9

Horizontal and

Vertical Curves

9-1_ Remarks. The center line of a highway, railroad, or canal

consists of a series of straight lines connected by curves. The grade
line on a profile of any length is likewise made up of straight lines and
curves. These curves mayfbe arcs of circles, parabolas, or curves whose
equations are of the third degree. The parabola is generally used as a
vertical curve on grade lines, while the circle and the higher-degree
curves are used as horizontal curves. On modern highways and rail
roads the horizontal curves are. made up of circles with easement or
transition curves at the two ends.
9-2. Notation for Circular Curves. The notation commonly
used on circular curves is shown in Fig. 9-1. The point at which the
two tangents to the curve intersect is called the vertex, which is des
ignated V, or the point of intersection, abbreviated P.I. The deflec
tion angle between the tangents, which is equal to the angle at the
center of the curve, is denoted by I or I:J.. If the survey, shown in
Fig. 9-1, is progressing to the right, the straight line to the left of the
P.I. is the back tangent, and the one to the right is the forward
tangent. The beginning point of the curve is called the point of
curvature, abbreviated P.C. This is sometimes referred to as the
tangent-to-curve point, abbreviated T.C. The end of the curve is the
point of tangency, or the P.T. This is also referred to as the curve
to-tangent point, abbreviated C.T.
The distance from the P.I. to the P.C. or the P.T. is the tangent
distance, T. The distance from the P.I. to the middle point of the
curve, measured along the bisector of the central angle, is the external
distance, E. The distance from the middle point of the curve to the
middle point of the chord joining the P.C. and the P.T. is the middle
ordinate, M. The angle subtended at the center of the curve by a
100-ft chord is the degree of curve, D, by chord definition. The angle
subtended at the center of the curve by a 100-ft arc is the degree of
269

270

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CURVES

\.

FIG. 9-1.

Circular curve.

curve, D, by arc definition. The radius of the curve is designated by R.

As the station method is commonly used in recording the hori
zontal distances, and as the P.C. of a curve will rarely be at a full
station, the distance Cl from the P.C. to the first full station on the
curve will be, in general, less than 100 ft. The central angle subtended
by this chord is d 1 The distance from the last full station on the curve
to the P. T. is C2, and the corresponding central angle is d2
A curve can be designated by either the radius or the degree of
curve. The designation by the radius is
finding widespread use in highway prac
tice. Usually some integral multiple of 50
ft is used as the radius of the curve.
The length of a curve is the difference
in stationing between the P.C. and the
P.T. of the curve. By arc definition, this
corresponds to the length of the curve
measured along the actual arc. By chord
definition it does not correspond either to
the length measured along the arc or to
FIG. 9-2. Relation between R the length measured along a series of
and D by chord definition.
chords unless the curve is, by chance.

2rcR

FIG.9-3. Relation between

Rand D by arc definition.

FIG. 9-4. Elements of a circular curve.

\

composed of fu1l100-ft chords only. The length L of a curve herein defined is a mathematical value used to compute other elements used in
laying out the curve in the field.
9-3. Radius and Degree of Curve. The relationship between
the radius and the degree of curve by chord definition is shown in
Fig. 9-2. In either of the two right-angled triangles formed by bisecting the central angle D,
50

-R
50

R=-sin%D
The relationship between the radius and the degree of curve by
arc definition is shown in Fig. 9-3. When D is expressed in degrees,
100
D

27rR

---

360

5729.58
D(ft
5729.58

(9-3)
(9-4)

94. Equations for Circular Curves. The relationships involving the radius R of a circular curve, the deflection angle A between

270

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CURVES

" and other elements of the circular curve are shown in

!'he following equations apply to both the chord definition
e arc definition.

T = R tan Yz .l
(9-5)
E = R sec Yz .l - R = R (sec ?~ .l 1)
(9-6)
E = R exsec Yz .l
M = R - R cos ?~.l = R (1
cos Yz .l)
or
M
R vers Yz .l
(9-7)
e = 2 R sin Yz .l
(9-8)
The full deflection angle for the curve is the angle at the p.e.
from the P.I. to the P.T. and is seen to be ! .l.
The length of the curve, or the difference in stationing between
the p.e. and the P.T., is computed by the relationship
L = 100

(9-9)

95. Selection of Curve. Any two given tangents can be con

nected by an infinite number of circular arcs. The curve to be used
in a particular case is determined by assuming D, R, T, E, or L. Since
all these quantities are interdependent, only one can be assumed.
The other values are calculated from the relationships developed in
the preceding section.
Field conditions frequently decide which quantity should be
assumed. Thus, when the survey is following the bank of a stream,
the external distance may be the limiting factor. On a winding road
the tangent lengths may be restricted. On high-speed modern pave
ments and railroads, an attempt is made to keep the degree of curve
below a given maximum. Wherever possible a radius of more than
1000 ft is adopted. This radius corresponds to a degree of curve of
about 5 44'.
96. Stations of P.l., P.C., and P.T. The station of the P.I. is
determined when the center-line tangents have been located in the
field. It is equal to the distance, in hundreds of feet and plusses, from
the point selected as station 0 + 00 as described in Sec. 3-45. The
station of the p.e. is obtained by subtracting the tangent distance T
from the P.I. station. The P.T. station is obtained by adding the
length of the curve L to the p.e. station. In algebraic form,

p.e. = P.I. - T
P.T. = p.e. + L

(9-10)

(9-11)

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CURVES

FIG. 9-5.

273

Relation between central angle

and deflection angle.

9-7. Central Angle and Chord to First Curve Station. In Fig,

9-5, the p.e. station is 20 + 54.00, the first curve station is 21 + 00,
and the second curve station is 22 + 00. By either the chord or the
arc definition, the angle at the center subtending a full station is equal
to the degree of curve D. Let c'., called the nominal subchord, equal
the difference in stationing between the p.e. and the first station on
the curve. Then, by direct proportion,

or

d1

C'l

100

d _ c' 1 D
1 -

100

(9-12)

In Fig. 9-5, let D

15. Then, since C'l
46.00 ft, d 1 = 46.0 x
15/100 ::::; 6.90 = 6 54'.
The actual chord length between the p.e. and station 21 + 00,
designated CI, is used to layout the point on the ground. It is found
from the relationship

from which

(9-13)

274

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CURVES

The value of Cl in Fig. 9-5 will depend on whether the degree of curve
is determined by the chord or arc definition, since the value of R will
be different for the two definitions for a given D.
9S. Central Angle and Chord from Last Curve Station to P.T.
denotes the difference in stationing between the last station on
the curve and the P.T., then the central angle d2 between these two
points is
If

C'2

d2 =

The actual chord length

the P.T. is

C2

C'2

100

(9-14)

between the last curve station and

(9-15)

9-9. Central Angle and Chord Between Any Two Curve Points.
From Secs. 9-7 and 9-8, it is obvious that the angle at the center sub
tended between any two points on the curve is proportional to the
difference in stationing between the two points. Let c' = the differ
ence in stationing between any two points on the curve, d ::::: the cen
tral angle between the two points, and D = the degree of curve, either
by chord or arc definition. Then

d=

c'D
100

(9-16)

The actual chord distance c between the same two points, either
by chord or arc definition, is given by the relationship

c =2Rsin%d

(9-17)

9-10. Deflection Angles to Points on Curve. The angle formed

between the back tangent and a line from the p.e. to a point on the
curve is the deflection angle to the point. This deflection angle,
measured at the p.e. between the tangent and the line to the point,
is one-half the central angle subtended between the P.C. and the
point. This relationship comes directly from the geometry of a circle.
An angle between a tangent and a chord is measured by one-half the
intercepted arc, while the central angle is measured by the whole arc.
Thus, in Fig. 9-6, the central angle d 1 between the p.e. at station
12 + 62.50 and the first full station on the curve is 3, and the deflec
tion angle .! d 1 between the back tangent and the line directed to
station 13 + 00 is 1 30'. Similarly the central angle between the P.C.
and the second full station on the curve is d l + D = 3 + 8 = 11,

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CURVES

275

FIG. 9--6. Deflection angles to points

on curve.

and the deflection angle, which is d l + D, is 50 30'. If each half

station were to be located, then the deflection angle to station 13
+ 50 in Fig. 9-6 would be d l + % D 3 30'.
The deflection angle to each succeeding full station is obtained
by adding the value D to the preceding deflection angle. To locate
half-stations, D is added; to locate quarter-stations, % D is added.

911. Curve Location. To locate the position of a simple curve

in the field, the intersection angle 11 is measured. Based on an
assumed value for one of the elements of the curve, the other elements
and the stationing of the P.C. and the P.T. are computed. A table of
deflection angles is prepared for locating full stations, half-stations,
or quarter-stations. For any curve the final deflection angle should
be checked against the full deflection angle 11. With the transit still
at the P.I., the P.C. and the P.T. are located by laying off the tangent
distance T.
The transit is next set up at the P.C. and a backsight is taken
along the back tangent toward the P.I. The first deflection angle
d l is turned off, and the actual chord distance Cl is laid off on the
line of sight to locate the first curve station. When full stations are
located, the second deflection angle d l + D is turned off by set
ting the horizontal circle to this reading. The chord distance between
the first and second curve stations is laid off by measuring from the
first station, and the forward end of the chord is brought on the line

276

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CURVES

COMPUTATIONS FOR CIRCULAR CURVE BY DEFLECTION ANGLES

7ft::.

t::,. :::: 23 18'

P.I. :::: station 50

T::::

p.e. ::::

station 47
5

L
P.T.

== station

C'l ::::
C'2 ::::
Cl ;;;;;

Cz

p.e.

P.T.

Station

= 47 + 58.48
48

49

50

51

52

53

53

53.87
95.39

+ 58.48
+ 82.50
53 + 40.98

41.52
40:98
41.52
40.99

= + 40.98

11 39'

D (assumed)
(1)

(3)

R ==~
sin 7fD
log 50 = 1.69 8970
log sin 2 00' = 8.54 2819

log R
3.15 6151
log 2 = 0.30 1030

(5)
(6)

(7)

(2)

(10)
(11)

Deflection
Angle (12)
0 00' 00"
0 49' 49/1
2 49' 49"
4 49' 49"
6 49' 49"
8 49' 49/1
10 49' 49/1
11 39' 00"
(checks 7ft::.)

== 4 00' chord def.

log 2R
3.45 7181
T
R tan Yzt::,.
log R = 3.15 6151
log tan 11 39' == 9.31 4247
log T = 2.47 0398
T = 295.39

(4)

=100 ~D == 233Q.
4

L = 582.50
_ c'lD
(8)
72d 1 -200
7fdl = 0 49' 49"
7fd == c'2D
(9)
z 200
7fdz
0 49' 11 /1
(10)
Cl
2RsinYzd 1
log 2 R == 3.45 7181
log sin 0 49' 49/1
8.16 1086

=
=

log

(11)

Cl

= 1.61 8267

== 2 Rsin7fdz
log 2 R == 3.45 7181
log sin 0 49' 11" == 8.15 5529
C2

log

C2

= 1.61 2710

of sight. This procedure establishes the second curve station. Each

station is located by a line of sight from the p.e. and a chord distance
from the preceding station, until the end of the curve is reached, or
until a set-up on the curve becomes necessary. The previously located
position of the P. T. provides a check on the accuracy of the field work.
The complete computations for the curve shown in Fig. 9-1 are
given in the above table. The order in which these computations are
made is indicated by the numbers in parentheses. The deflection
angles are computed more exactly than the angles can be turned off
in the field. This is done to check the value of the final deflection
angle, since it must agree with lh A. The curve is based on the chord
definition for degree of curve.

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CURVES

FIG. 9-7.

277

Moving up on curve.

9-12. Moving up on Curve. It will happen frequently that, be

cause of the length of the curve, or because of obstacles on the line,
the entire curve cannot be staked out with the transit at the P.C. of
the curve. If the transit is properly manipulated, it can be moved
forward along the curve as many times as may be necessary, and the
deflection angles previously computed can be used in staking out the
remaining portions of the curve.
A portion of the curve for which the computations are tabulated
on page 276 is shown in Fig. 9-7 to a distorted scale. Let it be assumed
that the transit is moved to station 50, which has been located by
turning off a deflection angle of 4 0 49' 49" from the tangent at the
P.C. If a backsight is taken on the P.C. with vernier A reading 180 0 ,
it is apparent that vernier A will read 4 0 49' 49" when the line of
sight is directed forward along the tangent at station 50. Since the
angle between this tangent and the chord to station 51 is II:! D, or
2 00', vernier A will read 6 49' 49" when the line of sight is directed
along the chord to station 51. This reading of 6 49' 49" is the pre
viously computed deflection angle for station 51. The reading of
8 49' 49", previously computed for station 52, will be the reading
when the line of sight is directed along the chord from station 50 to
station 52.
Thus, if the vernier is set at 180 and a backsight is taken on the
P.C., the previously computed deflection angles can be used in locat
ing stations beyond the one occupied by the transit. From Fig. 9-7
it should be evident that, if a backsight is taken to any other station,
vernier A should be set at 180 0 plus the deflection angle for that
station, since the curve shown is to the right. For a curve to the left,
the reading should be 180 0 minus the deflection angle for the station
on which a backsight is taken.

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CURVES

278

<1

FIG. 9-8.

Circular curve by tangent offsets.

9-13. Curve by Tangent Offsets. It is possible to locate a curve

on the ground by using only steel tapes. Although the precision at
tained will not be so great as when the transit is used, it will be suffi
cient for many purposes. The tangent-offset method can be used either
with or without a transit, and can be used also in plotting a curve of
large radius when a beam compass cannot be used conveniently.
The tangent-offset method of staking out a curve is illustrated in
Fig. 9-8. The field work consists in locating temporary points, as
b, c, d, and e, on the back tangent and determining stations on the
curve by intersecting two arcs. The first point B. at station 48 is lo
cated by using the P.C. as a center and Cl as the radius for one arc,
and using b as a center and bB
tl as a radius for the second arc.
The intersection of these two arcs determines the location of B, the
first full station on the curve. This station is then used as a center,
with 100 ft as a radius, and the arc thus located is intersected with a
second arc struck with C as a center and cC as a radius. Each suc
ceeding station is located by using the preceding station as a center
and 100 ft as a radius for one arc and intersecting that arc with one

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CURVES

279

for which a point such as d, e, or I is the center and a distance such as

dD, eE, or IF, is the radius. The field work can be checked by com
paring the measured distance from the last full station to the P.T.
with the computed value of C2, and by comparing the perpendicular
offset hH from the tangent to the P.T. with the computed value of
this offset.
When the transit is used, the temporary points such as b, c, and
d can be lined in with the instrument; otherwise, they are lined in by
eye. The deflection angle at the P.I. can be measured by the method
described in Sec. 6-2, in case a transit is not available.
The tangent offsets and the distances along the tangent can be
computed in two ways. The offset at the first station on the curve, or
station 48, is bB = AB'
R vers d h and the distance along the
tangent is Ab = B'B R sin d 1 ; or, bB Cl sin .! d 1 = C1 2 /2R, and
Ab = Cl cos .! d 1 At station 49, cC = AC' = R vers (d 1 + D), and
Ac C'C = R sin (d 1 + D); or, cC = ce' + c'C bB + c'G = el
sin .! d 1 + 100 sin (d 1 + .! D), and Ac Ab + bc Ab + Be' = Cl cos
.! d 1 + 100 cos (d 1 + .! D). The second method is preferable, since a
check is provided on the computations of the offsets and tangent dis
tances. The last offset, or that to the P.T., is hH = bB + e'C + d'D
+ ... + h'H = AH' R vers A, and the tangent distance Ah = Ab +
Be' + Cd' + ... + Gh' = H'H = R sin A.
914. Intersection of Curve and Straight Line. One of the com
mon problems in right-of-way surveys is the intersection of a straight
line with a curve. Thus, in Fig. 9-9, DG represents a property line
intersected by the curve ABC. When the curve is flat, the intersection
B can be located on the ground by setting points at E and F on the
curve on both sides of the intersection and close enough together so
that no appreciable error will be introduced by considering the curve
to be a straight line between these two points. The point B is found at
the intersection of the chord EF and the property line DG.
The intersection can be obtained mathematically if the distance
AV' and the angle GV'V are measured on the ground. The figure
V'BOA can be considered as a traverse with two missing quantities,
the length V'B and the direction of the line BO. These values can be
calculated by the methods of Sec. 8-32. From the computed direction,
the central angle AOB and the station of B on the curve can be
calculated.
A second mathematical solution will be apparent from the fol
lowing relationships. In Fig. 9-9, angle GV'V = angle DV'A = angle
IDA = a. In triangle AOH, AH = R sin a and OH R cos a. In tri

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CURVES

280

-RO
/11\
/ /I 1\

//

()/

,,/
/

_1_-

//
A-

I
I

D.

/~7
1\
1;0 1 \
I

1/

/1
I II
If).

I I '(

90"-0

-,<-,L--

I I

II;
I I
IE I

A \
I

-gO' I
1
---iH

I
II

~--~~--~~~-'---------I+-----C

FIG. 9-9.

\
\
\

\
\

Intersection of curve and straight line.

angle AV'J, V'J

AV' cos a and AJ AV' sin a. Also, V'I = AH
- V'J, 01 = OH + AJ, cos lOB
OI/R, tan IOV'
V'I/OI, BI
R sin lOB, V'B = V'I - BI, and angle AOB = angle AOI angle
lOB. When these computations have. been completed, B may be lo
cated by measuring the computed distance V'B along V'G, or by
means of a deflection angle and a chord measured from the P.C. of
the curve. The length of the chord AB is 2 R sin % AOB.
The problem of intersecting a line with a curve can be solved
by the methods given in Sec. 8-23 if the line and the curve are both
on a coordinate system.

9-15. Vertical Curves. When the grade line of a highway or a

railroad changes grade, provision must be made for a vehicle to
negotiate this transition smoothly and to provide vision over the crest
of a hill far enough ahead to give the operator of the vehicle ample
time to react to a dangerous situation. The parabola is most com
monly used for connecting two different grades, in order to provide
for this transition. It is easy to compute elevations on a parabola,
and such a curve also provides a constant rate of change of grade.
The results of the vertical-curve computations are the grade eleva
tions at selected points along a route from the beginning of the curve
to its end. These elevations are used, in turn, to control grading
operations when the roadbed is to be brought to the desired grade by
excavation and the construction of embankments.

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CURVES

281

The length of a vertical curve in 100-ft stations is designated as

L and is measured along the horizontal. The two grades in the direc
tion of stationing are gl and gz. The total change in grade is (gz - gl).
The rate of change of grade per station, designated as r, is found by
dividing the total change in grade by the length of the curve in sta
tions. Thus,
r

where r
gl

g2 - gl
L

=:::---

\ (9-18)

rate of change of grade per station;

il1itial grade, in per cent;
gz :::: final grade, in per cent;
L length of the ,curve, in stations.
:=

When r is specified, the required length L is found by the relationship

(9-19)

If two given grades are to be connected by a vertical curve, then

either r or L must be assumed and the other value is computed. The
sharpness of a vertical curve in railroad location is usually defined by
the allowable rate of change of grade.
When a vertical curve is laid out so that the intersection of the
grade lines, called the point of grade intersection and designated as V,
lies midway between the two ends of the curve measured horizontally,
then the vertical curve is called an equal-tangent parabolic vertical
curve.
Two methods are available for computing the elements of a
vertical curve. The first method, presented in Sec. 9-16, treats the
curve analytically. By this method, problems involving high and low
points on the curve, vertical clearance, and curve intersections can be
dealt with most efficiently. Also, the analytic method can be adapted
to computer programming very easily. The second method, presented
in Sec. 9-17, is somewhat more easily applied for simple vertical-curve
problems. It takes advantage of the geometric properties of the
parabola. The solution of a complicated curve. problem, however, is
more difficult by the geometric method.

9-16. Vertical Curves by Equation of Parabola. As shown in

Fig. 9-10, the beginning of a vertical curve is designated as B. V.C.,
the intersection of the tangents as V, and the end of the vertical
curve as E.V.C. The initial grade is gl and the final grade is g2.

282

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CURVES

y

av.e.
~----------L----------~

~r-

FIG. 9-10.

________

~O~a~rom=-

__________~~

Parabola with rectangular-coordinate axes.

The y-values are elevations in feet, and the x-values are stations
beyond the B.V.C. The y-axis is passed through the B.V.C., and the
x-axis lies on the datum. The equation of a parabola with the axis in
the y-direction is
y = ax 2 + bx + c
(9-20)
When x = 0, y is the elevation of the B. V.C. Therefore, c is the
elevation of the B. V.C., and Eq. 9-20 becomes
y = ax 2

+ bx + (elev. of B.V.C.)

(9-21)

The first derivative of y with respect to x from Eq. 9-20 is

dy

(9-22)
=2ax+b
dx
When x = 0, the slope of the curve is gl. Since this slope equals
the first derivative of the curve at x = 0, it follows that b = gl. Equa
tion 9-20 then becomes
y = ax 2 +

glX

+ (elev. of B.V.C.)

(9-23)

The second derivative is the rate of change of slope or grade of

the curve. So 2a r, and Eq. 9-20 becomes

(9-24)
x 2 + glX
(elev. of B. V.C.)
2
which is the equation of the equal-tangent parabolic vertical curve
used to connect two grades. In Eq. 9-24, y is the elevation of a point
on the curve, and x is the distance in stations between the B.V.C. and
the point. If the elevations of the points above or below the B. V.C.
y =

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CURVES

FIG. 9-11.

283

Algebraic signs of r.

are desired, the x-axis becomes the x' -axis, as shown in Fig. 9-10, and
c becomes O. For these conditions,
r
y'::::

x2

+ glX

(9-25)

The value of r must be assigned its proper algebraic sign. Equa

tion 9-18 gives the algebraic sign directly. In Fig. 9-11, it is seen that
if the vertical curve opens upward, r is plus; and if it opens down
ward, r is minus.
EXAMPLE 91. Two grades, for which l!l :::: + 1.25 per cent and l!2 :::: - 2.75
per cent, intersect at station 18 + 00, and the elevation of the intersection is 886.10
ft. If the length of the curve is to be 600 ft, what are the elevations of the B. V.C.,
the E.V.C., and all full stations on the curve?

Solution: See Fig. 9-12. The B.V.C. is at station 15, and the E.V.C. is at
station 21. The elevation of the B. V.C. is obtained by going backward along grade
l!l from the point of intersection for a distance of 300 it. The elevation of the

15

J6
<S

FIG. 9-12.

18

19

Para~lic vertic8l curve.

20

HORIZONTAl AND VERTICAL CURVES

284

E. V.C. is obtained by going forward from the point of intersection along grade g2
for 300 ft. The computations follow:
Elev. B. V.C. = 886.10 - 3 X 1.25

882.35 ft

Elev. E. V.C. = 886.10 - 3 X 2.75

877.85 ft

By Eq. 9-18, the change of grade per station is

- 2.75 - 1.25

r=

0.667 per cent

The equation of the curve is y

- 0.333 x 2 + 1.25 x + 882.35.
The elevations of the points on the curve are computed by preparing the
accompanying table. Note that the elevation of a point is the sum of the values in
the fourth, fifth, and sixth columns of the table.
COMPUTATIONS FOR VERTICAL CURVE BY EQUATION OF PARABOLA

Station

B.V.C.

15
16
17
18
19
20
E.V.C. ~ 21

s"

0
1
2
3
4
5
6

0
1
4
9
16
25
36

.:"

0
0.33
1.33
3.00
5.33
8.33
- 12.00

--

81':

+ 1.25
+ 2.50
+ 3.75
+ 5.00
+ 6.25
+ 7.50

B.V.C.

Elev.

Elev.
Curve

882.35
882.35
882.35
882.35
882.35
882.35
882.35

882.35
883.27
883.52
883.10
882.02
880.27
877.85

917. Vertical Curves by Tangent Offsets from Grade Lines.

Three properties of an equal~tangent vertical curve are as follows:

1) The offsets from the tangent to the curve at a point are pro
portional to the squares of the horizontal distances from the point.
2) Offsets from the two grade lines are symmetrical with respect
to the point of intersection of the two grade lines.
3) The curve lies midway between the point of intersection of
the grade lines and the middle point of the chord joining the B.V.C.
and the E.V.C.
Proof of these properties is left to the reader.
In Fig. 9-13, by the first property, bB = 4 aA; cC = 9 aA; OV
= 16 aA; eE = 4 fF; dD = 9 fF; OV
16 fF. By the second prop
erty, aA
fF; bB eE; cC = dD. By the third property, MO = OV,
or OV = % MV. The distance MV is obtained by subtracting the ele
vation of V from the elevation of M. The elevation of M is the mean
of the elevations of the B.V.C. and the E.V.C., since it lies at the
middle point of the chord joining the two points. The elevations of
points A, B, C, D, E, and F, the B.V.C., and the E.V.C. are computed
from the assigned grades of the two tangents. By employing the prop
erties of the curve, the elevations of the points on the curve can then
be computed.

285

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CURVES

'-

---- ---a

---- ---lev. 566.97

.a

--

;---

---

lev. 558.97

E.v.c.

46

48

FIG. 9-13.

49

51

50

52

EXAMPLE 9-2. For the two grade lines of Fig. 9-13, gl

g2 =

54

53

Properties of the vertical curve.

=-

6 per cent and

+ 2 per cent. The elevation of the intersection of the grade lines at station 50

is 550.97 ft. The length of the curve is 800 ft. Compute the stations and elevations
of the B. V.C. and the E. V.C. and the elevations at all other stations on the curve.

Solution: The computations may be arranged as follows:

Station of B.V.C. == 50 4 station 46
Elev. of B. V.C. 550.97 + 4 X 6 == 574.97 t
Station of E.V.C. 50 + 4 == station 54
Elev. of E. V.t:'. = 550.97 + 4 X 2 558,97 ft

l ' of chor d
EIev.of ml' d d
e pomt
lr

Ollset

curve at mtersectIOn

177

liP

== 574.97 + 558.97

= 566.97 t
550.97

= 8.00 ft == VO

= 566.97 -2

Offset at A and F == (14) 2 X 8.00 :::: 0.50 ft

Offset at Band E
(%)2 X 8.00
2.00 ft
Offset at C and D ::::
2 X 8.00
4.50 ft
Elev. of A == 574.97 - 6.00 :::: 568.97 ft
Elev. of B :::: 568.97 - 6.00 562.97 ft
Elev. of C 562,97 - 6.00 556.97 ft
Elev. of V
556.97 - 6.00 550.97 ft
Elev. of F = 558.97 - 2.00 556.97 ft
Elev. of E 556.97 - 2.00 :::: 554.97 ft
Elev. of D = 554.97 - 2.00 552.97 ft
Elev. of V
552.97 - 2.00 550.97 ft (check)
Elev. of a :::: station 47 568.97 + 0.50 569.47 ft
Elev. of b = station 48 562.97 + 2.00 564.97 ft
Elev. of c
station 49 556.97 + 4.50 561.47 ft
Elev. of 0
station 50 550.97 + 8.00 == 558.97 ft
Elev, of d
station 51 552.97 + 4.50 557.47 ft
Elev. of e
station 52 554.97 + 2.00 = 556.97 ft - '
Elev. of t
station 53 == 556.97 + 0.50 557.47 ft

(:ru

=
=
=

=
=
=

=
=
=

=
=
=

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CURVES

286

The foregoing computations should be arranged as shown in the accompany

ing tabulation.
COMPUTATIONS FOR VERTICAL CURVE BY OFFSETS FROM BOTH TANGENTS
!

Station

B.V.C. :::: 46

E.V.C.

47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54

Tangent
Elev.

574.97
568.97
562.97
556.97
550.97
552.97
554.97
556.97
558.97

Offset
from Tangent

+ 0.50

+ 2.00
+ 4.50
+8.00
+ 4.50
+ 2.00
+ 0.50

Elev. Curve

574.97
569.47
564.97
561.47
558.97
557.47
556.97
557.47
558.97

9-18. Intermediate Points on Vertical Curves. Occasions will

frequently arise where the elevations of points on vertical curves must

be computed at intervals of 50 ft, 25 ft, or even 10 ft. Also the eleva
tions of random points on the curve are quite frequently necessary.
The most direct way of computing the elevations of these inter
mediate points is by use of Eq. 9-24 where x is the station or plus
. beyond the B. V.C. and y is the elevation of the point in feet. In
Example 9-1, if the elevation of station 17 + 22.33 is desired, then
x = 2.2233 stations beyond the B.V.C. The elevation of station 17 +
22.33 is, therefore,
y:::: (- 0.333)(2.2233)2 + (1.25)(2.2233) + 882.35

= 883.48 ft

The elevation of an intermediate point can be computed by the

tangent-offset method, although not quite so readily as by using the
equation of the curve. In Example 9-2, the elevation of station 49 +
52 is obtained by first computing the tangent elevation at the station
and then by computing the tangent offset at the station. The tangent
elevation is 574.97 - (3.52)(6)
553.85 ft. The tangent offset is
(3.52/4)2 X 8.00 = 6.20 ft. Therefore the elevation of the curve at
station 49 + 52 is 553.85 + 6.20 = 560.05 ft.
9-19. Location of Highest or Lowest Point. When gl and g2
have opposite algebraic signs, either a high point or a low point will
occur between the B.V.C. and the E.V.C. Furthermore, this point may
not fall on a full station or on a previously selected point. Sometimes
it is necessary to determine the station and elevation of the high
point or the low point, in order to locate a clearance point, a drainage
structure, or some other feature. The tangent to the curve at this
point will be a horizontal line, that is, the slope of the curve will be
zero. The position of the point can be determined, then, by equating

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CURVES

287

to zero the first derivative of Eq. 9-24. For the high or low point,
dy

dx

or

= rx +gl
X=

=0
(9-26)

The value of x in Eq. 9-26 is the distance in stations from the B. V.C.
to the high or low point. The elevation of the point is found by sub
stituting .the value of x obtained from Eq. 9-26 in Eq. 9-24, and
solving for y.
The high point of the curve of Example 9-1 occurs at x =
1.25/0.666 = 1.875 stations beyond the B. V.C. Thus, the summit is at
station 16 + 87.5. The elevation at the point is 883.52 ft.
In Example 9-2, the value of r found by Eq. 9-18 is [2 - (- 6)] /
8 = + 1.00, and the low point occurs at x
6/1.00
6 stations
beyond the B. V.C. It is at station 52 where the elevation was pre
viously computed.
9-20. Minimum Length of Vertical Curve. The length of a ver
tical curve on a highway should be ample to provide a clear sight
which is sufficiently long to prevent accidents. The American Associa
tion of State Highway Officials (AASHO) has developed criteria for
the distance required to pass another vehicle traveling in the same
direction on a vertical curve and also for the distance required to
stop a vehic!e in an emergency. The former distance, called the safe
passing sight distance and designated as SSP, is based on the assump
tions that the eyes of the driver of a vehicle are about 3.75 ft above
the payment and the top of an on-coming vehicle is about 4.50 ft
above the pavement. The latter required distance, called the safe
stopping sight distance and designated as Snp, is based on the assump
tion that an obstruction ahead of the vehicle is 0.50 ft above the
pavement. The values of SSP and Snp are given in Table 9-1.
TABLE 9-1
AASHO SIGHT-DISTANCE RECOMMENDATIONS

Design Speed
(mph)

(ft)

S.P

S.p

30
40
50
60
70

800
1300
1700
2000
2300

200
275
350
475
600

(ft)

"

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CURVES

288

If it is assumed that the safe passing sight distance is less than

the length L of the curve, then
L =

S2~(g~~

(9-27)

33.0
where distances are in feet and gl and g2 are expressed as ratios. If it
is assumed that SSP is longer than the curve, then

33.0

2 SSP - - -

(9-28)

gl - g2

If the safe stopping sight distance is less than the length of the
curve, then

S 2 np

(gl - g2)

14.0
If Snp is longer than the curve, then
L

2 SUP

14.0
gl

(9-29)

(9-30)

g2

On a highway with four or more traffic lanes, the safe stopping

sight distance can be used to determine the required length of a
vertical curve, because there is little probability of meeting oncoming
vehicles in the passing lane. On a two-lane highway, however, the safe
passing sight distance must be used if a vehicle is permitted to pass
another one traveling in the same direction on the vertical curve.
Use of the safe passing sight distance results in excessive lengths of
vertical curves, and in most instances causes excessive excavation.
(See Chapter 16.) Two methods are employed on two-lane roads to
allow the safe stopping sight distance to be used for computing L. One
method is to prohibit passing on crests and to indicate the restriction
by appropriate center-line marking. The second method is to widen
the pavement at the crest to permit two lanes in both directions for
a sufficient distance.

EXAMPLE 9-3. The grades at a crest are gl = + 2 per cent and g2

3
per cent, and the design speed is 60 mph. Compute the lengths of the vertical
curves required for the safe passing sight distance and the safe stopping sight
distance recommended by the AASHO.

Solution: By Eq. 9-27 and Table 9-1,

L =

20002 X 0.05

Also, by Eq. 9-28,

L=2X2000

= 6060 ft

33
0.05

3340 ft

289

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CURVES

The length required for safe passing is therefore 6060 ft, since S,. is less than L.

By Eq. 9-29,
L =

4752 X 0.05

= 806ft

Also, by Eq. 9-30,

14
670 ft
0.05
The length required for safe stopping is thus 806 ft, since Sn. is less than L.
In this example, it would not be necessary to apply Eq. 9-28 or Eq. 9-30
after it is found by Eq. 9-27 or 9-29 that the required sight distance is less
than L.
L

=2

X 475

9-21. Compouud Curves. A compound curve consists of two or

more consecutive circular arcs, the
RC.
P.T. of one curve being the P.C. of --2"",-c;;;:::--"---~..----rthe next and the centers of the curves
being on the same side of the curve. N
Such a curve is shown in Fig. 9-14.
While it is beyond the scope of this
text to go deeply into the problems of
compound curves, it may be pointed
out that many of the compound-curve
equations can be developed by consid
ering the polygon 1-2-3-4-5 in Fig. 9-14
as a five-sided traverse.
5 FIG. 9-14. Compound curve.
The values for this traverse are shown in Table 9-2.

TABLE 9-2
BASIS OF EQUATIONS FOR COMPOUND CURVES

00
90
90" + I
4-5 180 0 + I
5-1
I.
1-2

2-3
3-4

R.
T.
T,
RI

0
T.
TI cos I

R, - R. (RI - R.) sin

R.
. RI sin I

1.1

(R, - R.) cos I.

TI sin I
RI cos I

Since the traverse is a closed one, the algebraic sums of the lati
tudes and departures must equal zero. From the departures,
(9-31)
From the latitudes, north latitudes being considered negative for
convenience, - R. + T, sin I + R t cos I - (R , - R.) cos 1. = O.
If Rz is added and subtracted, this equation can be written

290

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CURVES

CR, R.) - (R z - Rs)

COS

Is + TI sin I (R z - Rz cos I) :::: 0

(9-32)

Since 1 - cos a :::: vers a, this reduces to

(R 1 - Rs) vers Is + Tz sin I - RI vers I:::: 0

(9-33)

From Eqs. 9-31 and 9-32 or 9-33and the relation I = Is + lz, the
values of T a, h and I. can be found when I, T!, R., and Rl are known.
For a complete discussion of compound curves, you should consult a
text on route surveying.
9-22. Reversed Curves. A reversed curve is composed of two
simple curves turning in opposite directions, as shown in Fig. 9-15.
The point of reverse curve, P.R.C., is the P. T. of the first curve and
the P.C. of the second one.
p

o
FIG. 9-15. Reversed curve.

If the angles 11 and 12 and the distance between intersection

points P.I'l and P.I'2 have been measured in the field, one radius, or
one degree of curve, can be assumed and the other calculated. If Rl is
assumed, the first tangent distance T1 is computed from the
rela tionship

=R

tan }~ 11
This length subtracted from the total distance between the intersec
tion points gives the value of T 2 Then

T1

R2 :::: T2 cot % 12
The use of reversed curves on railroads is limited to sidings and
crossovers. The necessity of elevating the outer rail on a railroad, and
the outer edge of a highway, prevents the use of reversed curves ex
cept where very low speeds are encountered.

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CURVES

FIG. 9-16.

291

Easement curve.

9-23. Easement Curves. The amount of superelevation, in feet

per foot of width, on a curve can be determined from the equation

v2
e=-~

V
o.067~
R

32.2R
where v = velocity, in feet per second;
V = velocity, in miles per hour;
R = radius of the curve, in feet.

(9-34)

On a straight track or pavement, the two edges are at the same

elevation. On a circular are, the outer edge is elevated the proper
amount for the radius of the curve and for the speed expected. These
two requirements lead to an impossible condition at the P.C. of a
simple curve, since the P.C. is both on the curve and on the tangent,
and at the same point there should be superelevation for the curve
and none for the tangent.
The introduction of a spiral easement, or transition, curve be
tween the tangent and the circular are, as indicated iIi Fig. 9-16, per
mits the gradual elevation of the outer edge. There are many curves
which can be used as easement curves. However, the one recommended
by the American Railway Engineering Association (A.R.E.A.) is
probably as simple as any. With the aid of tables found in railroad
engineering handbooks, the computations can be made almost as
quickly as the computations for a simple curve.
The A.R.E.A. spiral is based on the assumption that the super
elevation is to change at a uniform rate along the spiral. The equation
of this curve is

292

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CURVES

[3

y = 6RL

where y = tangent offset at any point whose distance from the be

ginning point T.S. (tangent to spiral) of the spiral is I;
R
radius of the circular arc;
L = length of the spiraL
The radius of this curve decreased from infinity at the TB. to R at
the S.C. (spiral to curve). Between the circular arc and the forward
tangent is a second spiral whose ends are the C.S. (curve to spiral)
and the S.T. (spiral to tangent).
The principal differences between the circular curve and the
spiral are: The length of the spiral is twice the length of a circular
arc with radius R and central angle So. In the case of the usual spiral,
it is accurate enough for practical purposes to assume that the deflec
tion angle from the tangent at the TB. to any point on the spiral is
one-third (instead of one-half) the central angle subtended by the
chord from the T.S. to the point. The deflection angles are propor
tional to the squares of the distances along the spiral (rather than
to the distances themselves, as in the case of the circular curve).
For the development of spirals and their applications, you should
refer to Meyer's Route Surveying, or Skelton's Route Surveys. These
texts cQntain tables which simplify the field computations.
PROBLEMS

91. A circular curve is to connect two tangents that intersect at an

angle ~ of 29 14' at station 56 + 42.32. The tangent distance must be less
than 425 ft. Using the chord definition, determine the degree (to the nearest
30') of the flattest possible curve which will satisfy the conditions. Compute
the deflection angle to each full curve station.
92. A circular curve is to join two tangents that intersect at an angle
of 19 15' at station 32 + 20.44. Using the arc definition, compute the radius
(to a full 100 ft) of the flattest possible curve for which the external distance
does not exceed 50 ft. Compute the deflection angle to each full curve station.
Compute the length of the chord joining two successive 100ft stations.
~

93. The length of a circular curve is not to exceed 350 ft. The two
tangents intersect at station 58 + 46.32 and make a deflection angle ~ of
41 20' with each other. Using the arc definition, compute the degree (to the
nearest 30') of the flattest possible curve that will join the two tangents.
Compute T, E, M, and C for this curve.
0

9-4. A circular curve is to be located by offsets from the tangent, as dis

cussed in Sec. 9-13. The degree of curve (chord definition) is 2 30'. The
deflection angle to the P.T. at station 24 + 89.60 is 16 22'. Compute the
distance along the tangent and the offset necessary to locate each curve station.