INTRODUCTION

1. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER:-
The operational amplifier was first introduced in the early 1940s. Primary
usage of these vacuum tube forerunners of the ideal gain block was in
computational circuits. They were fed back in such a way as to accomplish
addition, subtraction, and other mathematical functions. Expensive and
extremely bulky, the operational amplifier found limited use until new
technology brought about the integrated version, solving both size and cost
drawbacks. Volumes upon volumes have been and could be written on the
subject of op amps. In the interest of brevity, this application note will cover
the basic op amp as it is defined, along with test methods and suggestive
applications. Also, included is a basic coverage of the feedback theory from
which all configurations can be analyzed.
Earlier, the ideal operational amplifier was defined. No circuit is ideal, of
course, so practical realizations contain some sources of error. Most
sources of error are very small and therefore can usually be ignored. It
should be noted that some applications require special attention to specific
sources of error. Before the internal circuitry of the op amp is further
explored, it would be beneficial to define those parameters commonly
referenced.
Operational amplifier amplifier whose output voltage is proportional to
the negative of its input voltage and that boosts the amplitude of an input
signal many times, i.e., has a very high gain. It is usually connected so that
part of the output is fed back to the input. Operational amplifiers were
originally developed to be used in synthesizing mathematical operations in
analog computers, hence their name. Because of recent advances in
semiconductor technology, they have become available as integrated
circuits. They are widely used when a closely controlled amount of gain or
some form of signal processing is necessary in an electronic system. It has
high input impedance and low output impedance. Operational amplifiers
are normal amplifiers usually represented with a 3-terminal symbol, having
two input terminals, the inverting input (-) and non-inverting input (+), one
output terminal as shown below:-.

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 Fig 1-1Symbol of Operational Amplifier

The operational amplifiers are taken as practical operational amplifiers as

well as ideal operational amplifiers.

1.1: THE PERFECT / IDEAL AMPLIFIER:--

The ideal operational amplifier possesses several unique characteristics.
Since the device will be used as a gain block, the ideal amplifier should
have infinite gain. By definition also, the gain block should have infinite
input impedance in order not to draw any power from the driving source.
Additionally, the output impedance would be zero in order to supply infinite
current to the load being driven. These ideal definitions are illustrated by
the ideal amplifier model of Figure 1. 1 Further desirable attributes would
include infinite bandwidth, zero offset voltage, and complete insensitivity to
temperature, power supply variations, and common-mode input signals.

Figure 1-2: Ideal Operational Amplifier

Keeping these parameters in mind, further contemplation produces two

very powerful analysis tools. Since the input impedance is infinite, there will
be no current flowing at the amplifier input nodes. In addition, when
feedback is employed, the differential input voltage reduces to zero. These
two statements are used universally as

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Beginning points for any network analysis and will be explored in detail
later on.

1.2: THE PRACTICAL AMPLIFIER:-

Tremendous strides have been made by modern technology with respect to
the ideal amplifier. Integrated circuits are coming closer and closer to the
ideal gain block. In bipolar devices, for instance, input bias currents are in
the practical range for FET input amplifiers while offset voltages have been
reduced to less than 1mV in many cases.
Any device has limitations however, and the integrated circuit is no
exception. Modern operational amplifiers have both voltage and current
limitations. Peak-to-peak output voltage, for instance, is generally limited to
one or two base-emitter voltage drops below the supply
voltage, while output current is internally limited to approximately 25mA.
Other limitations such as bandwidth and slew rates are also present,
although each generation of devices improves over the previous one.

INPUT SIGNAL MODE OF OP-AMP:-

OP-AMP
Following are the different input modes of operational amplifier.

Single-Ended Input:-
Input
When an operational amplifier is operated in a single-ended mode, one
input is grounded and the signal voltage is applied only to the other input,
as shown in the figure 1-3. In the case where the signal voltage is applied
to the inverting input as in part (a), an inverted amplified signal voltage
appears at the output. In the case where signal is applied to the non-
inverting input with the inverting input grounded, as shown in part (b), a
noninverted, amplified voltage appears at the output.

(a) (b)
Figure 1-3: Single-Ended Mode

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Differential Input:-
In the difference input, two opposite-polarity (out of phase) signals are
applied to the inputs, as shown in figure 1-4. Thus type of operation is also
referred to as double-ended. The amplified difference between two inputs
appears on the output.

Figure 1-4: Differential Input

Common-Mode Input:-
In the common mode, two signal voltages of same phase,
frequency and amplitude are applied to the two inputs, as shown in figure
1-5. When equal input signals are applied to both inputs, they cancel,
resulting in a zero output voltage.
This action is called common-mode rejection. Its importance lies
in the where an unwanted signal appears commonly on both op-amp
inputs. Common-mode rejection means that this unwanted signal will not
appear on the output and distort the desired signal.

Figure 1-5: Common-Mode Input

Common Mode Rejection Ratio:-

Ratio
The desired signal can appear on only one input or with opposite
polarities on both input lines. These desired signals are amplified and
appear on the output. Unwanted signals (noise) appearing with the same
polarity on both input lines are essentially cancelled by the op-amp and do
not appear on the output. The measure of an amplifier’s ability to reject
common-mode signals is a parameter called CMMR (common mode
rejection ratio). It is also defined as the ratio of open-loop voltage gain (Aol)
to the common-mode gain (Acm) .i.e.

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 CMMR= Aol/Acm
The higher the CMMR, the better will be the performance of op-amp and
lower the CMMR, poor will be the performance of op-amp.

There are two types of amplifiers. That are as follows:-

A. Inverting Amplifiers.
B. Non-inverting amplifiers.

A. INVERTING AMPLIFIERS:-
An operational amplifier is connected as an inverting amplifier
with a controlled amount of voltage gain as shown in figure 1-6 below:-

Figure 1-6: Inverting Amplifier

The input signal is applied through a series resistor Rin at the inverting
input while the non-inverting input is connected to ground. The output is
also feed back through Rf to the same inverting input.

Virtual Ground:-
Ground
At this stage ideal characteristics are useful in specification, especially the
concept of infinite impedance. An infinite impedance implies zero current
to the inverting input through the input impedance thus there is no voltage
drop between inverting and non-inverting inputs. i.e. Vd =0. This further
illustrates that point A and point B are at the same potential. Since the point
B is at the ground potential, so point A is referred to as virtual ground as
shown below in figure 1-7.

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 Figure 1-7: Virtual Ground

B. NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER:-
An operational amplifier as a non-inverting amplifier with a
controlled amount of voltage as shown below in figure 1-8:-

Figure 1-8: Non-inverting amplifier

The input signal is applied at the non-inverting input. While the

output voltage is applied back to the inverting (-) input through the
feedback circuit formed by the input resistors R1 and R2.

Voltage follower /Unity Follower:-

Follower
As we have:
Av = 1+ R2/R1
So, if R2 = 0, means short circuited.
R1 is infinity i.e. it is removed.
Then Av = 1.
Under this condition the circuit is called the voltage follower.

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 The voltage follower configuration is the special case of non-inverting
amplifier where all the output is feed back through the inverting amplifier as
shown below in Figure 1-9.

Figure 1-9: Voltage Follower

It has a very high input impedance and very low output impedance, these
feathers makes it nearly an ideal buffer amplifier for interfacing high
impedance source and low impedance source.
There are four basic types operational amplifiers of which are as follows:-
(a) Operational Amplifier as a Difference amplifier.

(b)Operational Amplifier as a summer.

(c) Operational Amplifier as an integrator.
(d)Operational Amplifier as a Differentiator.
Here our concern is with Operational amplifier as a summer. So we
will discuss the operational amplifier as a summer in detail.

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER AS A SUMMER:-

SUMMER
It is also known as summing amplifier. The summing amplifier is a
handy circuit enabling you to add several signals together. What are some
examples? If you're measuring temperature, you can add a negative offset
to make the display read "0" at the freezing point. On a precision amplifier,
you may need to add a small voltage to cancel the offset error of the op
amp itself. An audio mixer is another good example of adding waveforms
(sounds) from different channels (vocals, instruments) together before
sending the combined signal to a recorder.

Although, there are many ways to make a summer, this one is nice
because it keeps the interaction between inputs at a minimum. What does
that mean for you the designer? You can change the gain or add another
input without messing with the gains of the other inputs. Just remember

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that the circuit also inverts the input signals. Not a big deal. If you need the
opposite polarity, put an inverting stage before or after the summer.

It is an application of the inverting op-amp configuration. The summing

amplifier has two inputs or more inputs, and its output voltage is
proportional to the negative of the algebraic sum of its inputs.

2. BLOCK DIAGRAM:-

3. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

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 VCC
18V

XSC1

Ext T rig
VCC +
_
A B
_ _
0 + +

R1 7 1 5 U1
3
3
1kO 2
V2 6

2
5 Vrms
30 Hz 4 4 AD741CN 0
0° R2
R3
1kO
1kO
1 V1 VEE

3 Vrms
30 Hz
0°
0
VEE
-18V

Figure 2: Summing Amplifier

A two inputs summing amplifier is shown in the figure 2, but any number of
inputs can be used. The operation and the derivation of the output
expansion are as follows. Voltage V1 is applied to the input and which
produces current.
Using the concept of infinite impedance and virtual ground, the inverting
input (-) of the op-amp is approximately 0 V, and there is no current at the
input. This means that both the input currents I1 and I2 combines at this
summer point and form the total current(IT),which goes through R3. The
output voltage will have the same magnitude as the sum of the two input
voltages but with a negative sign, indicating inversion. The output wave
form will be as follow.

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 INPUT/OUTPUT WAVEFORM

4. APLICATIONS OF OP-AMP AS A SUMMER:-

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 The summing amplifier" is a versatile device for combining signals. It can
either add signals directly, or scale them to fit some predetermined combination
rule.

1. Summing several signals with equal gains is done in an audio mixer.

2. A summing amplifier with different resistors on the inputs gives a

weighted sum. This can be used to convert a binary number to a

voltage in a digital-to-analog converter.
3. A summing amplifier can be used to apply a DC offset voltage
along with an AC signal voltage. This is done in a LED modulation
circuit to keep the LED in its linear operating range.
4. Audient’s Sumo high resolution balanced summing amplifier is
designed as an external analog summing mixer aimed at the audio
workstation engineer in a single rack space.
5. Summing amplifiers are found in mixing desks which
add together the inputs from several different audio
sources.

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