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Artificial Intelligence
ECE 434

References
Text

1. Artificial Intelligence Saroj Kaushik 1st Edition

Cengage Learning 2011
Reference Books

2. Introduction to Artificial Intelligence and Expert

Systems Dan. W. Patterson 1st Edition 1990 PHI
(Pretice Hall India).
3. Artificial Intelligence- A Modern Approach
Stuart Russel Peter Norvig 3rd Edition Pearson, 2009 .
4. Artificial Intelligence Elaine Rich Kevin Knight
3rd Edition 2008 Tata McGraw Hill, India

If human beings can think then why not

machines?

If machines

If machines

can think, How?

can not think, Why?

Can they surpass human

performance?

And what does this

say about the mind?
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Artificial + Intelligent

What is artificial intelligence?

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Intelligence (Oxford dictionary ):

Ability to
Learn
Understand and
Think.

Artificial + Intelligence
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Artificial :

o Fake, not real , man made

Intelligence:
the capacity to learn and solve problems
In particular,
The ability to solve
novel(Strikingly new, unusual, or different.) problems
The ability to act rationally(based on or in accordance
with reason or logic)
The ability to act like humans

What is involved in INTELLIGENCE

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Ability to interact with the real world

to perceive, understand, and act

e.g., speech recognition
e.g., image understanding
VIDEOS\KISMET ROBOT.mp4
Reasoning and Planning
modeling the external world, given input
solving new problems, planning, and making decisions
ability to deal with unexpected problems, uncertainties
VIDEOS\ASIMO.mp4
Learning and Adaptation
we are continuously learning and adapting
our internal models are always being updated
e.g., a baby learning to categorize and recognize animals

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
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There are no clear agreement on the definition of AI

It is the science and engineering of making intelligent

machines, especially intelligent computer programs.

AI is the study of how to make computers just like

humans. That means how to make computers to do

things that people do better.

Other possible AI definitions

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AI is a collection of hard problems which can be solved

by humans and other living things, but for which we

dont have good algorithms for solving.

e. g., understanding spoken natural language, medical diagnosis.

AI is a process of making a machine or a program that

Learn and understand like human
Acts like human (Turing test)
Thinks like human (human-like patterns of thinking steps)
Acts or thinks rationally (logically, correctly)

Cont
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AI is the study and design of intelligent agents

where,
an intelligent agent is a system that interact with its
environment and takes actions that maximize its
chances of success.

Intelligent Systems in Your Everyday Life

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Post Office
automatic address recognition and sorting of mail

Banks
automatic check readers, signature verification systems
automated loan application classification

Customer Service
automatic voice recognition

The Web
Identifying your age, gender, location, from your Web surfing
Automated fraud detection
Database information

Digital Cameras
Automated face detection and focusing

Computer Games
Intelligent characters/agents
VIDEOS\HUMAN ROBOT.mp4
VIDEOS\Maximum Automation - The End of the Labor System.mp4

Applications Cont
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Buisness: Financial Strategies, give advice

Engineering: check design, offer suggestion to

create new product.

Manufacturing: assembly, inspection and
maintainance
Medicine: monitoring, diagnosing and prescrebing
Space shuttle scheduling

Stanley Robot in Stanford Racing Team

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Robot holding the Bulb

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Factory Automation with industrial robots

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History of AI
Psychologists strengthened the idea that human can be considered as
information processing machines.
Mathematician provided tools to manipulate certain or uncertain.
logical statements of certainty .
The birth of AI (1943 1956)
Pitts and McCulloch (1943): simplified mathematical model of
neurons
synapse

axon

nucleus

cell body

dendrites
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Basic Components of Biological Neurons

1.The majority of neurons encode their activations or outputs as a
series of brief electrical pulses (i.e. spikes or action potentials).
2. The neurons cell body (soma) processes the incoming
activations and converts them into output activations.
3. The neurons nucleus contains the genetic material in the form of
DNA. This exists in most types of cells, not just neurons.
4. Dendrites are fibres which emanate from the cell body and
provide the receptive zones that receive activation from other neurons.
5. Axons are fibres acting as transmission lines that send
activation to other neurons.
6. The junctions that allow signal transmission between the axons and
dendrites are called synapses.

The McCulloch-Pitts Perceptron Model

The Neuron Model

A neuron consist of following:
Inputs(from dendrites)
Weights(importance of incoming value)
Adder(soma/processing)

U is Weighted Sum
M denotes the number of Inputs
Xi are inputs to neuron

Wi are the weights

 Early enthusiasm (1952 1969)

1956 Dartmouth conference
1957,Alan Newell and Herbert Simon (GPS)General Problem
Solver(related to common sense, GPS as a universal problem solver
machine. For Instance: theorems proof, geometric problems
and chess playing);
1958,John McCarthy (Lisp)LISt processing language(logical
programming);
Emphasis on knowledge (1966 1974)
domain specific knowledge is the key to overcome existing
difficulties(Expert system 1970)
AI became an industry (1980 1989)
wide applications in various domains
commercially available tools
Current trends (1985 present)
By 1986,work on simulating human brain.
more realistic goals
more practical (application oriented)
Intelligent software agents
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Foundations of AI(Multidisciplinary)
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Mathematics

Economics

Psychology/
Cognitive
Science

Computer
Science &
Engineering

AI

Philosophy

Biology/
Neuroscience

Linguistics

Programming languages for AI

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Procedural language: Its based on the concept of procedure calls

eg. C,C++,Pascal

Relational/Declarative language:These are concerned about

what to compute,not how to compute.

eg.PROLOG,LISP

.POP 2 IS STACKED BASED LANGUAGE.

POP11 IS EMBEDDED IN AI LANGUAGE.

Acting Humanly: The Turing Test

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Alan Turing (1912-1954)

Computing Machinery and Intelligence (1950)
Imitation Game
Human

Human Interrogator

AI System

Turing Test(cont..)
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Two rooms contain a person, a computer, and an

interrogator.
The interrogator can communicate with the other
two by teleprinter.
The interrogator tries to determine which is the
person and which is the machine.
The machine tries to fool the interrogator into
believing that it is the person.
If the machine succeeds, then we conclude that the
machine can think.

ELIZA
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Passage of ELIZA conversation

> Hello, I am ELIZA
Can you help me ?
> Dont you believe that I can help you?

Yes
> I see
I feel depressed
>How Long you have been feeling depressed?
Since last month

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> That is quite interesting

What is interesting in this?
> Have you asked anyone else?
No
> Are you saying no just to be negative?

No I didnt ask any one

> Why no?
I dont believe other people
>Say do you have any psychological problem
I dont know
> Tell me more

Expert System (Introduction)

A Computer program or software which mimics the

human intelligence and decision making ability to

solve real-world problems which require special
human expertise are called ES.
ES
provide quality advice, diagnoses, and
recommendations.
ES tries to perform tasks similar to human experts in
a specific domain of the problem.
ES represent their knowledge and rules

Earliest Examples of ES
MYCIN: This system was developed using the

expertise of best diagnosticians of bacterial

infections whose performance was found to be
better than average clinician.
At a chemical refinery: A knowledge engineer was
assigned to produce an ES to reproduce the
expertise of an experienced retired employee to
save the company from incurring the loss of the
valued knowledge asset that the employee
possessed .

Natural language processing

Understand , interpret and speak natural language-

intelligent system.
Both understanding and generation of natural
language requires a lot of intelligence.
Understanding refers to the process of mapping from
a given input form into more immediately useful
form.

NLP

Sentence analysis phases

Why NLP
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Classify text into categories

Automatic translations
Speech understanding
Automatic summarization
Information extraction
Extract useful information from resumes

Example
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Categorization of Intelligent systems

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Systems that thinks like humans

Systems that act like humans
Systems that thinks rationally
Systems that act rationally

Categorization of Intelligent systems

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We

should
point
out
that
by
distinguishing
between human and rational behavior, we are not suggesting that
humans are necessarily ``irrational'' in the sense of ``emotionally
unstable'' or ``insane.'' One merely need note that we often make
mistakes; we are not all chess grandmasters even though we may know
all the rules of chess; and unfortunately, not everyone gets an A on the
exam.

A human-centered approach must be an empirical science, involving

hypothesis and experimental confirmation, A rationalist approach

involves a combination of mathematics and engineering.

Categorization of Intelligent systems

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CURRENT TRENDS IN AI(Soft computing)

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1)

Hard computing, i.e., conventional computing, requires a precisely stated

analytical model and often a lot of computation time. Soft computing differs from
conventional (hard) computing in that, unlike hard computing, it is tolerant of
imprecision, uncertainty, partial truth, and approximation. In effect, the role model for
soft computing is the human mind.
2) Hard computing based on binary logic, crisp systems, numerical analysis and
crisp software but soft computing based on fuzzy logic, neural nets and probabilistic
reasoning.
4) Hard computing requires programs to be written; soft
computing can evolve its own programs
7) Hard computing requires exact input data; soft computing can deal
with ambiguous and noisy data
8) Hard computing is strictly sequential; soft computing allows parallel
computations
9) Hard computing produces precise answers; soft computing can yield
approximate answers

CURRENT TRENDS IN AI
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NEURAL NETWORK:-Based on functioning of

human mind, predict features in advance based on

previous details.
EVOLUTIONARY TECHNIQUES: -Based on

evolution of life on earth

Genetic algorithm :Based on Darwin's theory of
evolution.
Swarm intelligence: Collective behavior of
decentralized ,self organized system

CURRENT TRENDS IN AI
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o EXPERT SYSTEM:A Computer program or

software which mimics the human intelligence and

decision making ability to solve real-world problems
which require special human expertise are called ES.

o AGENTS: Agents may be thought of as a computer

systems or programs that are capable of acting

autonomously in a given environment to meet
their objectives

Tic Tac Toe

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Three programs are presented :

Series increase
Their complexity
Use of generalization
Clarity of their knowledge
Extensability of their approach

Introductory Problem:
Tic-Tac-Toe
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X
o

Introductory Problem: Tic-Tac-Toe(1)

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Program 1:
Data Structures:
Board: 9 element vector representing the board, with 1-9 for each square. An
element contains the value 0 if it is blank, 1 if it is filled by X, or 2 if it is filled
with a O
Move-Table: A large vector of 19,683 elements ( 3^9), each element is 9element vector.
Index

Current Board
Position

New Board Position

000000000

000010000

000000001

020000001

000000010

000000012

Introductory Problem: Tic-Tac-Toe(1)

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Comments:
This program is very inefficient in time.
1. A lot of space to store the Move-Table.
2. A lot of work to specify all the entries in the
Move-Table.
3.Creating move table is highly error prone as data to
be entered is voluminous.
4.Program is not intelligent.
Thus not a good AI Technique

Introductory Problem: Tic-Tac-Toe(2)

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1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9

Introductory Problem: Tic-Tac-Toe(2)

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Program 2:
Data Structure: A nine element vector representing the board.
But instead of using 0,1 and 2 in each element, we store

2 for blank

3 for X

5 for O

Functions:

Go(n): Makes a move in the square n

Make_2: helps computer to make two valid moves.

Posswin(p): Returns 0 if the player p cannot win on his next move;

otherwise it returns the number of the square that constitutes a
winning move.
If the product is 18 (3x3x2), then X can win. If the product is 50
( 5x5x2) then O can win.

Introductory Problem: Tic-Tac-Toe(2)

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C Plays X , H Plays O
1:Go(5)/ Go(1)

5: {By now both have played two

moves}: If Posswin(X) then {X wins} Go
Posswin(X) else if Posswin(O) {Block
O} then Go(Posswin(O)) else if B[7] is
blank then Go(7) else Go(3)

3: If B[9] is blank, then Go(9) else

{make_2} Go(3)

7 & 9:{By now human playing O has

played 3 chances}. If Posswin(X) then
{X wins} Go Posswin(X) else{Block O}
if (Posswin(O)) then Go Posswin(O) else
Go(anywhere)

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Introductory Problem:
Tic-Tac-Toe(2)
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Comments:
1. Not efficient in time, as it has to check several
conditions before making each move.

2. Easier to understand the programs strategy.

3. Less memory requirement as compare to Approach
1

Introductory Problem: Tic-Tac-Toe

(approach
3)
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8 1 6
3 5 7
4 9 2

New appraoch
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All row, column and diagonal sum is 15

Make a list, for each player , of the squares in which he/she has played.
Consider each pair of square owned by that player
Computer difference between 15 and sum of two square. If difference is

-ve or if greater then 9, then the original two square were not collinear
and thus can be ignored.
If square representing the difference is blank, then a player can move in
that block.

New appraoch
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Sub Areas of AI
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Knowledge representation models

Theorem proving mechanism
Game playing methodologies
Common sense reasoning dealing with uncertainty

and decision making

Learning models, inference techniques, pattern
recognition, search and matching etc.
Logic(fuzzy,temporal,modal)
Planning and scheduling

Sub Areas of AI
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Natural language understanding, speech recognition

Computer vision
Robotics
Data mining
Expert problem solving
Neural networks, AI tools
Web agents

Components of AI Program
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AI program should have knowledge base, and navigational capability

which contains control strategy and inference mechanism.

Knowledge base: AI system should be learning in nature and update
its knowledge.
Knowledge base has following characteristics
It is voluminous in nature
It may be incomplete and imprecise
It may be dynamic and keep on changing
Control stratergy:It determines which rule to be applied. Needs
some heuristic or thumb rules.
Inference Mechanism: It require search knowledge base and derive
new knowledge with help of inference rules.