Proposition
Let f : (R1 , +, ·) −→ (R2 , ⊕, ) be a ring homomorphism. Then the
following properties hold:
1) 0fR1 = 0R2 .
2) (−a)f = −af , (∀)a ∈ R1 .
3) If the rings R1 and R2 are unital, and f is unital ring homomorphism,
then U(R1 )f ⊆ U(R2 ) and (a−1 )f = (af )−1 , (∀)a ∈ U(R1 ).
4) S1 ≤ R1 =⇒ S1f ≤ R2 .
−1
5) S2 ≤ R2 =⇒ S2f ≤ R1 .
−1
6) I2 Es (Ed , E)R2 =⇒ I2f Es (Ed , E)R1 .
7) If f is surjective, then I1 Es (Ed , E)R1 =⇒ I1f Es (Ed , E)R2 .
Corollary
If f : (R1 , +, ·) −→ (R2 , ⊕, ) is a ring homomorphism, then Im(f ) ≤ R2
and
Ker (f ) = {a ∈ R1 | af = 0R2 } E R1 .

Proposition
Let f : (R1 , +, ·) −→ (R2 , ⊕, ) be a ring homomorphism. Then the
following properties hold:
1) 0fR1 = 0R2 .
2) (−a)f = −af , (∀)a ∈ R1 .
3) If the rings R1 and R2 are unital, and f is unital ring homomorphism,
then U(R1 )f ⊆ U(R2 ) and (a−1 )f = (af )−1 , (∀)a ∈ U(R1 ).
4) S1 ≤ R1 =⇒ S1f ≤ R2 .
−1
5) S2 ≤ R2 =⇒ S2f ≤ R1 .
−1
6) I2 Es (Ed , E)R2 =⇒ I2f Es (Ed , E)R1 .
7) If f is surjective, then I1 Es (Ed , E)R1 =⇒ I1f Es (Ed , E)R2 .
Corollary
If f : (R1 , +, ·) −→ (R2 , ⊕, ) is a ring homomorphism, then Im(f ) ≤ R2
and
Ker (f ) = {a ∈ R1 | af = 0R2 } E R1 .

Definition
Let f : (R1 , +, ·) −→ (R2 , ⊕, ) be a ring homomorphism. f is called a
ring isomorphism if there is a ring homomorphism
g : (R2 , ⊕, ) −→ (R1 , +, ·) such that f · g = idR1 and g · f = idR2 .
We call the ring (R1 , +, ·) is isomorphic to the ring (R2 , ⊕, ) if there is
an isomorphism f : (R1 , +, ·) −→ (R2 , ⊕, ), and we write
(R1 , +, ·) ∼
= (R2 , ⊕, ) or R1 ∼
= R2 .

Definition
(R1 , +, ·) ∼
= (R2 , ⊕, ) or R1 ∼
= R2 .
Proposition
The necessary and sufficient condition for a ring homomorphism
f : (R1 , +, ·) −→ (R2 , ⊕, ) to be an isomorphism is f to be bijective.

Definition
(R1 , +, ·) ∼
= (R2 , ⊕, ) or R1 ∼
= R2 .
Proposition
The necessary and sufficient condition for a ring homomorphism
f : (R1 , +, ·) −→ (R2 , ⊕, ) to be an isomorphism is f to be bijective.

Theorem
(the fundamental isomorphism theorem for rings)
If f : (R1 , +, ·) −→ (R2 , ⊕, ) is a ring homomorphism, then there is an
isomorphism f : R1 /Ker (f ) −→ Im(f ), unique such that the following
diagram is commutative:
f
R1 −−−−→ R2
π↓ ↑i
f
R1 /Ker (f ) −−−−→ Im(f )
where π = πKer (f ) : R1 −→ R1 /Ker (f ) is the canonical projection, and

i = iIm(f ) : Im(f ) −→ R2 is the inclusion homomorphism.

Proposition
(the first isomorphism theorem for rings) If
f : (R1 , +, ·) −→ (R2 , ⊕, ) is a surjective ring homomorphism, then
R2 ∼= R1 /Ker (f ).
Proposition
(the second isomorphism theorem for rings) Let (R, +, ·) be a ring,
S ≤ R and I E R. Then S ∩ I E S and
S/(S ∩ I ) ∼
= (S + I )/I .

Proposition
R2 ∼= R1 /Ker (f ).
Proposition
S/(S ∩ I ) ∼
= (S + I )/I .
Proposition
(the third isomorphism theorem for rings) Let (R, +, ·) be a ring, and
I , J E R, such that I ⊆ J. Then J/I E R/I and
(R/I )/(J/I ) ∼
= R/J .

Proposition
R2 ∼= R1 /Ker (f ).
Proposition
S/(S ∩ I ) ∼
= (S + I )/I .
Proposition
(the third isomorphism theorem for rings) Let (R, +, ·) be a ring, and
I , J E R, such that I ⊆ J. Then J/I E R/I and
(R/I )/(J/I ) ∼
= R/J .

Proposition
(the correspondence theorem for rings) Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and
I E R. Then there is a bijective correspondence between the set of the
subrings of R which include I and the set of the subrings of R/I , whose
restriction to the set of left(resp. right, resp. bilateral) ideals of R which
include I represents a bijection with values in the set of left(resp. right,
resp. bilateral) ideals of R/I .

Definition
Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and I E R. The ideal I is called a maximal ideal if
I ⊆ J E R =⇒ I = J ∨ J = R .
Proposition
Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and I E R. Then I is a maximal ideal if and only if
the factor ring R/I is a division ring.

Definition
Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and I E R. The ideal I is called a maximal ideal if
I ⊆ J E R =⇒ I = J ∨ J = R .
Proposition
Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and I E R. Then I is a maximal ideal if and only if
the factor ring R/I is a division ring.

Definition
Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and I E R. The ideal I is called a prime ideal if
(∀)a, b ∈ R : a · b ∈ I =⇒ a ∈ I ∨ b ∈ I .
Proposition
Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and I E R. Then I is a prime ideal if and only if the
factor ring R/I is a ring without zero divisors.

Definition
(∀)a, b ∈ R : a · b ∈ I =⇒ a ∈ I ∨ b ∈ I .
Proposition
Corollary
Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and I E R. If I is a maximal ideal, then I is prime.

Definition
(∀)a, b ∈ R : a · b ∈ I =⇒ a ∈ I ∨ b ∈ I .
Proposition
Corollary
Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and I E R. If I is a maximal ideal, then I is prime.

Rings and Elds

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Rings and Elds

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Rings and fields

Definition. Examples. Immediate properties

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 1 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 1 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 1 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 1 / 31

and the right distributivity of the multiplication with respect to addition

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 1 / 31

and the right distributivity of the multiplication with respect to addition

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 1 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 2 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 3 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 3 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 4 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 4 / 31

2) If (R, +, ·) is a unital ring with 1R = 0R , then

so that in this case R = {0R }.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 5 / 31

2) If (R, +, ·) is a unital ring with 1R = 0R , then

so that in this case R = {0R }.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 5 / 31

2) If (R, +, ·) is a unital ring with 1R = 0R , then

so that in this case R = {0R }.

2) If (R, +, ·) is a unital ring with 1R = 0R , then

so that in this case R = {0R }.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 6 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 6 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 6 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 6 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 6 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 6 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 6 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 6 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 6 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 7 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 8 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 8 / 31

N(R) ⊆ Ds (R) ∩ Dd (R)

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 9 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 10 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 10 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 10 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 11 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 11 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 11 / 31

(a, b, c, d) · (a0 , b 0 , c 0 , d 0 ) = (aa0 − bb 0 − cc 0 − dd 0 ,

Then (H, +, ·) is a noncommutative division ring.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 12 / 31

(a, b, c, d) · (a0 , b 0 , c 0 , d 0 ) = (aa0 − bb 0 − cc 0 − dd 0 ,

Then (H, +, ·) is a noncommutative division ring.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 12 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 13 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 13 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 14 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 14 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 15 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 15 / 31

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 15 / 31

forms a subring(resp. unital subring) of the ring R.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 16 / 31

forms a subring(resp. unital subring) of the ring R.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 6 2009 16 / 31