1. Define hormone.

2. Describe paracrine communication.

3. Identify four mechanisms of intercellular
communication.
4. How could you distinguish between a neural response
and an endocrine response on the basis of response
time and duration?
5. How would the presence of a substance that inhibits
the enzyme adenylate cyclase affect the activity of a
hormone that produces its cellular effects by way of the
second messenger cAMP?
6. What primary factor determines each cells hormonal
sensitivities?
7. Identify the two lobes of the pituitary gland.
8. If a person were dehydrated, how would the amount of
ADH released by the posterior lobe change?
9. A blood sample contains elevated levels of
somatomedins. Which pituitary hormone would you
also expect to be elevated?
10. What effect would elevated circulating levels of
cortisol, a steroid hormone from the adrenal cortex,
have on the pituitary secretion of ACTH?
11. Identify the hormones of the thyroid gland.
12. What signs and symptoms would you expect to see in
an individual whose diet lacks iodine?
13. When a persons thyroid gland is removed, signs of
decreased thyroid hormone concentration do not
appear until about one week later. Why?
14. Describe the location of the parathyroid glands.
15. Identify the hormone secreted by the parathyroid
glands.
16. The removal of the parathyroid glands would result in
a decrease in the blood concentration of which
important mineral?
See the blue Answers tab at

17. Identify the two regions of the adrenal gland, and cite
the hormones secreted by each.
18. List the three zones of the adrenal cortex.
19. What effect would ele
20. Identify the hormone-secreting cells of the pineal gland.
21. Increased amounts of light would inhibit the
production of which hormone?
22. List three possible functions of melatonin.
23. Identify the types of cells in the pancreatic islets and
the hormones produced by each.
24. Why does a person with type 1 or type 2 diabetes
urinate frequently and have increased thirst?
25. What effect would increased levels of glucagon have on
the amount of glycogen stored in the liver?
26. Identify two hormones secreted by the kidneys.
27. Identify a hormone released by adipose tissue.
28. Describe the action of renin in the bloodstream.
29. Insulin lowers blood glucose levels, and glucagon
causes glucose levels to rise. What is this type of
hormonal interaction called?
30. The lack of which hormones would inhibit skeletal
formation?
31. Why do levels of GHRH and CRH rise during the
resistance phase of the general adaptation syndrome?
32. Discuss the general role of the endocrine system in the
functioning of other body systems.

33. Discuss the functional relationship between the

endocrine system and the muscular system.
2. The use of a chemical messenger to transfer information from
cell to cell within a single tissue is referred to as ___________
communication.
(a) direct
(b) paracrine
(c) hormonal
(d) endocrine
3. Cyclic-AMP functions as a second messenger to
(a) build proteins and catalyze specific reactions.
(b) activate adenylate cyclase.
(c) open ion channels and activate key enzymes in the
cytoplasm.
(d) bind the hormonereceptor complex to DNA segments.
4. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulates the release of
(a) thyroid hormones by the hypothalamus.
(b) gonadotropins by the adrenal glands.
(c) growth hormones by the hypothalamus.
(d) steroid hormones by the adrenal glands.
5. FSH production in males supports
(a) the maturation of sperm by stimulating nurse cells.
(b) the development of muscles and strength.
(c) the production of male sex hormones.
(d) an increased desire for sexual activity.
6. The two hormones released by the posterior lobe of the
pituitary gland are
(a) GH and gonadotropin.
(b) estrogen and progesterone.
(c) GH and prolactin.
(d) ADH and oxytocin.
7. All of the following are true of the endocrine system, except
that it
(a) releases chemicals into the bloodstream for distribution
throughout the body.
(b) releases hormones that simultaneously alter the
metabolic activities of many different tissues and organs.
(c) produces effects that can last for hours, days, and even
longer.
(d) produces rapid, local, brief-duration responses to specific
stimuli.
(e) functions to control ongoing metabolic processes.
8. A cells hormonal sensitivities are determined by the
(a) chemical nature of the hormone.
(b) quantity of circulating hormone.
(c) shape of the hormone molecules.
(d) presence or absence of appropriate receptors.
(e) thickness of its plasma membrane.
9. Endocrine organs can be regulated by all of the following, except
(a) hormones from other endocrine glands.
(b) changes in the genetic makeup of certain hypothalamic cells.
(c) direct neural stimulation.
(d) changes in the composition of extracellular fluid.
(e) releasing hormones from the hypothalamus.
10. What three higher-level mechanisms are involved in
integrating the activities of the nervous and endocrine
systems?
11. Which seven hormones are released by the anterior lobe of the
pituitary gland?
12. What six hormones primarily affect growth?
13. What five primary effects result from the action of thyroid
hormones?
14. What effects do calcitonin and parathyroid hormone have on
blood calcium levels?

15. What three zones make up the adrenal cortex, and what kind
of hormones does each zone produce?
16. Which two hormones are released by the kidneys, and what is
the importance of each hormone?
17. What are the four opposing effects of atrial natriuretic peptide
and angiotensin II?
18. What four cell populations make up the endocrine pancreas?
Which hormone does each type of cell produce?
LEVEL 2 Reviewing Concepts
19. What is the primary difference in the way the nervous and
endocrine systems communicate with their target cells?
20. In what ways can a hormone modify the activities of its
target cells?
21. What is an endocrine reflex? Compare endocrine reflexes and
neural reflexes.
22. How would blocking the activity of phosphodiesterase affect a
cell that responds to hormonal stimulation by the cAMP
second-messenger system?
23. How does control of the adrenal medulla differ from control
of the adrenal cortex?
24. A researcher observes that stimulation by a particular
hormone induces a marked increase in the activity of G
proteins in the target plasma membrane. The hormone being
studied is probably
(a) a steroid.
(b) a peptide.
(c) testosterone.
(d) estrogen.
(e) aldosterone.
25. Increased blood calcium levels would result in increased
(a) secretion of calcitonin.
(b) secretion of PTH.
(c) retention of calcium by the kidneys.
(d) osteoclast activity.
(e) excitability of neural membranes.
26. In type 2 diabetes mellitus, insulin levels are frequently
normal, yet the target cells are less sensitive to the effects of
insulin. This suggests that the target cells
(a) are impermeable to insulin.
(b) may lack enough insulin receptors.
(c) cannot convert insulin to an active form.
(d) have adequate internal supplies of glucose.
(e) both b and c.

Chapter 18
Answers to Checkpoints
Page 596
1. A hormone is a chemical messenger that is secreted by one cell
and travels through the bloodstream to affect the activities of cells
in other parts of the body.
2. Paracrine communication is the use of chemical messengers to
transfer information from cell to cell within a single tissue.
3. The four mechanisms of intercellular communication are direct,
paracrine, endocrine, and synaptic.
Page 603
4. Neural responses occur within fractions of a second and are of
short duration. Conversely, endocrine responses are slow to appear
but last for minutes to days.
5. A substance that inhibits adenylate cyclase, the enzyme that
converts ATP to cAMP, would block the action of any hormone that
requires cAMP as a second messenger.
6. A cells hormonal sensitivities are determined by the presence or
absence of the receptor complex needed to bind a given hormone.
Page 608
7. The two lobes of the pituitary gland are the anterior lobe and the

posterior lobe.
8. In dehydration, blood osmotic concentration is increased, which
would stimulate the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland to release
more ADH.
9. Somatomedins mediate the action of growth hormone. Elevated
levels of growth hormone typically accompany elevated levels of
somatomedins.
10. Elevated circulating levels of cortisol inhibit the endocrine cells
that control the release of ACTH from the pituitary gland, so ACTH
levels would decrease. This is an example of a negative feedback
mechanism.
Page 614
11. Thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), and calcitonin are
hormones associated with the thyroid gland.
12. An individual whose diet lacks iodine would be unable to form
the thyroid hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). As
a result, you would expect to see signs and symptoms associated
with their deficiency: decreased metabolic rate, decreased body
temperature, a poor response to physiological stress, and an
increase in the size of the thyroid gland (goiter).
13. Most of the bodys reserves of the thyroid hormones, thyroxine
and T4, are bound to blood-borne proteins called thyroid-binding
globulins. Because these compounds represent such a large
reservoir of thyroxine and T4, it takes several days after removal of
the thyroid gland for blood levels of thyroxine and T4 to decline.
Page 615
14. The parathyroid glands are embedded in the posterior surfaces
of the lateral lobes of the thyroid gland.
15. The hormone secreted by the parathyroid glands is parathyroid
hormone (PTH).
16. The removal of the parathyroid glands would result in a
decrease in the blood concentration of calcium ions. Increasing the
amounts of vitamin D and calcium in the diet could counteract the
effects.
Page 619
17. The two regions of the adrenal gland are the cortex and
medulla. The cortex secretes mineralocorticoids (primarily
aldosterone), glucocorticoids (mainly cortisol, hydrocortisone, and
corticosterone), and androgens; the medulla secretes epinephrine
and norepinephrine.
18. The three zones of the adrenal cortex from superficial to deep
are the zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, and zona reticularis.
19. One function of cortisol is to decrease the cellular use of
glucose while increasing both the available glucose (by promoting
the breakdown of glycogen) and the conversion of amino acids to
carbohydrates. Therefore, the net result of elevated cortisol levels
would be an elevation of blood glucose.
20. Pinealocytes are the special secretory cells in the pineal gland.
21. Increased amounts of light would inhibit the production (and
release) of melatonin from the pineal gland, which receives neural
input from the optic tracts. Melatonin secretion is influenced by
lightdark cycles.
22. Melatonin inhibits reproductive functions, protects against free
radical damage, and influences circadian rhythms.
Page 622
23. The cells of the pancreatic islets (and their hormones) are alpha
cells (glucagon), beta cells (insulin), delta cells (GHIH), and F
cells (pancreatic polypeptide).
24. An individual with type 1 or type 2 diabetes has such high
blood glucose levels that the kidneys cannot reabsorb all the
glucose; some glucose is lost in urine. Because the urine contains
high concentrations of glucose, less water can be reclaimed by
osmosis, so the volume of urine production increases. The water
losses reduce blood volume and elevate blood osmotic pressure,
promoting thirst and triggering the secretion of ADH.
25. Increased levels of glucagon stimulate the conversion of

glycogen to glucose in the liver, which would in turn reduce the

amount of glycogen in the liver.
Page 628
26. Two hormones secreted by the kidneys are erythropoietin
(EPO) and calcitriol.
27. Leptin is a hormone released by adipose tissue.
28. Once released into the bloodstream, renin functions as an
enzyme, catalyzing the conversion of angiotensinogen to
angiotensin I.
Page 630
29. The type of hormonal interaction in which two hormones have
opposite effects on their target tissues is called antagonism.
30. A lack of GH, thyroid hormone, PTH, and the gonadal
hormones would inhibit the formation and development of the
skeletal system.
31. During the resistance phase of the general adaptation
syndrome, there is a high demand for glucose, especially by the
nervous system. The hormones GHRH and CRH increase the
levels of GH and ACTH, respectively. Growth hormone mobilizes
fat reserves and promotes the catabolism of protein; ACTH
increases cortisol, which stimulates both the conversion of glycogen
to glucose and the catabolism of fat and protein.
32. The endocrine system adjusts metabolic rates and substrate
utilization, and regulates growth and development, in all other
body systems.
33. Hormones of the endocrine system adjust muscle metabolism,
energy production, and growth; hormones also regulate calcium
and phosphate levels, which are critical to normal muscle
functioning. For their part, skeletal muscles protect some endocrine
organs.

Answers to Review Questions

Page 635
Level 1 Reviewing Facts and Terms
1. (a) hypothalamus; (b) pituitary gland; (c) thyroid gland;
(d) thymus; (e) adrenal glands; (f) pineal gland; (g) parathyroid
glands; (h) heart; (i) kidney; (j) adipose tissue; (k) digestive tract;
(l) pancreatic islets (within pancreas); (m) gonads
2. b 3. c 4. d 5. a 6. d 7. d 8. d 9. b
10. (1) The hypothalamus produces regulatory hormones that
control secretion by endocrine cells in the anterior lobe of the
pituitary gland. (2) The hypothalamus contains autonomic centers
that exert direct neural control over the endocrine cells of the
adrenal medullae. (3) The hypothalamus releases ADH and
oxytocin into the bloodstream at the posterior lobe of the pituitary
gland. These mechanisms are adjusted through negative feedback
loops involving hormones released by peripheral endocrine tissues
and organs.
11. The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland releases (1) thyroidstimulating
hormone (TSH); (2) adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH); (3) follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH); (4) luteinizing
hormone (LH); (5) prolactin (PRL); (6) growth hormone (GH);
and (7) melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH).
12. Growth is affected by (1) growth hormone, (2) thyroid
hormones, (3) insulin, (4) parathyroid hormone, (5) calcitriol, and
(6) the reproductive hormones.
13. Effects of thyroid hormones are (1) increased rate of energy
consumption and utilization in cells; (2) accelerated production of
sodiumpotassium ATPase; (3) activation of genes coding for the
synthesis of enzymes involved in glycolysis and energy production;
(4) accelerated ATP production by mitochondria; and (5) in
growing children, normal development of the skeletal, muscular,
and nervous systems.
14. Calcitonin decreases the concentration of calcium ions in body
fluids; parathyroid hormone causes an increase in the
concentration of calcium ions in body fluids.
15. (1) zona glomerulosa: mineralocorticoids; (2) zona fasciculata:
glucocorticoids; and (3) zona reticularis: androgens

16. The kidneys release (1) erythropoietin, which stimulates the

production of RBCs by the bone marrow, and (2) calcitriol, which
stimulates calcium and phosphate absorption along the digestive
tract.
17. Natriuretic peptides (1) promote the loss of sodium ions and
water at the kidneys; (2) inhibit the secretion of water-conserving
hormones, such as ADH and aldosterone; (3) suppress thirst; and
(4) block the effects of angiotensin II and norepinephrine on
arterioles. Angiotensin II opposes these actions by stimulating
aldosterone secretion at the adrenal cortex and ADH at the
posterior lobe of the pituitary gland, and further by restricting salt
and water losses by the kidneys. Angiotensin II also stimulates thirst
and elevates blood pressure.
18. (1) alpha cells: glucagon; (2) beta cells: insulin; (3) delta cells:
growth hormoneinhibiting hormone (GHIH, or somatostatin);
and (4) F cells: pancreatic polypeptide
Level 2 Reviewing Concepts
19. The primary difference involves speed and duration. In the
nervous system, the source and destination of communication are
quite specific, and the effects are extremely quick and short lived. In
endocrine communication, the effects are slow to appear and
commonly persist for days. A single hormone can alter the
metabolic activities of multiple tissues and organs simultaneously.
20. Hormones can (1) direct the synthesis of an enzyme (or other
protein) not already present in the cytoplasm, (2) turn an existing
enzyme on or off, and (3) increase the rate of synthesis of a
particular enzyme or other protein.
21. In endocrine reflexesthe functional counterpart of neural
reflexesa stimulus triggers the production of a hormone. Both
neural and endocrine reflexes are typically controlled by negative
feedback mechanisms.
22. Inactivation of phosphodiesterase, which converts cAMP to
AMP, would prolong the effect of the hormone.
23. The adrenal medulla is controlled by the sympathetic nervous
system, whereas the adrenal cortex is stimulated by the release of
ACTH from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
24. b 25. a 26. b