DICTIONARY OF ANTISEMITISM

BY

ROBERT MICHAEL

PHILIP ROSEN

(Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, January 2007)

©2007 by Robert Michael and Philip Rosen

Introduction

Who Is a Jew?

Who is a Jew?i Many Jews have a distinctive

consciousness, a sense of sharing a common origin

and fate and a unique religious, historical, and

cultural heritage. The earliest Jewish communal

tradition is of a people chosen to keep God’s 613

commandments found in their Torah and to bring

ethical monotheism to the peoples of the world.

Although Jewish identities vary from atheism to

ultra-Orthodoxy, many Jews observe rituals, holy

days, and social-ethical behavior, including defense

of the weak, sympathy for the stranger, aid the

poor, and kindness to humans and animals. Many

Jews support education, Jewish charities, Zionist

groups, the Anti-Defamation League, and other

Jewish organizations, as well as observing

traditional ceremonies from birth to death. Many

Jews revere the Hebrew language, follow a kosher

diet, and eat special foods on Passover and other

holy days. Most Jews define a Jew as one born of a

Jewish mother. Jews are not members of a

biological race, the concept having no

anthropological validity. Because of assimilation

and intermarriage, Jews tend to resemble the

peoples among whom they live.

George Eliot observed:

On the whole, one of the most

remarkable phenomena in the history

of this scattered people, made for ages

“a scorn and a hissing” is, that . . . they

have come out of it . . . rivalling the

nations of all European countries in

healthiness and beauty of physique, in

practical ability, in scientific and artistic

aptitude, and in some forms of ethical

 value. . . . The Jews, whose ways of

thinking and whose very verbal forms

are on our lips in every prayer which

we end with an Amen.ii</ext>

In the same essay, Eliot wrote that “the

prejudiced, the puerile, the spiteful, and the

abysmally ignorant” admire or abhor “the same

motives, the same ideas, the same practices”

according to their association with the historical or

social accident of whether a human being is

regarded as a Jew or not. Harvard psychologist

Gordon Allport reported that Abraham Lincoln was

admired because people see him as “thrifty,

hardworking, eager for knowledge, ambitious,

devoted to the rights of the average man, and

eminently successful in climbing the ladder of

opportunity.” He then went on to ask, “Why do so

many people dislike the Jews? They may tell you it

is because they are thrifty, hardworking, eager for

knowledge, ambitious, devoted to the rights of the

average man, and eminently successful in climbing

the ladder of opportunity.”iii

When all is said and done, it just may be that

“the prejudiced, the puerile, the spiteful, and the

abysmally ignorant” will be the ones who define

who is a Jew—and, therefore, what is antisemitism.

What Is Antisemitism?

In 1879 Wilhelm Marr created the word

Antisemitismus, and it swiftly found its way into

Europe’s languages.iv Antisemitism in the broadest

sense means hostility toward everything the Jew—

not the “Semite”—stands for. There are no

Semites; there are only peoples who speak Semitic

languages. Antisemitism refers to the irrational

dislike or hatred of Jews, the attempt to demoralize

or satanize them, the rejection of the validity of the

Jewish religion, the Jewish way of life, the Jewish

spirit, the Jewish character, and, ultimately, the

Jewish right to live.v As Allport has indicated,

antisemitism and anti-Jewishness, like all ethnic

prejudices, express themselves as antilocution,

avoidance, discrimination, physical attack, and

extermination.vi Assault, expropriation, expulsion,

torture, and murder could be added to his list. The

German scholar Josef Joffe analyzed these

psychosocial aspects of antisemitism: stereotyping,

denigration, demonization, obsession, and

elimination.vii

To attempt to define and trace the

permutations and combinations of antisemitism,

the world’s longest and most pervasive hatred, is a

daunting task. Three analogies from the chemical,

medical, and biological sciences may clarify

antisemitism’s ideological functions. First, although

they exist within different historical contexts, anti-

Jewish ideas, emotions, and behaviors are reactive

elements easily combining with other ideologies,

such as nationalism, racism, social Darwinism,

conservatism, fascism, and socialism to form an

explosive compound. Second, like a virus, anti-

Jewishness rests dormant at different levels of the

societal and individual psyche, surfacing especially

during the throes of social or personal crisis.viii

Third, although Jews have often been compared to

parasites in both medieval and modern antisemitic

imagery, antisemitism itself is a parasitic idea,

growing more powerful by feeding on the human

emotions of fear, anger, anxiety, and guilt. In

“Know Thyself,” Richard Wagner argued that the

Jews represented the multifaceted power of evil,

the “plastic demon” responsible for the decadence

of all human society.ix This phrase of Wagner’s is

better used to describe antisemitism itself, which

takes on such variegated forms as to render the

concept almost indefinable.

In 2005, the European Union Monitoring Center

on Racism and Xenophobia established a “Working

Definition of Antisemitism”:

Antisemitism is a certain perception of

Jews, which may be expressed as

hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and

physical manifestations of antisemitism

are directed toward Jewish or non-

Jewish individuals and/or their property,

toward Jewish community institutions

and religious facilities.

In addition, such manifestations

could also target the state of Israel,

conceived as a Jewish collectivity.

Antisemitism frequently charges Jews

with conspiring to harm humanity, and

it is often used to blame Jews for “why

things go wrong.” It is expressed in

speech, writing, visual forms and

action, and employs sinister

stereotypes and negative character

traits.

Contemporary examples of

antisemitism in public life, the media,

schools, the workplace, and in the

religious sphere could, taking into

account the overall context, include,

but are not limited to:

• Calling for, aiding, or justifying the

killing or harming of Jews in the

name of a radical ideology or an

extremist view of religion.

• Making mendacious,

dehumanizing, demonizing, or

stereotypical allegations about

Jews as such or the power of Jews

as collective—such as, especially

but not exclusively, the myth about

a world Jewish conspiracy or of

Jews controlling the media,

economy, government or other

societal institutions.
• Accusing Jews as a people of being

responsible for real or imagined

wrongdoing committed by a single

Jewish person or group, or even for

acts committed by non-Jews.

• Denying the fact, scope,

mechanisms (e.g. gas chambers) or

intentionality of the genocide of the

Jewish people at the hands of

National-Socialist Germany and its

supporters and accomplices during

World War II (the Holocaust).

• Accusing the Jews as a people, or

Israel as a state, of inventing or

exaggerating the Holocaust.

 • Accusing Jewish citizens of being

more loyal to Israel, or to the

alleged priorities of Jews

worldwide, than to the interests of

their own nations.

[Although criticism of Israel similar to

that leveled against any other country

cannot be regarded as antisemitism]

examples of the ways in which

antisemitism manifests itself with

regard to the state of Israel taking into

account the overall context could

include:
• Denying the Jewish people their

right to self-determination, e.g., by

claiming that the existence of a

State of Israel is a racist endeavor.

• Applying double standards by

requiring of it a behavior not

expected or demanded of any

other democratic nation.

• Using the symbols and images

associated with classic

antisemitism (e.g., claims of Jews

killing Jesus or blood-libel) to

characterize Israel or Israelis.

• Drawing comparisons of

contemporary Israeli policy to that

 of the Nazis.

• Holding Jews collectively

responsible for actions of the state

of Israel.

• Criminal acts are antisemitic when

the targets of attacks, whether

they are people or property—such

as buildings, schools, places of

worship and cemeteries—are

selected because they are, or are

perceived to be, Jewish or linked to

Jews.

• Antisemitic discrimination is the

denial to Jews of opportunities or

services available to others and is

 illegal in many countries.x

Antisemitism is comprised of constituent

elements. Although religious, racial, cultural,

literary, economic, ethnic, psychosocial, and

political antisemitism are usually interwoven, the

most basic, vigorous, and longest-lived cause of

antisemitism has been religious. Even the aforesaid

Wilhelm Marr’s secular racism existed alongside his

religious antisemitism. On the one hand, Marr

despised Jews because of their “disgusting . . .

chemical” composition. On the other hand, he

associated the “Germanness” he admired with

Christianity and contrasted them both to

Jewishness. Called “the new Luther “ and defending

Christian hostility to Jewish domination, Marr

believed that Germany was a Christian country,

and his goal was to rid Christianity of Judaism’s

sway. His Antisemites’ League used a German oak

leaf and a Christian cross as its symbols.xi In an

1891 article, Marr referred to his movement as

composed of “Christians and Aryans.”xii

Christian Antisemitism

Christian scholar Alan Davies has asked whether

“centuries of religious anti-Judaism . . . so poisoned

the conscience of the ordinary Christian as to blunt

his capacity to recognize simple cruelty.”xiii John

Gager wondered “not simply whether individual

Christians had added fuel to modern European

antisemitism, but whether Christianity itself was, in

its essence and from its beginnings, the primary

source of antisemitism in Western culture.”xiv

Robert Willis concluded that “theological

antisemitism [established] a social and moral

climate that allowed the ‘final solution’ to become

a reality.”xv

More recent studies have confirmed that anti-

Jewish ideology embodied within Christianity

provided the fundamental basis for an American

antisemitism that on the surface seems so

secular.xvi After a careful study of American opinion

in the 1960s, Charles Glock and Rodney Stark

concluded that “the heart and soul of antisemitism

rested on Christianity” and that 95 percent of

Americans got their secular stereotypes of Jews

from the Christian religion.xvii Gordon Allport

concluded that religion stood as the focus of

prejudice because “it is the pivot of the cultural

tradition of a group.”xviii Christianity, unlike any

other group in Western history, has dominated the

West for the last 1,700 years.

Although bigots have found biblical sanction for

their antipathy to women, gays, and blacks, among

others, the Church Fathers most effectively used

the Christian Scriptures as a warehouse for

material against Jews.xix Jews were no longer

merely those annoying people whom a minority of

pagans disdained for their “laziness” on the

Sabbath or refusal to eat pork.xx With the

establishment of Christianity, Jews became

deicides, Christ-killers, God murderers.

Rationally, even Christian antisemites

recognize that Jews could not have murdered God.

But antisemitism is rarely rational. Besides,

Christianity established its own identity in large

part by distancing itself from Judaism. St. Jerome

called all Jews “Judases”; St. Augustine, “Cains”; St.

John Chrysostom, “useless animals who should be

slaughtered.”xxi By the Middle Ages, Christian

Crusaders, townsmen, and authorities defamed,

ghettoized, assaulted, expropriated, expelled,

physically attacked, tortured, and murdered tens—

perhaps hundreds—of thousands of Jews.xxii These

Judenschachter, Jew-slaughterers, no less than the

SS Totenkopfverbanden or members of the

Einsatzgruppen, saw Jews as threats to their very

lives, as demons, monsters, plague-rats that had to

be killed.xxiii

To achieve this separation, Christian writers

turned fundamental aspects of Judaism on their

heads: Jewish law was obsolete, fulfilled in Jesus;

Israel was superseded by Christianity, which now

became the new Israel; God’s covenant passed

from the Jews to the Christian churches.xxiv Instead

of perceiving Jesus of Nazareth as of the blood and

bone and religion of the Jewish people, the Church

Fathers accused Jews of rejecting the messiah, of a

stiff-necked refusal to see the “truth” of

Christianity, of being religious hypocrites, deicides,

children of the devil, eternally doomed.xxv The Jews’

punishment was meant to be eternal wandering,

lives in servitude, and inferiority to the Christians

they lived among. Jewish holy books and practices

were misread, misinterpreted, and demonized. The

Talmud—rabbinic discussions of the meaning of the

Jewish Scriptures and Jewish practices—was judged

heretical and burned during the Middle Ages and

into the 20th century.xxvi

It is almost impossible to find examples of

antisemitism that are exclusively racial, economic,

or political, and free of religious taint. Although

Jews are not a “race,” antisemites often hate Jews,

whom they consider members of a “Jewish race.”

This kind of antisemitism has existed since the

birth of Christianity. Ignoring the salvific power of

the sacrament of baptism, several Church Fathers

argued that a Jew could no more become a

Christian than a leopard change its spots.xxvii Spain

combined religious and racist antisemitism to

establish history’s first institutionalized racism from

the 15th through the 19th centuries and called the

Inquisition.xxviii In the latter century, racial

antisemitism strengthened all across Europe.xxix

Nationalism and racism mixed with religious

antisemitism into the potentially explosive brew

that would fully erupt during the Holocaust. Many

“secular” 19th-century antisemites regarded Jews

as a race with inborn evil traits rather than merely

a religious community. Neither assimilation nor

conversion could save the Jews. Jews did not

partake of the national essence—the German

Aryan spirit, the Slavic soul, the French esprit.xxx

Jews were, are, and would always be dishonest,

unscrupulous, clannish, materialistic, unpatriotic,

parasitical, domineering, and exploitative. Blood

would always tell. Contemporary antisemites often

confuse Jews, Israelis, Zionists, and “Semites.”xxxi

In the fourth century, Church Father St. Jerome

identified all Jews as Judas. During the High Middle

Ages, because the Church barred Christians from

usury, the field was left open to the Jews, who were

barred from most other occupations. In the 16th

century, Shakespeare’s image of Shylock stuck:

Jews were stereotyped as ruthless, money-hungry,

materialistic, unproductive, exploitive, and cruel. In

the 19th century came Dickens’s Fagin image: Jews

corrupting youth and engaged in criminal activity.

Then there was Du Maurier’s Svengali image: the

manipulating Jew, who through occult tricks preyed

upon innocent Christian young women, a variation

on the ritual-murder myth.

False, contrived, mythical accusations leveled

against Jews oftentimes led to mass murder. These

defamations included ritual murder (allegedly Jews

in every generation killed a Christian child as a

repetition of Jesus’ crucifixion); blood libel (Jews

supposedly used the blood drained from a Christian

child to make matzoh for Passover and to drink so

that they could rid themselves of their alleged Jew

stink); desecration of the Host (Jews allegedly stole

and stabbed consecrated wafers in order to

maliciously injure Jesus); and poisoning the wells to

cause plague as part of the supposed Jewish

conspiracy to damage Christians and control the

world. Jewish evil was unending. Popes ordered

civil authorities to force Jews to wear stigmatic

emblems to mark out Jews to prevent Christian

fraternization. Jews were confined to ghettos—

unhealthy, overcrowded, walled, and guarded—and

in Russia to a Pale of Settlement, a circumscribed

area where Jews were forced live.

At the mercy of their Christian rulers and

townspeople, forbidden to own or train in the use

of arms, a tiny and scattered minority, Jews were

vulnerable to attack, riots, outright murder, and

devastations called pogroms. Ghetto residents

were subject to proselytizing sermons, forced

baptisms, and kidnappings. Social and sexual

intercourse with Christians was proscribed. Ghetto

dwellers were subject to special restrictions, such

as limitations on marriage age and the number of

children and synagogues. Jews were subject to

genocidal attacks and to mass expulsions from

towns, cities, principalities, and whole countries.

Crusaders murdered Jews in Europe and the Holy

Land. The Inquisition burned thousands of Jews and

converted Jews at the stake.

To many modern Christians, no matter how

assimilated the Jews became, they were considered

the foreigner, the strange one, the alien who does

not celebrate Christian rituals or festivals, who may

dress differently and speak in a strange language.

Mark Twain, whose Austrian critics accused him of

being a Jew, wrote that “by his make and ways [the

Jew] is substantially a foreigner wherever he may

be, and even the angels dislike a foreigner.”xxxii The

young Chaim Weizmann felt that the Jews were like

a splinter in the eye: even if it were gold, it was still

an incapacitating irritant.xxxiii The converted Jew

Heinrich Heine believed that “Jewishness was an

incurable malady.”xxxiv

Jews were caricatured as villainous and dark

with exaggerated noses. On the one hand, because

the strong sense of social justice among many Jews

led them to criticize society in favor of the

underdog and minorities, modern antisemites

accused Jews of radicalism—in 2006, for many,

even liberalism is enough to stir criticism of Jews—

trying to upset the traditional order. On the other

hand, Jewish success in business and the

professions, engendering jealousy, has led to

charges that Jews control the economy, especially

banking, and are archcapitalists who engage in

immoral business practices, war profiteering, and

control of the press. Moreover, Jews are charged

with engaging in pornography, cheapening culture,

and displaying coarse and unrefined nouveau riche

habits. Social and economic discrimination,

restrictive covenants in housing, and gentlemen’s

agreements in social clubs, hotels, colleges,

corporation boardrooms, and other private

organizations excluded Jews.

Among the great literary figures of Europe and

the United States, religious antisemitism was

widespread. In much of 19th-century literature,

Jewish characters are stereotypes, not characters

with good and bad traits but universally alien and

evil. Authors of this literature, during the century

often regarded as the most secular and racist of

centuries, reveal their own hostile feelings about

Jews in their negative Jewish characters—with the

authors’ antisemitism often confirmed in their

letters and essays. The term Jew itself became a

curse word.
 Mark Gelber has observed that “without a truly

significant counterbalance to a negative Jewish

character or to pejorative references to Jews, such

depictions or references must be considered as

examples of literary antisemitism.”xxxv This is the

case with Balzac, Trollope, Hawthorne, and

hundreds of other important authors who were

taught their antisemitism at their mother’s knee,

their father’s table, their teacher’s bench, and their

priest’s or minister’s pulpit. Their work is cited in

this book and speaks for itself.

What offers hope is the case of the physician,

professor, and poet Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. An

advocate of religious toleration, Holmes observed

that it is right that “the stately synagogue should

lift its walls by the side of the aspiring cathedral, a

perpetual reminder that there are many mansions

in the Father’s earthly house as well as in the

heavenly one.”xxxvi But Holmes confessed that, as a

young man, “I shared more or less the prevailing

prejudices against the persecuted race,” which he

traced to Christian teaching and Puritan

exclusiveness. In a remarkable poem originally

entitled “A Hebrew Tale,” Holmes demonstrated

how he overcame his early antisemitism. This

poem provides us with an important insight into

the process of how antisemitism works: how one

event can trigger a sequence of hostile thoughts

and feelings about Jews. Holmes recounts how he

was hemmed in by Jews attending a play. He found

their appearance distasteful, reminding him of their

deicide, of their perfidy, of their usury, of their

murder of Christian children. In this one poem,

Holmes captures the two millennia of Jewish history

in Christian lands, and the promise of a better

future. Holmes mentions the

hooked-nosed kite of

carrion clothes,

The sneaky usurer, him

that crawls

And cheats . . .

Spawn of the race that

slew its Lord.

Up came their murderous

deeds of old,
 . . . Of children caught and

crucified;

. . . of Judas and his bribe .

..

But when Holmes looked more closely into the

faces of the Jews surrounding him, he thought

Jesus must have resembled them.

The shadow floated from

my soul,

And to my lips a whisper

stole,— . . .

From thee the son of Mary

came,
 With thee the Father

deigned to dwell,—

Peace be upon thee,

Israel.xxxvii

In the first half of the 20th century,

governments sponsored pogroms, passed

restrictive immigration laws, ignored talented

Jewish candidates for important positions, limited

the number of Jews in prestigious schools, and

turned a blind eye to persecution and violence

against Jews—most notably during the Holocaust.

During those terrible days, the U.S. Treasury

Department’s report entitled “The Acquiescence of

This Government in the Murder of the Jews”

summarized the relationship between the Western

Allies and the Germans and many other Europeans

and their governments in discrimination against,

and mass murder of, Jews. The “Final Solution of

the Jewish Problem” combined religious,

nationalist, racist, sociocultural, and economic

antisemitism. As Raul Hilberg put it: “The

missionaries of Christianity had said in effect: You

have no right to live among us as Jews. The secular

rulers who followed had proclaimed: You have no

right to live among us. The German Nazis at last

decreed: You have no right to live.”xxxviii

Islamic Antisemitism

Islam also discriminated against Jews and

Christians as dhimmis—People of the Book inferior

to Muslims—but also afforded them limited

protection if they paid special taxes and

“behaved.” Though Jewish dhimmis were denied

full civil and political rights and though pogroms

and forced conversions continued in the Muslim

world, for centuries during the period of Islamic

dominance, Muslims treated Jews better than

Christian rulers did. However, as the Islamic world,

particularly the Arab nations, approached the 21st

century, classic antisemitism invaded its belief

system. Many contemporary Muslims fear and hate

Jews and believe that Jews are an evil religious

community who deserve no homeland and ought to

be annihilated.xxxix The presence of Israel interrupts

the geographic continuity of the Arab world. Many

Arabs believe that Israel is a catastrophe imposed

imperialistically as an enclave of Western culture—

Israeli “depravity” exemplified by liberated Jewish

women. Jews are accused of introducing

communism into the Middle East since they

supported Palestinian, Syrian, Egyptian, and

Lebanese communist parties. With no right to exist

in a Jewish state, at best Jews should live as they

did under caliphs—as dhimmis. At worst, Jews must

be destroyed, as some medieval Crusaders

proclaimed, down to the last baby at the breast.xl

Despite the tragic history of antisemitism reflected

in the entries of this dictionary, antisemitism is not

one unending continuum. There were periods in

Jewish history like the Golden Age of Jews in

medieval Spain of relative tolerance and peaceful

coexistence between Jews and Christians, Jews and

Muslims. During the post-Holocaust period, until

the last decade, antisemitism has lain dormant.

There has been considerable improvement of

conditions for Jews since the Holocaust and, since

1965, in the eyes of the Roman Catholic Church at

the start of the 21st century. Yet the virus of

antisemitism has once again resurrected, and the

need to catalogue its manifestations and identify

its proponents has never been more necessary.

DEDICATION
Robert Michael

To all those Jewish and Christian souls who have

endured, who have fought hatred and prejudice,

and who have made the world a better place.

To my parents, Gilbert E. Friedberg and Jeanne

Greene Friedberg.

To my brother, Stephen H. Friedberg.

And, especially, to my wife, Susan, and to my

children, Stephanie, Andrew, and Carolyn.

Philip Rosen

In his famous Mishna Torah, the great Jewish

philosopher Maimonides wrote: “How would one
know we were in the days of the Messiah? Only
that the Jews would no longer be persecuted.” To
my daughters Serena and Ruth.

Short Biography of Dr. Robert MICHAEL

Professor Emeritus of History at the University of
Massachusetts Dartmouth, founder of the scholarly
email list H-ANTISEMITISM, and a recipient of the
American Historical Association's James Harvey
Robinson Prize for the "most outstanding
contribution to the teaching and learning of
history," Dr. Robert Michael was a Phi Beta Kappa
graduate of Boston University in Philosophy, a
Woodrow Wilson Fellow at Columbia University, and
an NDEA Fellow at the University of Connecticut.
He has taught classes at Central European
University in Budapest, Inter-American University in
Puerto Rico, and has delivered lectures at the
University of Vienna, the Ateneo Veneto, and the
University of Venice (Italy). Dr. Michael has
published poetry and more than 50 articles and a
dozen books on the Holocaust and History of
Antisemitism. He served in the United States Army
from 1958 to 1961 and worked as a book editor in
New York City publishing for 6 years. Professor
Michael currently teaches on the Graduate Faculty
of Florida Gulf Coast University, University of South
Florida, and Ringling School of Art & Design.

Short Biography of Dr. Philip Rosen

Philip Rosen received his doctor's degree from

Carnegie-Mellon University researching American
ethnity. He was the Director of the Holocaust
Museum at Gratz College in Philadelphia and has
authored two books on the Holocaust. He is
currently teaching at Temple University and Arcadia
University in the Greater Philadelphia area where
he lives with his wife Lillian.
i
<notes>

.
Bryan Mark Rigg spends his first two chapters attempting to answer this question. in Hitler’s Jewish

Soldiers: The Untold Story of Nazi Racial Laws and Men of Jewish Descent in the German Military

(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2002).

ii.
George Eliot, “The Modern Hep! Hep! Hep!” in

Impressions of Theophrastus Such (Ames: Iowa

University Press, 1994).

iii.
Gordon Allport, The Nature of Prejudice (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1954), 184.

iv.
Moshe Zimmermann, Wilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of Antisemitism (Oxford: Oxford University

Press, 1986).
v.
Raul Hilberg, Destruction of the European Jews, rev. ed. (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1985).

vi.
Allport, Nature of Prejudice, 48.

vii.
Josef Joffe, “Nations We Love to Hate: Israel, America and the New Antisemitism,” Posen Papers in

Contemporary Antisemitism, No. 1 (Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism,

Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 2005), 1–16.

viii.
What is endemic becomes epidemic. See Imre Hermann, Psychologie de l’Antisémitisme (Paris:

Eclat, 2006); Danielle Knafo, “Antisemitism in the Clinical Setting: Transference and

Countertransference Dimensions,” Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 47, no. 1

(1999), 35–63; Guy Sapriel, “La permanence antisémite: Une étude psychanalytique; La trace

mnésique irréductible,” Pardès: Études et culture juive: Psychanalyse de l’antisémitisme contemporain

(2004): 11–20, 16.

ix.
Richard Wagner, “Know Thyself,” in Richard Wagner’s Prose Works, trans. William Ashton Ellis

(London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1892–99), 6:264–65, 271.

x.
European Union Monitoring Center on Racism and

Xenophobia, “Working Definition of Antisemitism,”

EUMC. Discussion Papers—Racism, Xenophobia,

Antisemitism, March 16, 2005,.

eumc.eu.int/eumc/indexhttp://eumc.europa.eu/eumc/

material/pub/AS/AS-WorkingDefinition-draft.pdf.
xi.
Paul Rose, Revolutionary Antisemitism in Germany from Kant to Wagner (Princeton, NJ: Princeton

University Press, 1990), 14; Uriel Tal, Christians and Jews in Germany: Religion, Politics, and

Ideology in the Second Reich, 1870–1914 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1975), 264.
xii.
Moshe Zimmermann, Wilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of Antisemitism (Oxford, UK: Oxford University

Press,1986), 83, 88–94, 105, 107, 112.

xiii.
Alan Davies, Antisemitism and the Christian Mind; The Crisis of Conscience after Auschwitz (New

York: Herder and Herder, 1969), 39.

xiv.
John Gager, The Origins of Antisemitism: Attitudes toward Judaism in Pagan and Christian Antiquity

(New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 13.

xv.
Robert Willis, “Christian Theology after Auschwitz,”

Journal of Ecumenical Studies (Fall 1975): 495.

xvi.
Robert Michael summarizes the argument in his introduction “The United States Is Above All Things

a Christian Nation” for his Concise History of American Antisemitism (Lanham, MD: Rowman &

Littlefield, 2005). See also, e.g., Egal Feldman, Dual Destinies: The Jewish Encounter with Protestant
America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990); and Leonard Dinnerstein, Antisemitism in

America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).; Robert Michael, Concise History of American

Antisemitism (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005), summarizes the argument in his

“Introduction: ‘The United States is Above All Things a Christian Nation.’”

xvii.
Charles Glock and Rodney Stark, Christian Beliefs

and Antisemitism (New York: Harper & Row, 1966), xvi,

185–87, 50–65, 73–74, 105. See also Rodney Stark, et

al., Wayward Shepherds (New York: Harper & Row,

1971), 5, 9–10, 50; and Alphons Silbermann, Sind Wir

Antisemiten? (Cologne, Germany: Verlag Wissenschaft

und Politik, 1982), 51–52.

xviii.
Allport, Nature of Prejudice, 446.

xix.
Irving Zeitlin, Jesus and the Judaism of His Time (Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 1988), 184–201.

xx.
Menachem Stern, Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism, 3 vols. (Jerusalem: Israel Academy

of Sciences and Humanities,1984).

xxi.
St. Jerome, De Antichristo in Danielem 4, 11:21–30, in Commentarii in Danielem, ed. Francisci

Glorie, Libri 3–4 [Corpus Christinaorum, Series Latina] (Turnhout Turnholti: Brepols, 1964),

75A:917–20; St. Augustine, “Reply to Faustus, the Manichaean,” in Disputation and Dialogue, ed.

Frank Talmage (New York: KTAV, 1975), 31; St. John Chrysostom, Homilies against Judaizing

Christians, 1.2.4–6.
xxii.
Joshua Trachtenberg, The Devil and the Jews (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1961).
xxiii.
Frederick Schweitzer, “The Tap-Root of Antisemitism: The Demonization of the Jews,” in

Remembering for the Future: Jews and Christians during and after the Holocaust: Theme One

(Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press, 1988), 879–90.

xxiv.
Jacob Neusner, “Christian Missionaries—Jewish Scholars,” Midstream (October 1991), 31.

xxv.
St. Ambrose, Epistola 74:3 (Patrologiae, Cursus Completus, Series Latina, ed. J.-P. Migne,

16:1255), cited in Shlomo Simonsohn, The Apostolic See and the Jews: History (Toronto: Pontifical

Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1991), 9n29.

xxvi.
Robert Chazan, Medieval Jewry in Northern

France (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,

1974), 178 and chapters 5 and 6; Solomon

Grayzel, ed., The Church and the Jews in the

Thirteenth Century (New York: Hermon Press,

1966), 32n60, 278n3;.

. Werner Keller, Diaspora: The Post-Biblical History

of the Jews (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World,

1969), 225; Simonsohn, The Apostolic See and the

Jews: History, 303–7, 315.

xxvii.
St. Isidore of Seville, Contra Judaeos, 1, 18, in Rosemary Ruether, Faith and Fratricide: The

Theological Roots of Antisemitism (New York: Seabury, 1965), 130.

xxviii.
Yosef Yerushalmi, Assimilation and Racial

Antisemitism: The Iberian and the German Models

(New York: Leo Baeck Institute, 1982); Léon Poliakov,

The Aryan Myth (New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1974);

Albert Sicroff, Les controverses des statuts de “pureté

de sang” en Espagne du XVe au XVIIe siècle (Paris:

Didier, 1960); Michael Glatzer, “Pablo de Santa Maria

on the Events of 1391,” in Shmuel Almog,

Antisemitism through the Ages (Oxford, UK: Pergamon

Press, 1988), 127–37.

xxix.
Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Reden an die deutsche Nation

(1808), Sixth Address, Point 81; Hans-Joachim Becker,

Fichtes Idee der Nation und das Judentum

(Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2000); Eleonore Sterling,

Judenhass: Die Anfänge des politischen

Antisemitismus in Deutschland, 1815–1850 (Frankfurt:

Europaische Verlag, 1969), 128–29.
xxx.
Peter Pulzer, The Rise of Political Antisemitism in Germany and Austria, rev. ed. (Cambridge, MA:

Harvard University Press, 1988), 312.

xxxi.
Riccardo Calimani, Ebrei e pregiudizio: Introduzione alla dinamica dell’odio (Milan: Oscar

Mondadori, 2000).
xxxii.
Mark Twain, “Concerning the Jews,” Harper’s New Monthly Magazine (September 1899), reprinted

in The Complete Essays of Mark Twain, ed. Charles Neider (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1963),
xxxiii.
Fritz Stern, “The Burden of Success: Reflections on German Jewry,” in Dreams and Delusions

(New York: Knopf, 1987), 111n.

xxxiv.
Heinrich Heine, quoted inby Jacob Katz, Out of the Ghetto (New York: Schocken, 1973), 210.

xxxv.
Mark Gelber, “What Is Literary Antiseimitism?” Jewish Social Studies 42, no. 1 (Winter 1985);

Lionel Trilling, “The Changing Myth of the Jew,” Commentary 66, no. 2 (August 1978); Alvin

Rosenfeld, “What to Do about Literary Antisemitism,” Midstream 24, no. 10 (1978).

xxxvi.
Oliver Wendell Holmes, Over the Teacups (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1891), 197.

xxxvii.
Oliver Wendell Holmes, The Complete Poetical Works of Oliver Wendell Holmes (Boston:

Houghton-Mifflin, 1895), 189.

xxxviii.
Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews, rev. ed., (New York: Holmes and Meier,

1985), 1:8–9.

xxxix.
Robert S. Wistrich, Muslim Antisemitism: A Clear and

Present Danger (New York: American Jewish

Committee, 2002).
xl.
An anonymous chronicler of Mainz, quoted in Robert Chazan, “The Hebrew First-Crusade
Chronicles,” Revue des Études Juives: Historia Judaica 33 (January–June 1974): 249–50, 253.

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