An Analysis of Strain Gage Measurements Under Transient Heating Conditions PDF

STP345-EB/Oct.
1963
AN ANALYSIS OF STRAIN GAGE M E A S U R E M E N T S U N D E R

TRANSIENT HEATING CONDITIONS
B Y CURTIS E.
JOHNSON 1
SYNOPSIS
Serious errors are sometimes encountered in strain gage data when testing is conducted in transient heating environments. Variations in thermal
gradients, temperature compensation, and monitor temperature sensor locations all contribute to the inaccuracies. The temperature of a strain gage wire
is different (150 F with 100 F per sec heating rates) than that of the specimen
surface under or adjacent to the gage. Strain gages respond faster to a stepfunction heat input than do thermocouples; resistance thermometers respond
at about the same rate as strain gages. Theoretically, a quartz-compensated
strain gage, when installed with adequate temperature sensors and when
properly calibrated, will result in more accurate data because the strain gage
output is independent of the grid wire temperature.
Bonded resistance strain gages have
been used extensively in the aircraft
industry for approximately 20 years.
They measure directlyor as transducer
componentsstrains, stresses, deflections, loads, and other parameters to
verify the structural integrity of components or complete assemblies under
laboratory and flight conditions.
Until the advent of missiles, supersonic
aircraft, and spacecraft, environmental
temperatures were normally within a
range of 65 F to + 1 5 0 F, and with
rates of temperature changes seldom
exceeding 5 F per sec. Now, however, the
temperature limits are from absolute
zero (460 F) to the melting point of
the most exotic materials (to 5000 F)
and with heating rates in the order of
100 F per sec. Satisfactory strain measurements can be made between 65 F
to 350 F only if heating rates do not
exceed about 10 F per sec and if some
1
Research Engineer, Structures Laboratories,
The Boeing Co., Seattle, Wash.
degree of caution is taken in the instrumentation, testing, and data reduction.

The effects of these extreme transient
heating conditions were revealed in the
evaluation of a newly designed temperature-compensated strain gage.
When the instrumented specimens
were heated with rather intense (50 F
per sec) radiant heat, the strain gage
outputs were erratic. Any mechanical
strains present were completely masked
in the strain gage outputs caused by
temperature alone.
Strain gage data are even more unreliable when testing involves transient
heating to higher temperatures at faster
heating rates. (Cryogenic strain measurements have their own peculiar problems and will not be evaluated in this
paper.)
Because universally accepted definitions of terms involved with strain
gages are not available, an Appendix 2
' See p. 108.
99
Copyright
by ASTM
Int'lby(all
rightsInternational
reserved); Tue Mar 9www.astm.org
06:08:12 EST 2010
Copyright"
1963
ASTM
Downloaded/printed by
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100
MATERIALS FOE AIKCRAPT, MISSILES, AND SPACE VEHICLES
has been prepared with most of the

unusual terms defined.
BASIC OPERATIONAL THEORY
When a surface bearing a properly

mounted strain gage is deformed, the
deformation is transmitted through the
cement and causes similar deformation of
the strain gage. The strain gage reacts
mainly to the strain component parallel
to its direction and is comparatively
insensitive to the strain component in
the transverse direction. The transverse
sensitivity of commercial strain gages
is in the order of 0 to 5 per cent of their
longitudinal sensitivity and is commonly neglected.
When a strain gage of initial resistance
R is subjected to a mechanical strain at
constant temperature, the gage resistance changes to a new value, Rm The
change in resistance, AR, is an almost
linear function of the initial gage resistance R and the applied strain .
The applied strain, therefore, can be
determined from measurements of gage
resistance before and after straining,
K
R _ \_AR
~ K R
at constant temperature, where K is a

constant of proportionality or gage
factor.
The gage factor is dependent to some
degree on the test temperature and the
strain range. At constant temperature,
the indicated strain, e^, is equal to the
component of the strain parallel to the
direction of the strain gage.
A change in gage resistance can also be
produced by a change in temperature
when the specimen is mechanically restricted from dimensional change. Readout instruments react to any change in
gage resistance by indicating an equivalent strain which would be required to
produce the same change in resistance
at the initial temperature. The indicated
strain produced by change in temperature only (without any dimensional

changes) is called the apparent strain,
_ i_
ART
where AR^ is the change in gage resistance caused by change in temperature

and is a function of the gage grid temperature only. The apparent strain varies
between approximately 20 microstrains to 0 microstrains per Fahrenheit
degree, depending on gage grid material
(for constantan wire or foil gages).
In general, mechanical strain is produced by mechanical forces which may
include some form of restraint when
temperature changes are involved. When
an unrestrained body, initially at uniform temperature, is brought to thermal
equilibrium at a different temperature,
the physical dimensions of the body
have usually changed. The strain or
expansion produced by temperature
change only is called thermal strain.
For an isotropic material, the normal
thermal strains are independent of direction of measurement and are functions of the initial and final temperatures
and the material only. The thermal
strain, e, in any direction is given by
6 = ATfit)
where f{t) is the coefficient of thermal

linear expansion of the material. The
coefficient can be approximated by a
constant for small changes in temperature, and by a polynomial of the form
fit) = aT + PT^ +
for larger changes, with the number of

terms required dependent on the accuracy desired. AT is the change in
temperature of the specimen from a
specified reference, and a, /3, and so on
are experimentally determined coefficients.
Copyright by ASTM Int'l (all rights reserved); Tue Mar 9 06:08:12 EST 2010
JOHNSON ON STRAIN GAGE MEASUREMENTS
When both thermal and mechanical

strain are applied simultaneously, the
indicated strain is the algebraic sum of
the real strain (e, = e, + to) and the
apparent strain (neglecting the transverse strain sensitivity).
et er +
ij
TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION
Temperature compensation of strain

gages is an attempt to make Ai? representative of mechanical strain only.
The best type of compensation for
static temperature conditions is the
"dummy" gage. Both the active gage
and an identical dummy gage are subjected to the same temperature conditions, and are mounted with identical
materials and bonding procedures on
the same type of material with the same
coefhcient of thermal expansion. The
material on which the dummy gage is
mounted is mechanically unstrained and
unrestrained. The specimen material
and dummy plate material may have
been fabricated from the same piece of
stock, but their thermal coefficient of
expansion characteristics may still be
different because of unlike treatment
during fabrication. They may have been
subjected to varying amounts of heat
treatment or cold work or may have had
different thermal histories during the
strain gage installation.
As the test temperatures become
higher, these effects become more serious. For the temperature range of most
present-day strain measurements, these
effects usually result in less than 1
microstrain, n(, per deg Fahr error in
the thermal coefficient of expansion.
Under transient heating conditions
it is impossible to keep both active and
dummy gage instantaneously at the
same temperature, so the "dummy"
gage technique is inadequate. One approach for transient strain measurements, which is also used for static
101
testing, is to make the strain gage selftemperature - compensating;

several
schemes are used to achieve this. Strain
gage manufacturers attempt to make
the output of a strain gage independent
of temperature over a specified temperature range on a specific specimen material by (1) heat treating and cold working the strain gage alloy; (2) selecting
an alloy melt with the proper characteristics; (3) combining the proper
250
-/500
-100
0
100 200 300 400
Temperature, deg Fahr
500
FIG. 1.Typical Strain Gage Temperature

Compensation.
lengths of two alloys with different

thermal characteristics in one gage; and
(4) placing a temperature-sensitive element in the strain gage matrix and
placing it electrically in the same circuit as the strain gage. All of these
approaches are inadequate because zero
output cannot be achieved over the
entire temperature range. (See Fig. 1
for typical temperature compensation
curves.) In addition, thermal aging
usually alters the compensation, and
when heating rates are no longer static,
w
o
g
102
103

Gage: AB 7
Specimen 0.010 in. thici(
carbon steel
A
^
^ s
Sudden imnnersion in oil

at 4 5 0 F
-500
(l)
(n
o>
o
c_
Ci)
<
-1000
-1500
-2000
100
200
Specinnen
Surface
300
Temperature, deg
400
Fatir
FIG. 3.Apparent Strain Versus Specimen Surface Temperature During Transient Heating.
500
Strain
In dicated
400
-1500
-Tempera ture
^
D
o
a>
n*
o
<1>
300
S- 1000
.~
o
k.
CO
200
-500
^c
Gage:
f ^B-7
S p e c i m en: 0.010 in. thick

carbon s i e e i - 100
Sudden i m m e r s k >n
450 F
in o i l at
3
Time,
Sec
FIG. 4.- -Strain Gage and Surface Tliermocouple Responses to a Sudden Temperature Cliange.
the strain gage temperature is not instantaneously the same as that of the
structure, and the problems increase.
When a strain measurement under
transient heating conditions is to be
made, the following procedures are
commonly followed: A thermocouple or

other temperature sensor is placed on
the specimen adjacent to the strain
gage. (See Fig. 2 for a typical installation. This photograph also shows the
blistering caused by intense radiant
104
MATERIALS FOR AIRCRAFT, MISSILES, AND SPACE VEHICLES
heating.) The outputs of both the strain

gage and temperature sensor are recorded
simultaneously. During data reduction
processes, the strain gage output is
corrected for temperature as measured
by the temperature sensor. The output
correction may have been obtained
RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS
It is frequently assumed that the

strain gage and temperature sensor have
the same response characteristics. This
may be nearly true in the case of a
resistance thermometer, but when a
Est {off
scale)
600 F
500F
400 F
Slow heat r a t e
(3F per Sec )
Medium heat rate
(33F per Sec)
300F
200F
Fast heat rate

O O F per Sec)
0 . 0 6 in.
lOOF
Specimen
Radiant
Heat
Lamp
(OlD O
FIG. 5.Effect of Heat Rate on Instantaneous Temperatures of a Gage Installation (Specimen

Parallel to Heat Lamp).
Horizontal scale is symbolic only.
statically from a similar installation,

or it may have actually been determined
from the gage under test with the specimen unrestrained and unloaded. These
procedures are inadequate when heating
rates exceed approximately 10 F per
sec or when thermal gradients are large.
It is also impossible sometimes because
of thermal effects caused by the specimen configuration.
thermocouple is used and heating rates

are rapid it is very much in error.
Several tests were conducted to determine the relative temperature response of the strain gages and the
specimen surface as measured with a
thermocouple. To eliminate any possible
effects of gage exposure to high-intensity
radiation, a heated oil bath was used as
a heat source. First, a specimen instru-
mented with a strain gage and a surface

thermocouple was immersed in the oil
bath at room temperature and the gage
output was recorded against the thermocouple output as the oil temperature
was slowly increased (at a rate of approximately 10 F per sec to 400 F).
The resultant curve was approximately
105
oscilloscope, was recorded photographically. The resultant trace (Fig. 3) was,

unlike the slow-heating trace obtained
from the previous test, highly nonlinear
and irregular. For further study, both
strain gage and thermocouple outputs
were displayed against time as the test
was repeated (Fig. 4). Invariably the
700
600
500
400
300
200
CL
E
0)
100
FIG. 6.Thermal Gradients with Heating Rates of 90 F per sec at Gage Grid.
a straight line. When the oil was permitted to cool, the cooling curve agreed
very closely with the original heating
curve. The specimen was then removed
and cooled to room temperature, and
the oil was heated to 450 F and maintained at this temperature. The specimen, now at room temperature, was
suddenly immersed in the 450 F oil
bath, and the gage output, displayed
against the output of the specimen
surface thermocouple on a cathode ray
strain gage showed a much faster initial

response to the sudden change in environmental temperature than did the
thermocouple.
GRADIENTS
Temperature gradients are nearly always present in a test specimen. These

gradients are sometimes in the order of
several hundred degrees per inch. It is
quite obvious that the temperature corrections would be in error if a strain
106
MATERIALS FOR AIRCRAFT, MISSILES, AND SPACE VEHICLES
gage and temperature sensor are not at

the same temperature because of these
gradients. The situation is further compHcated by the presence of the strain
gage and the resulting change in absorptivity and emissivity of this area on the
specimen.
A series of tests was conducted to
study temperature distributions around
and through a typical strain gage installation during transient radiant heating.
A 17-7PH stainless steel specimen 0.063
in. thick by 1 in. wide was instrumented
with two bakelite-backed resistance
temperature gages using a bakelite adhesive. Except for different sensing material, these gages are similar to bakelite-backed strain gages, and they were
selected for their large resistance change
with temperature.
Number 36 chromel-alumel thermocouples were welded to the specimen in
the area to be under the strain gage but
not directly under the gage wires. The
gages were installed and more thermocouples were cemented to the surface of
the gages. A thermocouple was installed
on each side of each gage.
Radiant heat lamps were located
parallel to the specimen and the specimen was heated at several rates. Figure
5 illustrates the resulting temperature
distribution with the various heating
rates. These results indicate that the
strain gage wire and specimen surface
under the gage are at different temperatures. The magnitude of this difference
is a function of the heating rate. It
should also be noted that the temperature measured on either side of the
gage on the side of the specimen facing
the heat lamps was lower than the
gage wire temperature but higher than
the specimen temperature under the
gage. Figure 6 is reproduced from data
taken during the testing and illustrates
the temperature-time relationships at
several points. When testing was con-
ducted with the heat lamps not parallel

to the specimen, the gradients were
more severe and the test data were more
erratic.
Another more common factor which
contributes to the inaccuracies of strain
measurements under transient heating
conditions is the effect of thermocouple
emf's produced at each junction of the
strain gage leads and lead wires. If, as
in the case of heating conditions when
there are gradients present, one of the
junctions is at a different temperature
than the other, there may be a net emf
produced. The magnitude of the resulting error may be large if the gradient
is significant. Many strain gages have
internal junctions which also may result in net emf's because of thermal
gradients.
INSTRUMENTATION DESIGN
Up to this point, this discussion has

been concerned with problems generally
associated with transient strain measurements and some that are not normally considered. If the following precautions are taken, the resulting strain
measurements will be decidedly more
accurate than if they are not considered.
1. Whenever a single strain gage is
used in a heat test of any kind to measure strain, a three-lead connection must
be used. Two lead wires are fastened
to one of the gage leads, the third lead
wire is fastened to the other gage lead.
The three lead wires are routed so that
they are subjected to the same temperatures. These lead wires change resistance
as a function of temperature, but they
are wired into the bridge circuit in such
a way that the like resistance changes
of the three wires have no net effect on
the total bridge resistance change except
for a change in circuit sensitivity if
lead lengths are long.
2. The strain gage and temperature
sensors should be as small as possible
107
so that their presence does not signifi- it is believed that even greater accuracantly alter the absorptivity oremissivity cies in transient strain measurements
characteristics of the specimen, or so are obtainable.
that the structural strength of the
Mechanical strain, e^, is normally
specimen is not changed by relatively desired from strain gage measurements.
large transducers.
Some method is required to eliminate or
3. If the thermal gradients are not predict the strain gage output caused by
severe but high heating rates are ex- other factors. From a practical standpected, a resistance thermometer should point, the strain gage should be installed
be used as a temperature sensor rather on any specimen material and accurately
than a thermocouple because the re- measure the mechanical strain and be
sponse characteristics of the resistance independent of any effects of thermal
thermometer more nearly match that of expansion, , or apparent strain, ey.
a strain gage.
It is sometimes possible to install a
4. If the heating gradients are large strain gage on an unrestrained unloaded
but the heating rates are tolerable, as specimen and statically measure +
many thermocouples as practical should ey. Then the specimen may be restrained
be positioned around the strain gage. or loaded and the output corrected for
Smaller thermocouples have faster re- (a + ij. This condition is sometimes
sponse characteristics than do larger impossible because of the specimen or
ones. If both large gradients and high test configuration inducing strains. Anheating rates are predominant, a com- other way to accomplish essentially the
promise is required if the more conven- same results but with some degradation
tional transducers are used. A theo- in accuracy is to measure + tj statiretically superior installation is proposed cally on a specimen of the same matelater in this paper.
rial and then assume that the gage
5. The strain gage installation must installed on the actual test specimen has
be cured to a higher (50 to 100 F) temidentical characteristics.
perature than the test temperature so
Another technique may at first seem
that maximum stability is obtained.
to be no improvement, but if carefully
6. The strain gage adhesive should be
analyzed it can be seen that improved
as thin as possible to minimize the theraccuracies will result.
mal gradients through the installation.
If a strain gage were fabricated so
7. A split thermocouple (one in which that its output contained no component
the two wires are attached to the speci- representing ey, then, no matter what
men at different points) may be used the instantaneous temperature of the
effectively to measure the average temspecimen is relative to the gage, the
perature of a specimen on opposite
output of the gage represents only the
sides of an installed strain gage. If large
strain in the specimen (( + tm)
gradients are present, one or more split
Such a strain gage is normally identithermocouples may be used to measure
fied as being "quartz-compensated."
the average specimen temperature with
The commercially available gages of
a minimum of measurements.
this type have nonlinear compensation
curves similar in shape to those shown
QXJARTZ-COMPENSATION THEORY
in Fig. 1. They are still superior, though,
Strain gage data will be improved if to gages compensated for a particular
the above precautions are taken, but specimen material because the gage
108
MATERIALS FOR AIRCRAFT, M I S S I L E S , AND SPACE V E H I C L E S
temperature and specimen temperature

do not have to be identical.
If the nonlinear characteristics of a
quartz-compensated strain gage can be
neglected (ey = 0), and if the thermal
coefficient of expansion of the specimen
is accurately known, then satisfactory
strain measurements may be made with
only the specimen temperature being
measured so the output may be corrected for ta
Additional accuracy may be obtained
if a miniature thermocouple or resistance
thermometer is placed in the gage matrix
and its output is used to correct the

strain gage output for ey.
SUMMARY
The accuracy of transient strain

measurements depends greatly on the
care taken in the design of a test and in
the procedures used in testing and data
reduction.
Some of the improvements can be
obtained at little or no extra cost to the
test program; others are very expensive
and complex and should only be used if
the desired accuracies warrant such
extreme measures.
REFERENCES
(5?-J, Instrument Soc. of America, Summer

(1) Peter K. Stein, Measurement Engineering
Instrument - Automation Conference,
(preliminary rough draft from the forthToronto, Canada, June 5-8, 1961.
coming book), Stein Engineering Services,
(3) W. M. Murray and P. K. Stein, Strain Gage
Inc. (1962).
Techniques, Massachusetts Institute of
(2) Mintauts F. Andreika, Stress Determination
Technology, Cambridge, Mass. (1958).
-with Bakelite Backed Strain Gages, 23-TCAPPENDIX
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS INVOLVED IN STRAIN GAGE MEASUREMENTS
Gage Factor, K (dimensionless).The gage
factor is the ratio of the unit change in
resistance of a strain gage installation
to the unit elongation of the surface
upon which it is mounted caused by a
uniaxial stress in the direction of the
gage axis, all other variables remaining
constant. Mathematically,
K =
AR/R
AL/L
where:
L = initial length of the specimen under the gage,
R = resistance of the strain gage installation at length L,
AL = change in initial length L of the
test surface, and
AR = change in resistance, R, caused by
AL.
Matrix.The matrix is the material used by
the gage manufacturer to hold in position the various gage elements, such as
sensing element and leads, and which are

an integral part of the gage structure.
Thermal Output.The thermal output is the
algebraic sum of the thermal and apparent
strains.
Transverse Sensitivity.The transverse sensitivity of a strain gage is the ratio of the
indicated strain which would result if the
gage were mounted 90 deg from the axis
of a uniaxial strain to the indicated strain
which would result if the same gage had
been mounted parallel to the axis of the
same uniaxial strain.
Apparent Strain, ey, in micro inches per
inch.Apparent strain is that portion of
indicated strain which is the algebraic
difference between indicated strain and
real strain:
Indicated Strain, u , in microinches per
inch.Indicated strain is that quantity
available directly from the analog signal,
after indicator and accessory equipment
errors have been accounted for and properly adjusted from the indicated reading,
without further adjustment or correction.
This quantity is a gross indication of
strain:
109
tion of a specimen which would occur if

the specimen were unrestrained and subjected to a uniform change in temperature of AT:
6a = aAT = a{Ti To)
et = e; + Cr
ii = e,- + e + e
Mechanical Strain, , in microinches per

inch.Mechanical strain is that unit
deformation of a specimen which occurs
when mechanical loads are applied;
within the elastic limits of the specimen
material, mechanical strain is proportional to unit mechanical stress, a or T:
E
or
Thermal Strain, ta , in microinches per inch.

Thermal strain is that unit deforma-
where:
a = the thermal coefficient of linear
expansion of the test specimen,
Ti = temperature of the test specimen,
and
Ta = reference or initial temperature of
the test specimen.
Real Strain, tr, in microinches per inch.
Real strain is that unit deformation
present in a specimen as a result of thermal changes and mechanical loads applied. It is possible for two components
of real strain to exist simultaneously.
These components are thermal strain and
mechanical strain.

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STP345-EB/Oct.

AN ANALYSIS OF STRAIN GAGE M E A S U R E M E N T S U N D E R

degree of caution is taken in the instrumentation, testing, and data reduction.

MATERIALS FOE AIKCRAPT, MISSILES, AND SPACE VEHICLES

has been prepared with most of the

When a surface bearing a properly

at constant temperature, where K is a

strain produced by change in temperature only (without any dimensional

where AR^ is the change in gage resistance caused by change in temperature

where f{t) is the coefficient of thermal

for larger changes, with the number of

JOHNSON ON STRAIN GAGE MEASUREMENTS

When both thermal and mechanical

Temperature compensation of strain

testing, is to make the strain gage selftemperature - compensating;

FIG. 1.Typical Strain Gage Temperature

lengths of two alloys with different

JOHNSON ON STRAIN GAGE MEASUREMENTS

Sudden imnnersion in oil

S p e c i m en: 0.010 in. thick

commonly followed: A thermocouple or

MATERIALS FOR AIRCRAFT, MISSILES, AND SPACE VEHICLES

heating.) The outputs of both the strain

It is frequently assumed that the

Fast heat rate

FIG. 5.Effect of Heat Rate on Instantaneous Temperatures of a Gage Installation (Specimen

statically from a similar installation,

thermocouple is used and heating rates

JOHNSON ON STRAIN GAGE MEASUREMENTS

mented with a strain gage and a surface

oscilloscope, was recorded photographically. The resultant trace (Fig. 3) was,

strain gage showed a much faster initial

Temperature gradients are nearly always present in a test specimen. These

MATERIALS FOR AIRCRAFT, MISSILES, AND SPACE VEHICLES

gage and temperature sensor are not at

ducted with the heat lamps not parallel

Up to this point, this discussion has

JOHNSON ON STRAIN GAGE MEASUREMENTS

MATERIALS FOR AIRCRAFT, M I S S I L E S , AND SPACE V E H I C L E S

temperature and specimen temperature

and its output is used to correct the

The accuracy of transient strain

(5?-J, Instrument Soc. of America, Summer

sensing element and leads, and which are

JOHNSON ON STRAIN GAGE MEASUREMENTS

tion of a specimen which would occur if

Mechanical Strain, , in microinches per

Thermal Strain, ta , in microinches per inch.

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