Rings of Fractions

Rings of fractions
Definition
Let (R, +, ·) be a commutative unital ring. A subset S ⊆ R is called
multiplicative system if S is a submonoid of the multiplicative monoid
(R, ·).
Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 1 / 23

Rings of fractions
Definition
(R, ·).
Remark
In order that a subset S ⊆ R represents a multiplicative system of the
ring R it is necessary and sufficient that the following conditions hold:
1) 1 ∈ S
2) x · y ∈ S , (∀)x, y ∈ S .

Rings of fractions
Definition
(R, ·).
Remark
In order that a subset S ⊆ R represents a multiplicative system of the
ring R it is necessary and sufficient that the following conditions hold:
1) 1 ∈ S
2) x · y ∈ S , (∀)x, y ∈ S .

Proposition
Let (R, +, ·) be a commutative unital ring and S ⊆ R a multiplicative
system. The relation ∼ defined on R × S by
(r1 , s1 ) ∼ (r2 , s2 ) ⇐⇒ (∃)s ∈ S : s(r1 s2 − r2 s1 ) = 0
is an equivalence relation.

Notation
We denote [(r , s)]∼ =: r
s and S −1 R := (R × S)/ ∼= { sr | r ∈ R, s ∈ S}.
Remark
If 0 ∈ S, then S −1 R = { 0s }.

Notation
We denote [(r , s)]∼ =: r
s and S −1 R := (R × S)/ ∼= { sr | r ∈ R, s ∈ S}.
Remark
If 0 ∈ S, then S −1 R = { 0s }.

Proposition
The binary operations + : S −1 R × S −1 R −→ S −1 R and
· : S −1 R × S −1 R −→ S −1 R, defined by
r1 r2 r1 s2 + r2 s1 r1 r2 r1 r2
+ = , · =
s1 s2 s1 s2 s1 s2 s1 s2
are correctly defined and endorse S −1 R with a unital ring structure, such
that S ⊆ U(S −1 R).
Definition
The ring (S −1 R, +, ·) constructed in the previous proposition is called
the ring of fractions of the ring R with respect to the multiplicative
system S.

Proposition
The binary operations + : S −1 R × S −1 R −→ S −1 R and
· : S −1 R × S −1 R −→ S −1 R, defined by
r1 r2 r1 s2 + r2 s1 r1 r2 r1 r2
+ = , · =
s1 s2 s1 s2 s1 s2 s1 s2
are correctly defined and endorse S −1 R with a unital ring structure, such
that S ⊆ U(S −1 R).
Definition
The ring (S −1 R, +, ·) constructed in the previous proposition is called
the ring of fractions of the ring R with respect to the multiplicative
system S.

Proposition
If S is a multiplicative system of the ring (R, +, ·), the function
ϕ : R −→ S −1 R : r 7−→ 1r is a unital ring homomorphism. Also, if S
contains no zero divisors, then the homomorphism ϕ is injective.
Remark
If the ring (R, +, ·) is entire, and S = R \ {0}, the ring of fractions
S −1 R is a field, called the field of fractions of the ring R.

Proposition
Remark
Example
The field Q of rational numbers is the field of fractions of the ring Z of
the integers.

Proposition
Remark
Example
The field Q of rational numbers is the field of fractions of the ring Z of
the integers.

Proposition
If S is a multiplicative system of the ring (R, +, ·), and I E R is an ideal of
R, then S −1 I := { xs | x ∈ I , s ∈ S} E S −1 R. Also, for any ideals I , J E R
we have
S −1 (I + J) = S −1 I + S −1 J ,
S −1 (I · J) = S −1 I · S −1 J ,
S −1 (I ∩ J) = S −1 I ∩ S −1 J .

Formal power series. Polynomial rings
Definition
Let (R, +, ·) be a commutative unital ring, and R N the set of all
sequences with elements in R. We define on R N two binary operations
+ : R N × R N −→ R N and · : R N × R N −→ R N by
(an )n∈N + (bn )n∈N = (an + Pbn )n∈N ,

(an )n∈N · (bn )n∈N = ( ai · bj )n∈N .
i, j ∈ N
i +j =n

Formal power series. Polynomial rings
Definition
Let (R, +, ·) be a commutative unital ring, and R N the set of all
sequences with elements in R. We define on R N two binary operations
+ : R N × R N −→ R N and · : R N × R N −→ R N by
(an )n∈N + (bn )n∈N = (an + Pbn )n∈N ,

(an )n∈N · (bn )n∈N = ( ai · bj )n∈N .
i, j ∈ N
i +j =n

Proposition
With respect to the operations defined above, (R N , +, ·) is a commutative
unital ring. Also, the function
ϕ : R −→ R N : r 7−→ (r , 0, 0, . . . , 0, . . . )
is an injective homomorphism of unital rings.
Remark

1, n = k
If X = (0, 1, 0, 0, . . . , 0, . . . ), then (X n )k = δnk = .
6 k
0, n =

Proposition
ϕ : R −→ R N : r 7−→ (r , 0, 0, . . . , 0, . . . )
Remark

1, n = k
If X = (0, 1, 0, 0, . . . , 0, . . . ), then (X n )k = δnk = .
0, n 6= k
Also, if we identify the elements of the ring R with their images by the
injective homomorphism ϕ, for any (an )n∈N ∈ R N we have
X
(an )n∈N = a0 + a1 · X + a2 · X 2 + · · · + an · X n + · · · = an X n .
n∈N

Proposition
ϕ : R −→ R N : r 7−→ (r , 0, 0, . . . , 0, . . . )
Remark

1, n = k
If X = (0, 1, 0, 0, . . . , 0, . . . ), then (X n )k = δnk = .
0, n 6= k
Also, if we identify the elements of the ring R with their images by the
injective homomorphism ϕ, for any (an )n∈N ∈ R N we have
X
(an )n∈N = a0 + a1 · X + a2 · X 2 + · · · + an · X n + · · · = an X n .
n∈N

Remark
The ring (R N , +, ·) is called, due to the previous equality the ring of
formal power series with coefficients in the ring R and is denoted R[[X ]].

Definition
n
P
The support of a formal power series f = n∈N an X is the set
supp(f ) := {n ∈ N| an 6= 0} .
Proposition
If f , g ∈ R[[X ]], we have
supp(f + g ) ⊆ supp(f ) ∪ supp(g ) ,

supp(f · g ) ⊆ supp(f ) + supp(g ) .

Definition
n
P
The support of a formal power series f = n∈N an X is the set
supp(f ) := {n ∈ N| an 6= 0} .
Proposition
If f , g ∈ R[[X ]], we have
supp(f + g ) ⊆ supp(f ) ∪ supp(g ) ,

supp(f · g ) ⊆ supp(f ) + supp(g ) .

Definition
Let f ∈ R[[X ]] be a formal power series with coefficients in the ring R.
The height order the order of the formal power series f is then
h(f ) := inf (supp(f ))
Remark
n
P
If f = n∈N an X ∈ R[[X ]], then

∞, f = 0,
h(f ) =
min{n ∈ N| an 6= 0}, f =
6 0.

Definition
Let f ∈ R[[X ]] be a formal power series with coefficients in the ring R.
The height order the order of the formal power series f is then
h(f ) := inf (supp(f ))
Remark
n
P
If f = n∈N an X ∈ R[[X ]], then

∞, f = 0,
h(f ) =
min{n ∈ N| an 6= 0}, f =
6 0.

Proposition
For any f , g ∈ R[[X ]] the following inequalities hold
h(f + g ) ≥ sup(h(f ), h(g )) , h(f · g ) ≥ h(f ) + h(g ) .
If also the ring R is entire, then the second inequality from above becomes
an equality, and the ring R[[X ]] is also entire.

Definition
A formal power series f ∈ R[[X ]] such that the set supp(f ) is finite is
called polynomial with coefficients in the ring R.
Notation
R[X ] := {f ∈ R[[X ]]| |supp(f )| < ∞} .

Definition
Notation
R[X ] := {f ∈ R[[X ]]| |supp(f )| < ∞} .
Proposition
R[X ] ≤ R[[X ]] .

Definition
Notation
R[X ] := {f ∈ R[[X ]]| |supp(f )| < ∞} .
Proposition
R[X ] ≤ R[[X ]] .

Definition
P0 n
The degree of a polynomial f = n∈N an X ∈ R[X ] is
∂(f ) := sup(supp(f )) .
Remark
P0 n
If f = n∈N an X ∈ R[X ], then

−∞, f = 0,
∂(f ) =
max{n ∈ N| an 6= 0}, f =
6 0.

Definition
P0 n
The degree of a polynomial f = n∈N an X ∈ R[X ] is
∂(f ) := sup(supp(f )) .
Remark
P0 n
If f = n∈N an X ∈ R[X ], then

−∞, f = 0,
∂(f ) =
max{n ∈ N| an 6= 0}, f =
6 0.

Proposition
For any f , g ∈ R[X ] the following inequalities hold
∂(f + g ) ≤ sup(∂(f ), ∂(g )) , ∂(f · g ) ≤ ∂(f ) + ∂(g ) .
If also the ring R is entire, then the second inequality from above becomes
an equality, and the ring R[X ] is also entire.

Proposition
If ξ : R −→ S is a unital ring homomorphism, the function
ξ : R[X ] −→ S[X ] defined by
0
X 0
X
( an X n )ξ = anξ X n
n∈N n∈N
is a unital ring homomorphism, called the reduction homomorphism

associated to the homomorphism ξ.

Proposition
Let R and S be two commutative unital rings, such that R ≤ S and s ∈ S.
The function evs : R[X ] −→ S defined by
0
X 0
X
n evs
( an X ) = an s n
n∈N n∈N
is a unital ring homomorphism, called the evaluation homomorphism at

the point s of the polynomials with coefficients in R. Also, evs is the
unique ring homomorphism ψ : R[X ] −→ S such that r ψ = r , (∀)r ∈ R
and X ψ = s.

Definition
Let f ∈ R[X ] be a polynomial and s ∈ S an element of an extension of
the unital ring R(i.e., a ring S, such that R ≤ S.) The element s is
called a root of the polynomial f if
f (s) = 0 ,
where f (s) := evs (f ) is the value of the polynomial f at the point s.

Polynomials in several variables
Definition
If (R, +, ·) is a commutative unital ring, and n ∈ N∗ is a nonnegative
integer with n ≥ 2, the ring of polynomials in n variables, denoted
R[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ], is defined recursively by:
R[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ] := R[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn−1 ][Xn ] .

Definition
R[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ] := R[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn−1 ][Xn ] .
Remark
P0 ν1 ν2
If f ∈ R[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ], then f = ν1 ,ν2 ,...,νn ∈N aν1 ,ν2 ,...,νn X1 X2 . . . Xnνn .

Definition
R[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ] := R[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn−1 ][Xn ] .
Remark
P0 ν1 ν2
If f ∈ R[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ], then f = ν1 ,ν2 ,...,νn ∈N aν1 ,ν2 ,...,νn X1 X2 . . . Xnνn .

Definition
A product X1ν1 X2ν2 . . . Xnνn is called monomial of the polynomial f , of
multidegree ν = (ν1 , ν2 , . . . , νn ) and total degree |ν| = ν1 + ν2 + · · · + νn .
The element aν1 ,ν2 ,...,νn ∈ R is called the coefficient of the monomial of
multidegree ν = (ν1 , ν2 , . . . , νn ), and aν1 ,ν2 ,...,νn X1ν1 X2ν2 . . . Xnνn is called
the term of multidegree ν = (ν1 , ν2 , . . . , νn ).
Definition
Let mP∈ N be a nonnegative integer. A polynomial
f = 0ν1 ,ν2 ,...,νn ∈N aν1 ,ν2 ,...,νn X1ν1 X2ν2 . . . Xnνn such that the total degrees of
all its terms are equal to m, is called homogeneous polynomial of degree
m.

Definition
Definition
m.
Remark
Any polynomial in n variables can be decomposed into a sum of
homogeneous polynomials.

Definition
Definition
m.
Remark
Any polynomial in n variables can be decomposed into a sum of
homogeneous polynomials.

Definition
Let f = 0ν1 ,ν2 ,...,νn ∈N aν1 ,ν2 ,...,νn X1ν1 X2ν2 . . . Xnνn be a polynomial in n
P
variables, and σ ∈ Sn a permutation of degree n. The permuted of the
polynomial
P0 f by the permutationν1 σ νis2 thenνthe polynomial
n
f σ := ν1 ,ν2 ,...,νn ∈N aν1 ,ν2 ,...,νn X1σ X2σ . . . Xnσ , obtained from f by
permutation of the variables X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn according to the
permutation σ.
Definition
A polynomial f ∈ R[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ] such that f = f σ, (∀)σ ∈ Sn is
called symmetric polynomial.

Definition
Let f = 0ν1 ,ν2 ,...,νn ∈N aν1 ,ν2 ,...,νn X1ν1 X2ν2 . . . Xnνn be a polynomial in n
P
variables, and σ ∈ Sn a permutation of degree n. The permuted of the
polynomial
P0 f by the permutationν1 σ νis2 thenνthe polynomial
n
f σ := ν1 ,ν2 ,...,νn ∈N aν1 ,ν2 ,...,νn X1σ X2σ . . . Xnσ , obtained from f by
permutation of the variables X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn according to the
permutation σ.
Definition
A polynomial f ∈ R[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ] such that f = f σ, (∀)σ ∈ Sn is
called symmetric polynomial.

Example
The polynomials s1 , s2 , . . . , sn ∈ R[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ] defined by
s1 = X1 + X2 + · · · + Xn
s2 = X1 X2 + X1 X3 + · · · + Xn−1 Xn
..
. P
sk = 1≤i1 <i2 <···<ik ≤n Xi1 Xi2 . . . Xik
..
.
sn = X1 X2 . . . Xn
are symmetric and are called fundamental symmetric polynomials in the

variables X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn .
Proposition
The set Rs [X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ] of all symmetric polynomials in the variables
X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn forms a subring of the ring R[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ] of all
polynomials in n variables.
Example
The polynomials s1 , s2 , . . . , sn ∈ R[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ] defined by
s1 = X1 + X2 + · · · + Xn
s2 = X1 X2 + X1 X3 + · · · + Xn−1 Xn
..
. P
sk = 1≤i1 <i2 <···<ik ≤n Xi1 Xi2 . . . Xik
..
.
sn = X1 X2 . . . Xn
are symmetric and are called fundamental symmetric polynomials in the

variables X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn .
Proposition
The set Rs [X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ] of all symmetric polynomials in the variables
X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn forms a subring of the ring R[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ] of all
polynomials in n variables.
Proposition
the fundamental theorem of symmetric polynomials
For any symmetric polynomial f ∈ Rs [X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ] there is a polynomial
g ∈ R[Y1 , Y2 , . . . , Yn ], such that
f = g (s1 , s2 , . . . , sn ) .

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Rings of fractions

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 1 / 23

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 1 / 23

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 1 / 23

(r1 , s1 ) ∼ (r2 , s2 ) ⇐⇒ (∃)s ∈ S : s(r1 s2 − r2 s1 ) = 0

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 2 / 23

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 3 / 23

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 3 / 23

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 4 / 23

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 4 / 23

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 5 / 23

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 5 / 23

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 5 / 23

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 6 / 23

(an )n∈N + (bn )n∈N = (an + Pbn )n∈N ,

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 7 / 23

(an )n∈N + (bn )n∈N = (an + Pbn )n∈N ,

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 7 / 23

is an injective homomorphism of unital rings.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 8 / 23

is an injective homomorphism of unital rings.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 8 / 23

is an injective homomorphism of unital rings.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 8 / 23

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 9 / 23

supp(f + g ) ⊆ supp(f ) ∪ supp(g ) ,

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 10 / 23

supp(f + g ) ⊆ supp(f ) ∪ supp(g ) ,

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 10 / 23

h(f ) := inf (supp(f ))

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 11 / 23

h(f ) := inf (supp(f ))

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 11 / 23

h(f + g ) ≥ sup(h(f ), h(g )) , h(f · g ) ≥ h(f ) + h(g ) .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 12 / 23

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 13 / 23

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 13 / 23

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 13 / 23

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 14 / 23

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 14 / 23

∂(f + g ) ≤ sup(∂(f ), ∂(g )) , ∂(f · g ) ≤ ∂(f ) + ∂(g ) .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 15 / 23

is a unital ring homomorphism, called the reduction homomorphism

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 16 / 23

is a unital ring homomorphism, called the evaluation homomorphism at

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 17 / 23

where f (s) := evs (f ) is the value of the polynomial f at the point s.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 18 / 23

R[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ] := R[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn−1 ][Xn ] .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 19 / 23

R[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ] := R[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn−1 ][Xn ] .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 19 / 23

R[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ] := R[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn−1 ][Xn ] .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 19 / 23

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 20 / 23

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 20 / 23

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 20 / 23

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 21 / 23

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 21 / 23

are symmetric and are called fundamental symmetric polynomials in the

are symmetric and are called fundamental symmetric polynomials in the

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 7 2009 23 / 23

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