American Revolution (1775-83)

The American Revolution is the single most important event in American history. Not only did it create the
United States, but it defined most of the persistent values and aspirations of the American people. The noblest
ideals of Americans the commitments to freedom, equality, constitutionalism, and the well being of ordinary
people came out of the Revolutionary era. The Revolution gave Americans the consciousness that they were
a people with a special destiny to lead the world toward liberty.
Gordon Wood
Europe and America
The impact of Renaissance and Reformation movements in sixteenth Century in Europe galvanized the spirit
of individual independence and made people more adventurous. Long standing beliefs were tested and the
acceptance of challenging long held beliefs became acceptable. The decline of feudalism in Europe during this
period had far reaching consequences in the economic, political and cultural fabric of European society. Both
political and economic developments of this period stimulated people at Europe to explore and conquer new
countries.
The Age of Discovery, also known as the Age of Exploration, was a period starting in the early 15th century and
continuing to the 17th century during which Europeans explored Africa, the Americas, Asia and Oceania.
America was discovered and colonized by Europeans during this period.
Discovery of America: The New World
The period between sixteen and eighteenth century is characterized as a time when European Nations began
exploring the world by sea in search of trading partners, new goods, and new trade routes. The main reason
for exploring the new routes by sea was the fact that the Turks, the arch rivals of Europeans, had conquered
Constantinople and the eastern Mediterranean, and controlled the land routes to Asia. This not only blocked
the route to Asia but also blocked access to North Africa and the Red Sea -- two very important trade routes to
the Far East. Therefore a new sea route was needed which could act as a viable trading channel with Asia.
In addition, some explorers set sail to simply learn more about the world. Whatever their reasons though, the
information gained during the Age of Exploration significantly helped in the advancement of geographic
knowledge. The European countries during this period were also in the pursuit of larger empire, find spices and
other riches, and expand Christianity.
During this Age of Discovery were the renowned voyages of Christopher Columbus financed by the king of
Spain. These voyages started as an endeavor to unearth a trade route to Asia by sailing west to find the
shortcut to the Indies. Columbus and his crew reached the island of Hispaniola after three months in the
Atlantic Ocean. Although Columbus believed he had reached Asia, he had actually discovered the entire
continent of North America. Thus A New World was discovered by Columbus although accidently!
In 1500 Amerigo Vespucci was successful in preparing the maps of Atlantic Ocean and Asia which proved very
useful both for the trade and navigation purposes. His efforts were really of great significance for the western
world.
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Colonization of Americas
The Colonization of America was made possible by the voyages and discoveries of the early explorers who
came from the great sea-faring nations of Europe. During the sixteenth century (1500's) the work of the
Colonization of America was left almost entirely to Spain. Their program of colonization was concentrated on
South America but the Spanish also explored the regions of New Mexico and Texas and had established the
Spanish colony of St. Augustine, in Florida
As the Spanish empire grew, explorers forced native populations into slavery and to convert to
Christianity. Soon the other competing European Nations started the colonization of North America. France
claimed of much of Canada and the north Atlantic coast. England too established its first settlement in the New
World at Roanoke Island, North Carolina. Soon England and France became the major contesting colonial
powers in America as the Spains days of greatness were gone. The Colonization of South America also had a
significant presence from the Portuguese.
Columbian Exchange
The post-1492 era is known as the period of the Columbian Exchange.
The potato,
the pineapple,
the turkey,
dahlias, sunflowers, magnolias, maize, chilies, and chocolate went East
across the Atlantic Ocean. Smallpox and measles but also the horse and
the gun traveled west.
There were a few diseases which were introduced by Europeans and were
very new to the people of New World. Some of these diseases took the form
of epidemics and proved detrimental for the local population.
13 British Colonies

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There were Thirteen British Colonies in America on the Atlantic coast of North America founded between 1607

(Virginia) and 1733 (Georgia). These were Delaware, Virginia, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia,
Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, New Hampshire, New York, and
Rhode Island. These were the colonies later rebelled against the colonial rule of Britain and came to be known
as United States of America.
A large number of immigrants from Europe in general and Britain in particular settled in these colonies. Apart
from Britain, France, Germans, Scotland and Ireland also swelled the population of these colonies. The
population of settlers in these colonies had grown from a few thousands in early 17th century to about 2 millions
by 1760. Along with the increase in population, the westward expansion of these colonies was also the
hallmark of this period. They have extended their territories inland to between 240 and 320 kilometers from
eastern coastline. This frontier moved continually westwards over the 19th century creating a society which
was more democratic and American than it had been during British colonial rule. Boston with a population of
15000 and Philadelphia with a population of 20000 become the emerging centers during that period.
A commercial revolution which commenced in the middle eighteenth century led to a considerable expansion in
American imports and exports. The value of imports from Britain rose from less than a million pounds in 1747
to nearly 4.5 million pounds by 1772. The process of commercial change which was mainly because of
expansion in internal trade and use of paper money enabled people of "middling rank" to break away from
traditional patron-client relationships. The religious revival known as the Great Awakening also weakened
traditional authority and the position of the gentry and the established Anglican clergy. The existence of
American philosophical society including several other institutions of higher education, including Harvard and
Yale was testimonial of the fact that the intellectual life was thriving.
Political condition of America on the eve of the revolution
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There was a stark difference between the political conditions prevailing in Europe and in America. The higher
strata of society in colonial America wielded much less economic and political power vis-a-vis Britain. On the
other hand the majority of American farmers owned their own land unlike in Britain which had a majority of
marginal tenants and landless agricultural workers.
Two-thirds of the white colonial population owned land in America while only one-fifth of the population owned
land in Britain. The relative weakness of the aristocracy, the existence of a large body of land owning farmers,
the absence of a large indigenous population and the possibility of acquiring land by westward movement
imparted a strong republican flavor to the politics of the 18th century America.
The British legacy of parliamentary politics and constitutional monarchy inspired the American Revolution to a
great extent. Since a huge chunk of European settlers in these 13 colonies were from Britain they were already
exposed to parliamentary politics of their home land. The settlers were independent minded and intrepid.
Much political power had been delegated to America from Britain in these colonies. In all the colonies people
voted for the representatives to make up popular institutions like legislative assemblies. These institutions
pass laws on taxation, defense etc. There was an arrangement for military governor in all the colonies, except
five. The governor was the representative of British monarch had extensive powers like such as making
appointments and vetoing laws and ruled the country with the iron hand. Thus unlike in the other colonies of
Britain in Asia and Africa, where it took decades for the indigenous people to get inspired by the modern
ideologies like limited government, parliamentary politics and constitutional monarchy the stage was already
set in the case of America.
Apart from Britain the people who went to America were Germans, Swiss, Dutchmen, Scotsmen and Irishmen.
Some of them even did not speak English and had their own interests in trade and agriculture. Their social
systems were even different from those of Englishmen living in England. They were mostly criminals and had
been exiled for political offences.
Rivalry between the colonial powers
The two great European powers of the time i.e. Britain and France were arch rivals in America, Asia and Africa
in order to extend their political influence and make new colonies. The conflict evolved into a series of maritime
wars between two European powers as they sought to expand their own empires at the expense of the others.
These conflicts came to have a big impact on how English and French spread around the world.
From the 1650s, the New World increasingly became a battleground between the two powers. The 13 colonies
of Britain in America from north and west were surrounded by the French colonies. The French had settled in
the province of Canada to the North, and controlled Saint-Domingue in the Caribbean, the wealthiest colony in
the world.
In the early 1750s, French expansion into the Ohio River valley repeatedly brought France into armed conflict
with the British colonies. This culminated into Seven Year War (1756-63) between the two European powers. It
is also known as French India War in Northern America. The name refers to the two main enemies of the
British colonists: the royal French forces and the various Indigenous forces allied with them.
Apart from Britain and France, their respective allies and colonies in Europe, Asia and America got involved in
this war. The war escalated from a regional affair into a world-wide conflict for example in India the hostilities
was manifested in the form of Carnatic War wherein the English and French companies and their regional
allies in India got involved.
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In the Seven Year War, the French forces got the support of the native tribes of America; on the other hand the
13 colonies sided with Britain. Representatives of the colonies met at Albany Congress in 1754 and advocated
for a union of the British colonies in North America for their security and defense against the French. The
Albany Congress also an adopted proposal of Benjamin Franklin to establish a colonial union. George
Washington the first President of United States played a dynamic role in this war. Washington never gained the
commission in the British army but he gained valuable military, political, and leadership skills. After Seven
Years War George Washington had become the first in war, first in peace and first in the hearts of his
countrymen.
Causes of American Revolution
Basic contradiction: The most significant cause the American Revolution was the basic contradiction
between the interests of the metropolis and the colony. The colonial powers have all along been responsible
for this, as these continued to exploit their colonies much to the annoyance and displeasure of their people.
Apart from this the political awakening has been gradually coming in every part of the world. This is what
happened in America as well.
Britain adopted mercantilist policies in colonial America which were designed to promote British economic
interests mainly in the form of a favorable balance of trade. Various Navigation Acts of 165 1, 1660 and 1663
ensured that trade was carried only in British or colonial ships; that most European goods had to pass through
Britain before entering the American colonies; that certain goods like tobacco and rice declared enumerated
goods could be shipped only in Britain; that bounties would be paid for the production of certain enumerated
goods to promote British economic self-sufficiency. Moreover colonies were not allowed to export
manufactured goods under various Acts effecting wool and woolen textiles in 1699, the hat industry in 1732
and iron products in 1750.
Geographical constraints: The distance of the colonies from Great Britain created an independence that was
hard to overcome. Those willing to colonize the new world generally had a strong independent streak desiring
new opportunities and more freedom.
Political factors: British government usually deployed Governors in American colonies. These governors
ruled these colonies with an iron hand and took many tyrannical measures without caring for the sentiments of
the people. This was bound to repel and because of their repressive policies, the people became both
repulsive and revengeful. Grenville, the then Prime Minister passed the Navigation and the Molasses Acts
imposing several limitations on the colonies. He wanted that the colonies should also contribute some money
for their protection but this policy very much offended the colonies. This British government perhaps did not
realize the gravity of the situation and continued with the taxes. This resulted in great resentment in America.
On the other hand the 13 colonies of Britain in America were much advanced in terms of political ideologies
and institutions vis--vis their Asian and African counterparts. The existence of colonial legislatures enjoyed
many powers and were in many ways independent of the crown. The legislatures were elected institution and
had the legitimate power to levy taxes, muster troops, and pass laws. Over time, these powers became rights
in the eyes of many colonists. When they were curtailed by the British, conflict ensued.
European settlers in America were inspired by the ideas related to the Enlightenment. Many of the
revolutionary leaders of these colonies were inspired by the writings and ideas thinkers like Thomas Hobbes,
John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and the Baron de Montesquieu. From these writings, the founders
gleaned the concepts of the social contract, limited government, the consent of the governed, and separation
of powers.
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During the Seven Years War, England had conquered the eastern parts of the rivers, Ohio and Mississippi. But
after the war was over (1763) and peace restored, the people of these colonies wanted status quo ante. But
England wanted to retain these places as was prize. In order to implement this decision she began to plan to
have an effective control over the territories lying east of the Ohio and the Mississippi rivers. This area became
a bone of contention between the colonists and England and proved another cause responsible for Revolution.
Prior to the defeat of France in the Seven Year War, the settlers in America were engulfed by the French
possessions in America also called New France. These 13 colonies were under the invariable threat of French
invasion from northern and western parts. Thus they were dependent on the British support against the
imperial France. Nonetheless after the Seven Year War the fear of French invasion passed into the oblivion
and so was the dependency on Britain.
Economic factors: Britain won the Seven Year War, but her engagement in the war proved extremely
detrimental in the financial context. By 1763 the British government had an extreme shortage of money. British
government wanted that the people of the colonies should raise huge amounts to write off the debts and
expenses of Seven Years War. For this the argument advanced was that the war was fought on behalf of the
colonies. The colonies were not prepared to bear this financial burden, whereas the British government was
bent up collecting these funds.
Religious factors: The majority of the English people believed in Anglican Church of England whereas the
people in American colonies followed Puritanism. There were thus clear religious differences between the two.
Ideological factors: The ideological movement known as the American Enlightenment was a critical precursor
to the American Revolution. Chief among the ideas of the American Enlightenment were the concepts of
liberalism, republicanism and fear of corruption. Collectively, the acceptance of these concepts by a growing
number of American colonists began to foster an intellectual environment which would lead to a new sense of
political and social identity.
The eighteenth century Enlightenment produced ideas which undermined traditional beliefs and social
relationships in a variety of ways. By adopting enlightenment ideas the ruling elites and those in authority
undermined their own authority whether as rulers magistrates, masters and fathers. A revolution against
patriarchy took place simultaneously with a general growth of republican ideas. With the growth of
commercialization in the 18th century contracts which had been based on patriarchal relationships between
husbands and wives or masters and apprentices in an earlier period were replaced by contracts which were
positive bargains between two equal parties representing specific transactions rather than social relationships.
The widespread adoption of the language of modem legal contractualism made it easier for the American
colonists to break with the mother country and the patriarchal authority of the British king.
The Course of Events
No taxation without representation
The British Parliament controlled colonial trade and implemented the taxing of imports and exports since 1660.
The colonist objected the right of British Parliament to impose taxes on the American colonies. The logic
behind this objection had its basis in the English Revolution of 17th century. In the 17th century in Britain, the
Parliament (House of Commons) became gradually powerful institution and objected the legitimacy of those
Acts passed by Kings related to the taxation in which the consent of Parliament was not taken. The champions
of Parliamentary politics in England were of the view that since Parliament was elected body and the
representative of the people so it should have the exclusive rights related to taxation. The colonists were of the
view that since British parliament did not have representation of American colonies, principally it should not
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make the taxation laws for them. By making the taxation laws for the American colonies, the British Parliament
is actually defying the principles and legacy on which it itself rests.
American colonist came up with the slogan of No taxation without representation. According to the
revolutionaries the lack of representation in the British Parliament was a clearly a violation of the rights of the
colonists. Thus, taxation and all other laws that affected the colonists directly and indirectly were not
constitutional at all. During the American Revolution, there were only a few British citizens that were
represented and they were not even a part of the colonies. The phrase summarizes the sentiments that caused
the English Civil War, as told by John Hampden.
The British, on the other hand, supported the concept of virtual representation, which was based on the
belief that a Member of Parliament virtually represented every person in the empire and there was no need for
a specific representative from Virginia or Massachusetts etc.
The following were the taxation laws which were opposed by the colonists:
S.No

Name of the Law

Year

Navigation Acts

1651

Molasses Act
2

1733

Currency Act

1751,
1764

Stamps Act

1765

Townshend Acts

1767

Tea Act

1773

Details
A series of Acts that restricted the use of foreign
shipping for trade between England and its
colonies.
Forcing the colonists to buy the more expensive
sugar from the British West Indies instead.
Restricted the emission of paper money by the
colonies of North America
Act required that many printed materials in the
colonies be produced on stamped paper produced
in London
To raise revenue in the colonies to pay the salaries
of governors and judges so that they would be
independent of colonial rule
To reduce the massive surplus of tea held by the
financially troubled British East India Company in
its London warehouses

The annoyance of the Americans at the imposition of import duties became so alarming by 1773 that Lord
North compelled the Parliament to pass an Act repealing all duties except that on tea. This duty, which was
calculated to bring in little more than three hundred pounds a year. It was retained merely to assert the right of
England to tax its colonies.
Thus it was the principles of taxation which was involved in the import duties and not the actual amount which
would come to the treasury. This was very much objected by the people of America. The resistance of tax
gradually changed into open defiance and lawlessness.
In 1773, Lord North bargained with the East India Company to carry a large quantity of tea to Boston. On its
arrival in the harbor of the town a number of America youths, disguised as Indians boarder the tea ships broke
open the tea cheats and poured tea into the sea. This is known as Boston Tea Party. At this time the
representatives of Massachusetts collected at Concord against the orders of the British Government.

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The outrage perpetrated by the American youths was intolerable for England. This was taken as an
unpardonable offence and thus the British government was roused to take strong action against the Americans
accordingly the following two Acts were passed as the punitive measures. These Acts are also popularly
known as Intolerable Acts. The Acts passed were as:
1. Boston Part Act: By this the port was ordered to be closed. All its trade was transferred to the port of the New
Salem which was quite in the neighborhood. This was a punitive measure to punish the colonies for their
annoyance to the Government at what had happened at Boston.
2. Massachusetts Government Act: According to this Act, Massachusetts was deprived of the right of electing
representatives to all in the Assembly. The Act annulled the old charter of the colony. Public liberties like
holding meetings etc were curtailed. The American rioters were to be tried in England and not in America.
General Congress at Philadelphia
The punitive Acts or the Intolerable Acts, as mentioned above, seriously terrified the colonies and they had an
authentic fear that the other colonies might as well face the same fate. A Congress was convened by the
colonies (also known as General Congress at Philadelphia) to decide the future course of action.
Congress issued by a Declaration of Rights and declared that the recent Acts passed by the British
Government were an infringement of their basic rights. The Congress also accepted a declaration forbidding
the import of goods from England until the grievances of the Colonies were redressed.
Revolutionary War

The Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775 and they declared themselves the
government. They also named George Washington Commander in Chief of the newly organized Continental
Army. The Continental Army was supplemented by local militias and other troops that remained under control
of the individual states.
After repeated pleas to the British monarchy for intervention with Parliament, any chance of a compromise
ended when the Congress were declared traitors by royal decree, and they responded by declaring the
independence of a new sovereign nation, the United States of America, on July 4, 1776.On July 4th, 1776,
Congress adopts the Declaration of Independence.
Skirmishes between British troops and colonial militiamen in Lexington and Concord in April 1775 kicked off
the armed conflict, and by the following summer, the rebels were waging a full-scale war for their
independence.
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France entered the American Revolution on the side of the colonists in 1778, turning what had essentially been
a civil war into an international conflict. France bitterly resented its loss on the Seven Years War and sought
revenge; it also wanted to keep Britain from becoming too powerful. French ruler saw the revolution as an
opportunity to strip Britain of their North American possessions in retaliation for France's loss of Canada a
decade before. French money, munitions, soldiers and naval forces proved essential to America's victory over
the Britain.
The Declaration of Independence
We hold these truths to be self evident; that all men are created equal; that they are
endowed by the Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty
and the pursuit of happiness.
These united colonies are and ought to be independent; they are absolved from all
allegiance to the British Crown; and all political connections between them and the State of
Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved.
The following were the important battles fought during this period:
S.No
Name of the Battle
Year
Results
1
Battle of Lexington
April 1775
American victory
2
Battle of Bunker Hill
June 1775
British victory
3
Battle of Long Island
August 1776
British victory
4
Battle of Harlem Heights
Sept. 1776
American victory
5
Battle of Saratoga
October 1777
American Victory
6
Battle of Monmouth
June 1778
No result
7
Battle of the Chesapeake
Sept. 1781
French Naval victory
8
Battle of Yorktown
October 1781
Franco-American victory
A French naval victory just outside Chesapeake Bay led to a siege by combined French and Continental
armies that forced a second British army to surrender at Yorktown, Virginia in 1781. Fighting continued
throughout 1782, while peace negotiations began.
The factions in the American Revolution
People of 13 British Colonies in America were not a homogeneous group. During the American
Revolution they were divided into following categories:
1. Patriots: Popularly known as "Patriots", "Whigs", "Congress-men", or "Americans". They
belong to different socio-economic status and classes but the commonality among them was
that they wanted to defend the rights of Americans and uphold the principles
of republicanism in terms of rejecting monarchy and aristocracy, while emphasizing civic virtue
on the part of the citizens.
2. Loyalists: "Loyalists", "Tories", or "King's men" were typically older, less willing to break with
old loyalties, often connected to the Church of England, and included many established
merchants with strong business connections across the Empire, as well as royal officials
3. Neutrals: A minority of American population tried to stay nonaligned in the war. They came to
known as Neutrals

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Significance of American Revolution

The American Revolution proved to be important not only for the 13 colonies which gained freedom from
Britain, but it also propagated the modern ideas of liberty, equality and republicanism in European nations and
their colonies. The impact of Revolution was not just confined to the political life and related institutions but it
explicitly and/or implicitly shaped the socio-economic dynamics of the society as well.
Political
All the 13 colonies in North America freed themselves from the yoke of the Britain. For the first time in the
history of mankind a written Constitution came into force which explicitly talked about equality and rights.
Americans succeeded in establishing themselves as an independent country. In due course of time they grew
strong and had deep influence on the social, political and intellectual life of people everywhere. The world
civilization was considerably effected and politically balance of power changed which effected world politics.
Revolution led to the growth of mass participation in politics and the emergence of the free market based on
the ideals of economic development and political equality. American Revolution gave a big blow to monarchical
society and aristocratic privileges.
The loss of American colonies shaped the colonial policy of England. By this defeat
England learnt that if old colonial policy was continued, she might lose other colonies in the same way too. As
a result England came to follow liberal policy towards her colonies. Thus the new policy of England amply
compensated the loss of American colonies. England now gave economic and political independence to the
colonies to a large extent and ensure that grievances of these people were redressed and removed without
loss of time and to their satisfaction.
Economic
American Revolution gave the impetus to the policy of liberalism and free trade. It was realized that the
principles of free trade and commercial monopoly were opposed to each other. The erstwhile conservative
policy of denial of economic independence to colonies was considerably relaxed. The policy of economic
interference was relaxed.
Social
American Revolution not only ended feudal forms of land tenure but supported more enlightened attitude
towards the family. After the Revolution the patriarchal control of men over their wives declined, the latter
gaining the right to hold property separately and to make contracts and do business in the absence of their
husbands.
The equal rights of widows and daughters were recognized in matters concerning inheritance and possession
of property. Prior to the War they had no rights except to raise families, but they did gain little rights afterwards.
Women now gained the power to be able to divorce their husbands if they chose to, something they never
could've done before. However, this power was only available in certain colonies and the woman would lose
most of her property to the man.

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Expected Questions on American Revolution in IAS

World History is the newly added portion in the UPSC exam. Since it is introduced for the first time the
aspirants can expect the following pattern on which the questions can be asked:
S.No

Marks

Word Limit

2 Marks

20 to 30 words

5 Marks

50 to 60 words

10 Marks

About 125 words

15 Marks

About 150 words

20 Marks

About 200 words

About 250 words

25 Marks

Short Notes
1. Stamp Act
2. George Washingtons role in American revolution
3. Discovery of America
4. Reasons for colonization of America
5. 13 colonies of Britain in America
6. Seven Year War
7. Result of Seven Year War
8. Boston Tea Party
9. The First Continental Congress in America
10. Albany Congress
11. Economic causes for American Revolution
12. Political causes or American Revolution
13. Bill of Rights
14. American constitution
15. Impact of American Revolution on Europe
16. Alliance between America and France in American revolutionary war
17. Impact of American Revolution
18. Virtual representation
19. What was the immediate effect of the American Revolution?
20. Who were the Loyalists in the Revolutionary War?
Essay type Answers
1. What did American colonists mean by No taxation without representation?
2. Analyze the reasons for escalating anti-British sentiment in the American colonies during the prewar
decade from 1765 to 1775.
3. The American Revolution was essentially as economic conflict between American capitalism as British
mercantilism.
4. The American Revolution was a watershed even in the history of British colonization, in the history of
modern democratic state formation, and in the history of the nascent United States.
5. Impact of American Revolution on the society
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6. How did ideas of the Enlightenment lead to the independence and founding of the United States?
7. What were some major political differences in beliefs between the colonies and Britain?
8. Explain what the text means when it says "it took the War for Independence to create American
citizens".
9. To what extent did the American Revolution fundamentally change American society?
10. What English experiences or traditions inspired the Americans to seek independence and create a
representative government?
11. What factors led to the growth of America nationalism in the 1760's?
12. How did the American Revolution bring about a new level of socio- political reforms?

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French Revolution (1787-99)

Emancipated by the romantic spirit of Enlightenment, the European society of 18th Century encountered turmoil
by the modern ethos. During this period in Europe two mutually exclusive forces of ideas tussled to assert one

over the other.

One of these forces perpetuated the interests of absolute monarchy and feudal privileges and was reactionary
and status quoits in its tendency. The other one was associated with the aspirations of the common man and
was radical and revolutionary in the nature. French Revolution manifested the victory of latter and propagated
the novel ideals like Liberty, Equality and Fraternity which proved to be the cornerstone for the modern day
popular politics and institutions.
Not only the French society witnessed an epic transformation after the revolution but the whole world in
general and Europe in particular got inspired by these ideals. French Revolution spread far and wide new
principles of government, new ideas of social organization, new theories of the rights of man, and was thus a
challenge to the established customs and institutions of Europe.
French society on the eve of the Revolution
Political and social system of France before the French Revolution was known as Ancien Regime or Old
Regime. Under the regime, everyone was a subject of the king of France. The king enjoyed absolute powers.
Apart from this every subject was the member of an estate and province. All rights and status flowed from the
social institutions were divided into three orders:
1. Clergy (the First Estate)
2. Nobility (the Second Estate),
3. Commoners (the Third Estate).
The Old Regime in Europe was based on authority, class privilege and absolute rule. There was no national
citizenship. One of the traits of this regime was the opulent, corpulent aristocrats enjoyed wealth, privilege and
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the finery of life, while totally divorced from the masses of the France. In order to comprehend the essence of
revolution, it is necessary to understand the dynamics and attributes of these three Estates which stratified the
French society.
Clergy: The First Estate
The first estate was made up of the religious leaders who were in charge of the Church. While these
individuals made up only 1% of the total population, they controlled almost 10% of the land in France. This
disproportionate access to property brought them a great deal of wealth from the products produced on the
land and in the form of rent from peasants. The higher clergy monopolized all the lucrative Church offices but
were quite indifferent to their spiritual duties. They were recruited from the younger sons of the nobility (Second
Estate) and they conducted themselves as typical men of the world.
In addition to keeping registers of births, deaths and marriages, the clergy also had the power to levy a 10%
tax known as the tithe. Principally, tithe was meant to run the day to day affairs of the Church. However, it was
often used to fund the luxurious lifestyles of those who belonged to the first estate.
The Nobility: The Second Estate
Nobility constituted of about 2% of the total population of France. The French Nobility contained the shadow
rather than the substance of the age old feudal system. In feudal times the nobility had certain special
privileges and exceptions from the taxation in lieu of the services they had to offer on behalf of the monarch at
provincial levels.
Gradually as the monarchy in France became centralized the local services were performed by the central
government and the associated officials. As a result the nobles were deprived of all their powers and duties.
Paradoxically in spite of being deprived of the powers and duties they continued to enjoy the privileges of
feudalism.
The nobles merely formed an honored class, holding a substantial portion of the land of the country, enjoying
the right of hunting and forestry to the injury of the peasants, exacting forced labour from them, enjoying
exemption from the Taille or property tax, monopolizing all the offices in the army, navy and the Church,
without being called upon to perform any services to the state.
It was the continuance of privileges without any corresponding duties that provoked the annoyance of the
peasants when they were subjected to the feudal exactions of the nobles. Hence as Professor Lodge remarks,
the Revolution was directed not against the feudal system but against the effect survival of parts of that
system.
The commoners: The Third Estate
The Third Estate which was the commoners represented 95 to 97% of the population. The people of the Third
Estate were the backbone of the country. They paid the largest share of the taxes, yet had very few privileges
and had little to no influence on the Monarch.
Unlike the other two Estates, the third estate was not a homogenous body. It comprised of the bourgeoisie or
the upper middle class, the artisans, the bankers-merchants-lawyers-doctors-journalists-professors and the
peasants.

Page | 14

The condition of the peasantry which formed by headcount the largest section of the French population was
most deplorable. The peasants had to pay rent to their feudal lord, tithes to the Church and taxes to the king.
The whole burden of taxation fell with overwhelming weight upon peasants.

Role of King Louis XVI in Revolution

Burbon dynasty ruled over France prior to the French Revolution. King Louis XVI who ruled over France during
the revolution was inexperienced, dull, timid and indecisive. He lacked the capacity to govern and to take
decision at the time of need. His indecisiveness and conservatism led some elements of the people of France
eventually to view him as a symbol of the perceived tyranny and his popularity deteriorated progressively.
Louis XVI wanted to prop the decaying economic structure of France but he too failed because his royal
spouse Marie Antoinette was a wastefully extravagant lady.
The monarchy lacked to courage to face the resistance from the aristocracy and take away some of their
special privileges which had proved to be detrimental for France. In the words of a famous historian, Louis XVI
made the revolution inevitable as he was unable to solve the question of privilege; it was not strong enough to
overthrow the remains of feudalism.
The taxation system
The system of taxation in France before the revolution was grossly erroneous and regressive. It was
unreasonable and interwoven into the complex web of discrimination, nepotism and favoritism. The first two
estates (First and second) were exempted from taxation although these two had disproportionate access to the
assets and land. On the other hand incidence of tax burden fell heavily on those who belong to the Third
Estate. Ironically in the regime the rich who were financially capable to support the state paid the least, while
the poor who were already over-burdened were crushed under the weight of discriminative taxation.
The oppressiveness of taxation became further coersive by the method of its collection. The State often sold
the right of collection to private individuals who paid a lump sum to the Government and then collected the
taxes at exorbitant rates to extract maximum from the commoners. This inequality in taxation and its
oppressiveness resulted into the most decisive cause for the Revolution.
The role of Philosophers in French Revolution
While the material base of the French Revolution was prepared by the inherent contradictions in the Ancien
Regime and various contemporary political and socio-economic factors galvanized the situation. The
ideological base for the Revolution was prepared by the writings of philosophers like Montensique, Volatire and
Rousseau.
Some historians are of the view that the role of philosophers should be estimated with caution. A debate has
raged amongst historians about the extent of the impact of the Enlightenment had on the outbreak of the
French Revolution. According to this view, the philosophers of 18th century never preached revolution. Also the
views of various philosophers related to the revolution vary to a great extent and lacked uniformity. These
philosophers represented the interests of the middle class and did not favor democracy or republican
government. They envisaged separation of powers, end of special privileges for the first and second Estates
and constitutional monarchy.

Page | 15

Middle Class Thinkers

The thinkers of middle class envisaged separation of power, end of special privileges for the
first and second Estates and constitutional monarchy. These ideals are best suited for the
interest of the middle class. On the other hand ideals like democracy and republicanism do not
reflect the interests of middle class but that of the lower class.
Middle class thinkers envisaged limited franchise for the middle class only. Nonetheless
democracy and republicanism are based on the principle of head count which best suits the
interests of lower class.
But the fact that the philosophers did not directly preached the revolution does not undermine their role in the
outbreak of the revolution. These philosophers had questioned the very foundation and the principles on which
the Ancien Regime rested. They vehemently opposed absolute monarchy the special privileges of the First
and Second class.
In nut shell the Revolution was the outcome of stark realities, but it could not be denied that without the help of
Enlightenment could never have arisen.
Role of American Revolution
American Revolution implicitly kindled the French Revolution in the following ways:

Ideals like Equality, Liberty and No taxation without Representation symbolized the very crux of the
American Revolution. These modern ideas inspired the whole world and also France
French Soldiers participated in American Revolution against the British forces with the Continental army
of the 13 colonies in America. When they came back victorious after the American Revolution they
were enthralled with the ideals of patriotism, liberalism, equality and limited monarchy. Many of the
soldiers started to believe that if they can help Americans to gain independence from an oppressive
regime, the same could be replicated in their motherland as well.
The cost that France had to incur for participating in the American War of Independence was
herculean. This made the king Louis VI bankrupt and put the country under tremendous fiscal
imbalances. As the corrective measure the king Louis VI wanted to make some rectifications in the
taxation regime which triggered the revolution.

Economic causes: the trigger to Revolution

Population explosion
France witnessed a population explosion in 18th century. In 1789 the population of France was about 27
million which was about 8 to 10 million more than in 1700. This growth in French population was without a
simultaneous growth in food production. It is estimated by the modern researches that during this period the
peasants around Paris consumed over 80 percent of what they grew. Therefore if the harvest fell by around 10
percent, which was common, people went hungry. There was insufficient government planning and storage of
grain for emergency shortages. The revolution was triggered by these shortages because it made the
peasants want more land, money and power.
The role of Burbon Kings

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When Louis XVI came to power he was crowned with a legacy of recurring series of costly wars since the time
of Louis XIV, corrupt extravagance of the court and a state of chronic financial deficits. In simple words the
French government each year was spending much more than its aggregate revenues.
A grave situation had arrived before Louis XVI before revolution. The Third Estate was already overburdened
with taxes therefore could not be taxed further. At this time the First and Second Estates could be taxed by the
king, however there was a lot of resistance from the nobility and clergy because of their vested interests. As a
result of his weak and timid character, King Louis XVI lacked the guts and fervor to face this antagonism from
nobility and clergy.
To make matters worse France had to face Seven Year War and helped the revolted American colonies
against England. French involvement in the American Revolution proved to be very costly affair for Louis XVI.
Although the arch rival Britain was successfully defeated in this was, but this happened on the virtue of state
exchequer. The King became bankrupt after this war.
Poor harvest
As discussed in the previous sections of this chapter the bulk of French population during that time was heavily
dependent on agriculture and farming. In the years 1787 to 1789, terrible weather, heavy rain, hard winters and
too hot summers led to three very bad harvests years in France.
The poor harvests and inadequate arrangements by the government to tackle the situation resulted in scarcity
of food and high inflation rate. As the income and hence the purchasing power of the bulk of population
decreased during this period the consumption and the demand of the goods also followed the similar trends.
This resulted in large scale unemployment.
Bread and meat were the two most important constituents of the daily diet of the people of France. As the cost
of flour began to rise people were left to starve, unable to afford bread anymore. Starving peasants begged,
borrowed, and stole, poaching on the hunting preserves of the great lords and attacking their game wardens.
The concern over meat and bread in Paris erupted in a riot in April 1789. This ultimately became an important
source of revolt.
"Let them eat Cake"
"Let them eat cake" is a traditional and common, although incorrect, translation of
the French phrase "Qu'ils mangent de la brioche", supposedly spoken by "a great princess"
upon learning that the peasants had no bread.
The phrase reflects aristocratic stupidity and the fact that members of Royal house of France
were completely ignorant of the ground realities.
The course of events
Estates General
The King Louis XVI faced the grave economic crisis in 1789. He couldn't raise more taxes and didn't have the
power to find the money he needed to govern. The extravagant lifestyle of royal family and frequent
involvement in wars had made him bankrupt. To prevent impending bankruptcy Louis XVI was forced to
summon the States-General in the hope of finding a way out His last chance was to call for the meeting of the
Estates-General in May 1789. It was the proof of kings surrender to aristocracy. This appeal to the people
Page | 17

after about a couple of centuries showed that absolutism had failed. It sounded the death knell of the Old
Regime and led to the first step in the Revolution.
A fundamental question that arises here is that: Why didnt the king at such a grave juncture went for the option
to tax the First and Second Estates and end their special privileges? It should be understood that the special
privileges formed the bedrock of the philosophy on which the Ancien Regime was based. By ending the special
privileges for the first two estates the king would have attacked the very basis of the Old Regime which
provided legitimacy for his rule as well.
What was Estate General?
Estates-General was the legislative assembly of the three Estates. It functioned as an advisory
body to the king, primarily by presenting petitions from the various estates and consulting
on fiscal policy. The Estates-General met intermittently until 1614 and rarely afterwards, but was
not definitively dissolved until after the French Revolution. In this assembly each Estate (and not
the representatives) had single vote.
The basic weakness of this assembly was discriminative representation. The third Estate which
constitute of 95 to 97 percent of French population had single vote like the First and Second
Estates which represented the interests of the miniscule population. During that time the voting
according to the head count was not in vogue.
The Estates General met at Versailles and Louis XVI hoped that the agenda discussed would mostly be
traditional and financial. The representatives of the other hand demanded the end of absolute monarchy.
However the representative of the different Estates had different views about the policy related taxation. The
representatives of the third Estate envisaged uniform taxation for all the people of France irrespective of the
Estate to which they belong to. This also meant end of all special privileges of first and second Estates. On the
other hand, the representatives of the first and second Estates were not ready for this as they had vested
interests.
There were also differences among the representatives of different Estates about the manner of voting. The
representatives of first and second Estates wanted that the vote of every Estate should be counted separately.
In doing so they wanted to outvote the third Estate by 2:1. On the other hand, the representatives of the third
Estate wanted voting on the basis of head count. They wanted that the individual vote of the representatives
present in the Estate General should be counted. The divergent views related to the voting procedure created
a deadlock in the assembly.
Tennis Court Oath

Page | 18

Unable to resolve the deadlock related to the voting procedures in the Estate General on June 20th 1789 the
representatives of the third Estate had to face an alarming situation. They were locked out of the Assembly hall
of the Estate General. The representatives were shocked to discover that the chamber door was locked and
guarded by soldiers.
The representatives of third Estates gathered in the nearby Tennis Court under the leadership of Mirabeau. In
the Tennis Court they took a solemn collective oath "not to separate, and to reassemble wherever
circumstances require despite the royal prohibition, until the constitution of the kingdom get established. The
third Estate also declared itself as the National Assembly.
The oath connoted political legitimacy derived from the will of people and their representatives rather than from
the monarch himself. Their solidarity forced Louis XVI to recognize the National Assembly and ordered the
clergy and the nobility to join with the Third Estate in the National Assembly.
Fall of Bastille
Your Majesty. They have stormed the Bastille! exclaimed King Louis XVIs aide. Is this a revolt? asked the
king. No, sire, its a revolution.
National Assembly dominated by the third Estate made Louis XVI apprehensive. On the other hand since the
meeting of the States-General the revolutionary feeling had grown, alike among the delegates and among the
citizens. The king committed a serious mistake this time when on the advice of his wife, Queen Marie
Antoinette, he dismissed his minister of finance, Jacques Necker who was the most popular minister at that
time. This angered the people because they thought that he could have ameliorated France's economic
problems.
In this surcharged atmosphere there were rumors of deployment of royal troops by Louis XVI to capture Paris.
These rumors further increased the anger of the mob. The mob then decided to capture the Bastille for the
gunpowder and to plunder the arsenals. . The Bastille was a symbol of brutality and totalitarian power. A new
form of municipal government was formed at Paris and a city militia called the National Guard was organized to
maintain order.
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This fall of the Bastille, July 14, 1789, is considered the Declaration of Independence of the French people,
who now celebrate its anniversary.
Abolition of feudal privileges
The fall of Bastille had huge psychological impact on the cities, towns and villages across France. In the rural
areas, the Revolution took the form of rising against the feudal privileges. The peasants across the France
participated actively in the risings against the nobles. The palaces and castles of nobles were attacked by the
mob and the records of their feudal services were destroyed.
The display of radicalism of this kind by peasants the feudal privileges of the nobles startled them. In the
landmark session of the National Assemble on 4th August 1789, the nobles voluntarily surrendered their feudal
rights and privileges. All the class distinctions in the French society were abolished and the principle of Equality
was adopted. In other words the uniform taxation came into vogue and the state offices were now to be filled
on the basis of merit which was earlier exclusively filled by the first and second Estates.
The prima facie task before the National Assembly at this juncture of the Revolution was to draft a new
constitution of France. The National Assembly hereafter came to be popularly known as Constituent Assembly.
The New Constitution
The new Constitution was adopted in 1791 in France. The new Constitution of France overthrew the absolute
monarchy and marked an end of the last relics of the feudalism in the French society. The principle of Equality
was adopted which marked the end of the Estates.
The following were the salient features of the new constitution
1. A constitutional monarchy was established in France and the sovereignty resides in the people.
2. The Declaration of Rights was the integral part of the new Constitutions which proclaimed that all men
are free and equal in rights.
3. The legislative powers and the executive powers were rigidly separated. The king was made the head
of the executive, while the legislative power was entrusted to the legislative assembly. The Legislative
Assembly was to be elected limited by the limited franchise.
4. The bishops and priests were made equivalent to state employees who were to be elected by popular
votes.
The Legislative Assembly met on the first day of October, 1791, in accordance with the provisions of the new
constitution. It was composed of 745 members. As per one of the provision of the new constitution, the
members of the Constituent assembly were not allowed to contest for the Legislative Assembly, as a result the
assembly got flooded with the new members who lacked qualities like political experience and statesmanship.
This was a grave danger especially in view of the fact that many of the new members were infected with the
extreme views of the republicanism.
Parties and Clubs in Legislative Assembly
The members of the Legislative Assembly soon started to organize themselves into parties on the basis of the
political ideology and vision. The following were the major parties and their respective ideologies in the
Assembly:

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1. There was a group of members of the Assembly which supported constitutional monarchy, with limited
powers to the king. They came to be known as Constitutionalist. They wanted to retain the monarchy
with the limitations imposed on the power of the king.
2. The Girondists, were moderate republicans in the Assembly. They had a theoretical outlook towards
the state. They had a strong faith in the revolution but disfavored the repeated appeals to use brute
force.
3. The Jacobins were the extreme section of the radical republicans in the Legislative Assembly. They
wanted to achieve their final goal i.e. France as a republic by any means; legal, extra legal or illegal.
Unlike Girondists they were not against the use of force.
War with other European countries
The neighboring countries of France were alarmed by the intensification of the ideas pertaining to the
republicanism and constitutional monarchy during French Revolution. Nearly all the European countries during
that time (except Britain) had the absolute monarchy as the form of government. The ideas like equality, liberty
and fraternity propagated by the French Revolution was against the vested interests of the absolute monarchs
of the neighboring states.
The principles which the Revolutionist proclaimed were general in their application and so they tended to
subvert the existing order in every European country. The Declaration of Rights mentioned in the new
constitution was made in context of the people of the whole world and not just for France. The revolutionaries
in France were growing increasingly propagandist and want to unite the people of other countries as well
against the absolute monarchy. It was this fear of the spread of revolutionary principles to their own dominions
that bound together the powers of Europe against France.
The two major contemporary powers of Europe i.e. Austria and Prussia issued the Declaration of Pillnitz and
declared war against France. The motto behind the declaration of war was to restore Louis XVI to his rightful
authority. Robespierre and the Jacobins were opposed to this war. However for Girondisteds war was an
opportunity that would insure the permanence of the new order and propagate revolution abroad.
End of Monarchy
After the Prussia and Austria declared war against France, initially the French forces had to face grave
reverses against the combined forces. The undisciplined French troops suffered serious defeats at the hands
of Austro-Prussian armies in the initial phase. The Revolutionary leaders put the blame of these defeats on the
monarchy. In the public meetings the Revolutionary leaders rhetorically blamed Louis XVI to be sympathetic to
the cause of the Austria and Prussia. Hence the republican orators denounced the king as a tyrant and as the
instigator of the French defeats.
As the belligerent combined forces of Austria and Prussia approached the capital the ambience got surcharged
further. In Paris the mob led by the Jacobins (the Mountain) overthrew the former municipal government of
Paris and organized a new Commune or the City Council. This Commune now controlled Paris. Under the
utmost pressure of the Commune, the Legislative Assembly had to pass the orders to suspend the monarchy.
A National Convention was conveyed to work out new constitution.
It was under the pressure of the Jacobians that the newly elected convention abolished kingship and set up a
republic. Foreign war was thus the immediate cause of the fall of the monarchy in France. Hence it has been
correctly said that the republic in France in 1792 was the result of two factors the Prussian invasion
and Parisian Jacobinism.

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The growing influence of Jacobians also indicated the fact that the leadership of the Revolution which was
initially in the hands of middle class or bourgeoisie was now hijacked by the radical lower class represented by
Jacobins and Paris Commune. This radicalized the revolution and later enhanced the violence component in
the Revolution.
Under the influence of Jacobians a mock trial of the king was held he was declared guilty of high treason. He
was also charged to be involved in the conspiracy against the liberty of the Nation. He was sentenced to death
and executed of the guillotine on January 21, 1793.
The Reign of Terror
As the danger from the Austria-Prussian invasion to France increased, the political ambiance got surcharged.
At such a juncture the radical forces in the Revolution got intensified. The leadership of the Revolution at this
time was hijacked by Jacobians and the Paris Commune. It was the interests of the lower class that was
represented by these two. Hence the leadership of the revolt slipped from the hands of the middle class to the
lower class. As mentioned above the motto of Jacobians was to convert France to a republic at any cost. They
advocated the use brutal force against the enemies of the Revolution in order to achieve their political goals.
A National Convention was conveyed after the execution of Louis XVI in order to draft the new constitution for
France as the executive head of the earlier constitution i.e. the king was publically humiliated and executed. In
the Convention the stalemate between the Jacobians and Girondist delayed the new constitution. During this
time Jacobians along with the Paris Commune became very powerful.
At this time there were two main enemies of the Revolution i.e. the army of foreign invaders and the counter
revolutionaries who wanted to restore back the feudal privileges and monarchy in France. Jacobians tackled
the two enemies of the Revolution by handling the situation with an iron hand.
In order to counter the foreign invasion, a large army was required. In order to achieve this, for French youth
military service was made compulsory. The youths were hurriedly trained and were sent to check the advances
of the hostile nations. By 1793, France had 770,000 soldiers. By this large army the First coalition against
France suffered a crushing defeat.
To tackle the counter revolutionaries, a Committee on Public Security was constituted. Any person even
suspected to be in alliance with the counter revolutionaries was executed by the Committee. This Committee
was headed by Robespierre. During this period thousands of people were executed as they were suspected to
be in alliance with the counter revolutionaries. There were many innocent people who lost their life as they
were suspected as the enemies of Revolutions. This came to be known as the Reign of Terror. It is estimated
that during the Reign of Terror about 17000 people lost their life.
It is said about this phase that Revolution started devouring even its own children (i.e. innocent people). Apart
from the innocent people at times the loyal revolutionaries were executed for opposing Jacobians being termed
as the enemy of Revolutions.
By 1794, it was realized reign of terror was no more required. The foreign powers were defeated and the
counter revolutionaries were suppressed. Many Jacobian leaders too favored this idea; however Robespirre
was not ready for this. He wanted to concentrate all powers in his hands by continuing the reign. The reign of
terror came to an end after various Jacobian leaders themselves worked behind the scene and accused
Robespirre for curtailing liberty of the people and executed him. The end of reign of Terror along with
Robespirre is known as Thermidorian Reaction. The middle class regained the leadership of Revolution after
this.
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The Rule of Directory

The National Convention drafted a new constitution in 1795. It was realized that concentration of executive
power in a single hand (as in the case of Robespirre during reign of terror) could be detrimental for the public
liberties. Thus the new constitution provided the executive power in the hand of Committee of five directors.
These directors remained in power from 1795-99. This period is also known as Rule of Directory.
The directory was unable to solve to provide substantial solutions to the problems of France. The counter
revolutionaries and the royalists started to raise their ugly head. The inflation was rampant. The condition of
working class deteriorated under the rule of directory. In 1797, the partial bankruptcy was announced. The
directory failed miserably in terms of foreign policy. Under such conditions the rule of directory was criticized
and the stage was all set for the Napoleon to ascend to the power.
Ascendency of Napoleon
The changes that France encountered during the Revolution which foresee replacement of absolute monarchy
by alternative popular arrangements were very novel for the French society. From 1789 to 1799, three
governments in succession ruled France. Many of the basic problems remained unsolved. People were
gradually fed up with the political uncertainty and instability. Above all the reign of terror has created pathos in
the mind of people. The common man in France by the beginning of the nineteenth century wanted peace and
order in France.
The ineffective fiscal policy and the feeble external policy of Directory exposed their weakness in front of the
public. The rise in inflation and the devaluation of currency further aggravated the hardship of masses. At this
juncture the public of France was willing to get rid of these difficulties even at the cost of some of the ideals of
the Revolution.
At the same time brilliant military victory of Napoleon made him the National Hero. People started to look at
Napoleon as somebody who can be the panacea for the sufferings of French public.
The policies of Napoleon at that time fulfilled the aspirations of various groups of the French society. The
middle class at this time wanted peace and order. The peasantry wanted to secure the grains they have
cultivated so far. The counter revolutionist wanted to restore back the monarchy. Thus various groups readily
accepted the ascendency of Napoleon as a monarch even though it compromised on the ideals of Revolution
like Liberty, Equality and Fraternity.
Napoleon as the Child of the Revolution
The material conditions for the ascendency of Napoleon as the emperor of France were created by the
Revolution. It was impossible for a commoner like Napoleon to even think of sitting on the throne of France
while the Burbon kings were ruling France prior to the Revolution. The Revolution ended the absolute
monarchy and privileges of the first two Estates. The governmental offices after the Revolution were to be filled
on the basis of merit which earlier used to be the monopoly of first two Estates. Based on his merit,
capabilities and military valor Napoleon was seen as a national hero, this played a crucial role in his
ascendency.
Finally the hardships and the sense of insecurity that people faced as the aftermath of Revolution during the
reign of terror and the ineffective rule of Directory, created a void in the politics of France. Napoleon
successfully filled this void.

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Ironically, even though Napoleon can be considered as the Child of Revolution, yet in some ways his
ascendency reversed the ideals of the Revolution. The Revolution got triggered with the end of the absolute
monarchy. However the rise of Napoleon restored the monarchy back in France.
The Continental system and its Effects
Napoleon desired to conquer whole world. The biggest hurdle in realization of this dream was the arch rival
Britain. Britain maintained a strong navy which France could not match with. The extensive trade links of
Britain with different countries was one of the prominent reasons for her being powerful.
Napoleon sought to bring England to terms by indirect means, by ruining her trade and commerce upon which
her power depended. He envisaged that the closure of every continental market to British goods would be a
fatal to Britain.
France declared a blockade of the British Isles and forbidding all commerce with them. All British goods were
ordered to be seized. He later also declared that any ship of any country which should touch at a British port,
was liable to be seized and treated as a prize. This is called as Napoleons Continental System. At Tilsit he
secured the adhesion of Russia to this scheme of destroying Englands trade.
Napoleons Continental System proved more detrimental for France vis--vis Britain. As the British fleet
controlled the seas, no colonial goods could be obtained except through British vessels. English commerce,
though put to enormous disadvantage, went on as it was prior to the arrangement, but that of the continental
states under French rule ruined. The result was that the prices of the necessaries of life went up enormously
and the greatest sufferers were the inhabitants of the Continent.
As a consequence the subject allies of France became discontented with Napoleon and his rule became
hateful to the mass of the population. The continental system was one of the great blunders of Napoleons. In
order to enforce this system, he had to adopt a policy of organized aggression upon continental countries,
which led to a succession of costly wars, exhausting his resources in men and money.
Significance of Napoleonic rule for Europe
The ascendency of Napoleon as the emperor of France proved to be a landmark event for France as well as
for whole Europe.
1. Before the ascendency of Napoleon in France, the common man in France was in the grip of number of
hardships. The political instability and fiscal imbalances had intensified the sufferings of the common
man. The rule of Napoleon for 13 years i.e. stabilized the economy and created peace and tranquility in
the country.
2. His reforms were guided by the ideals of Revolution like Equality and Fraternity.
3. Napoleon dealt with the Pope as a seasoned statesman. His Concordat with Pope in France satisfied
various aspirants and urges of public. By this Catholicism was recognized as religion of the great
majority of the French people. The Catholic Church was reestablished but with limited powers.
4. Napoleon defeated various European countries. Therefore, he not just safeguarded the borders of
France but also took the ideals of the revolution beyond the boundaries. During his wars he
propagated the ideals of the Revolution.
5. The rule of Napoleon in France initiated a new epoch political, judicial and administrative reforms. His
Code Napoleon inspired the judicial system of France and other European countries. This code was the
greatest contribution of Napoleon.

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Phases of the Revolution

The third Estate, which constituted about 95 to 97% of French population and was the chief architect of the
French Revolution, was not a homogeneous group. Rather, the third Estate represented a number of vested
interests, under currents and ideologies. However, the absolute monarchy and the privileges enjoyed by the
first two Estates were the common enemies of this third Estate. For the sake of better understanding the
French Revolution can be divided into four phases based on the character of leadership along with the
changes that were envisaged.
The majority of population in the third Estate was that of peasants and artisans i.e. those belonging to the
lower class. On the other hand, initially the leadership of the Revolution was in the hand of middle class or
bourgeoisie leaders and thinkers. There were clear cut cleavages in the demands and aspirants of the lower
and middle classes. Lower class envisaged a republican constitution, universal franchise and equitable
redistribution of property in the French society. In contrast to this middle class envisioned a society based on
constitutional monarchy, limited franchise, property rights to be legitimized by the state and the government
offices to be filled on the basis of merit and not patronage. The aspirations and demands of lower class were
much more radical in nature.
Based on the fact that which class dominated the leadership and its respective agenda the French Revolution
can be divided into the following four phases:
Phase

Year

Stage

Phase I

1789-92

Moderate

Phase II

1792-95

Radical

Phase III

1795-1804

Reaction

Phase IV

1804-15

Napoleaonic
Era

Details
Constitutional Monarchy, constitution drafted for
France, end of feudal rights and privileges,
Declaration of the Rights of Man, Civil Constitution of
the Clergy, government to be run by elected officials
Monarchy abolished and Republic created, universal
male franchise, King executed for treason, Reign of
Terror" by Committee of Public Safety (Robespierre)
5-man Directory created to share power with National
Assembly, Moderates regain control
Napoleon crowned himself as emperor of France.
Some of the ideals of the revolution passed into the
oblivion.

Why did Revolution occurred in France and not elsewhere?

The contemporary political and socio-economic conditions of the other countries in Europe were no different
than France. Rather the material well being of average French men was better than their neighbors. The
condition of French peasantry at that time was much better than their counterparts in Prussia. In France the
political power of the feudal nobility had been hijacked. However, in other European countries like Germany the
nobles possessed enormous authority. The monarchs of the countries like Prussia and Russia were equally
despotic as their French counterparts. So there was nothing exceptional in the character or in the extent of the
grievances of the French people. Thus a natural question that arises here is that then why did Revolution
occurred in France and not elsewhere?
It was the inequality and unequal taxation in the French society which proved to be the death row for the
Ancien Regime in France. In France those belonging to the First and Second estates enjoyed certain rights
and privileges without corresponding onuses and duties. The political power of the French nobility was
destroyed much before the French revolution. The rights and privileges without duties appeared to be
Page | 25

unwarranted and irrational. The privileged classes being more or less exempt from taxation, the burden fell all
the more heavily on the common people,, thus the rich who could support the state paid the least, while the
poor who were already over-burdened were crushed with the weight of taxation.
The revolution occurred because the middle class in France was enlightened and conscious of its rights. This
class was well exposed to the doctrines and philosophies of thinkers like Montesque, Volatire, Rousseou etc.
These thinkers highlighted the fallacies of the Ancien Regime and were hypocritical about the rights and
privileges enjoyed by the upper two Estates. This middle class had deep hatred for the exclusive privileges and
status of the nobles many of those were much inferior to them in terms of wealth and knowledge. This class
gave the leadership to the French revolution. Hence the motive force of the Revolution was not intensity of the
sufferings of the French people but a new unwillingness to submit to the anomalies of Old Regime.
Significance of the French Revolution
The French Revolution was the momentous event in history of France, Europe as well as world. Various
modern day states and development agencies are guided by the principles professed by the French
Revolution. The significance of the Revolution can be estimated as follows:
1. The Revolution initiated a new political culture in France based on core values of the nation, citizen
representative and democratic ethos. The ideals like Liberty, Equality and Fraternity propagated by the
French Revolution have become the cornerstone of the modern day welfare sates and constitutions.
The Preamble of Indian constitution also explicitly mentions these values.
2. The Revolution marked an end to the absolute monarchy in France and paved the way for popular and
representative institutions which represent the mandate of people.
3. After the Revolution the aristocracy was stripped of its privileges and no longer maintained a
dominant social status. The French Revolution was able to annihilate the feudal system by removing
any trace of feudalism.
4. The malpractices of Church and higher clergy were checked by the Revolution.
5. The Revolution abolished the feudal system and brought upon a new way of living, capitalism, which is
still practiced today throughout Europe.
6. The Revolution also resulted in the growth of nationalism in the European countries. The Napoleonic
wars aroused the feelings of nationalism in the countries which were conquered by him. The people of
many countries viewed Napoleon as instrumental in promoting the ideals of Revolution and replacing
absolute monarchy. Hence he was welcomed in various countries that he conquered. However the
despotic rule of Napoleon soon demystified the people and as a reaction against the despotic rule they
got united. This again helped in giving momentum to feelings of nationalism. Thus paradoxically the
nationalism aroused because of the result of the Napoleonic wars and the reaction against them.
Questions from French Revolution
Short Notes
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Liberty, Equality, Fraternity

Difference between First, Second and Third Estate
King Louis XVI
The taxation system in France before French Revolution
Tithe
Important French Philosophers and their role in Revolution
Connection between American and French Revolution
Estate General in French Revolution
Tennis Court Oath
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10. Fall of Bastille

11. Importance of 4th August 1789 in French Revolution
12. Declaration of Rights
13. Difference between Jacobeans and Girondists
14. Reason for declaration of war on France by other European powers during French Revolution
15. Paris Mob
16. End on monarchy in France
17. Guillotine and its use during French Revolution
18. Role of Robespirre in French Revolution
19. Thermidorian Reaction
20. Rule of Directory and its shortcomings
21. Continental system of Napoleon
22. Significance of Napoleonic rule for Europe
23. Different Phases of the French Revolution
Essay Type
1. How did Napoleon fuse the French of the ancient regime with the France of the post-revolutionary ear?
(Hint: Relate the reforms of the Napoleon with the ideals of the French Revolution. Secondly he again
converted France into a absolute monarchy thus replicated ancient regime. )
2. The connection between the philosophers and the outbreak of the French Revolution (1789) is
somewhat remote and indirect.
3. How did the French Revolution differ from the American Revolution?
4. What new political movements emerged in Europe after the French Revolution
5. Explain the events that led to the end of the French monarchy and how they affected France after the
revolution.
6. What were the advantages and disadvantages of the revolution for the different Estates?
7. Did Napoleon preserve the French Revolution or did he destroy it?
8. To what extent was the French monarchy both the main cause and the main victim of the French
Revolution?
9. Were the grievances of the Third Estate (prior to the French Revolution) valid? Why or why not?
10. What was the cause of the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution?
11. How did ideology of the French Revolution lead France to develop from a constitutional monarchy to
democratic despotism to the Napoleonic Empire?
12. French Revolution -- was it democratic? Did rule by the people lead to democracy in France during the
period 1789-1799? Why or why not?
13. Why was France so successful in fighting against powerful countries in the late 18th century?
14. How was nationalism an effect of the French Revolution?
15. How were Enlightenment ideals reflected in the French Revolution?
16. Why do you suppose the French people embraced Napoleon as emperor so soon after fighting a
revolution that rid them of a king?
17. In what ways was Napoleon Bonaparte, "The Son of the Revolution"; what was his legacy?
18. How did the slogan "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity" sum up the goals of the French Revolution?
19. In the French Revolution, why did the Directory fall?
20. How did the French Revolution impact other countries?
21. To what extent was the weakness of the French Monarchy responsible for the outbreak and course of
the French Revolution between 1789 and January 1793?
22. He restored order and brought back prosperity. How far do you agree with this judgment of the
domestic policies of Napoleon I during the period 1799 to 1815?
23. How far is it true to say that Napoleon I was an enlightened despot?
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Europe after French Revolution

The ascendency of Napoleon in France as a result of the French Revolution proved to be watershed in the
history of Europe. Napoleon conquered a large part of Europe and these conquests were much different from
the others in the history. These conquests were marred by the ideals of the French revolution i.e. Liberty,
Equality and Fraternity.
The political existence of the Napoleonic Empire was short but it was an event with intense implications in the
history of Europe. It brought Europe into contact with the ideas and institutions of France and thereby shook
the foundation of the social and political structure of Europe. It was thus the Revolution in European context.
These ideals of the Revolution got intensified through the Napoleonic wars not just as result of these but also
against the reaction to the conquests. People of the other European countries viewed Napoleon as the
liberator. They envisaged that the conquests of Napoleon would liberate them from the absolute monarchy and
replace it by liberal and democratic regime. Thus Napoleon was initially welcomed by the people of the other
European countries which were conquered. However when the people realized that conquests of Napoleon
had just replaced one absolute despot by another the popular reaction against his rule was natural. This also
united the people of the Napoleonic Empire and act as a catalyst to promote nationalism and the ideals like
liberty and equality.
It wont be an exaggeration to say that French Revolution and Napoleonic wars proved detrimental for the
absolute monarchy and the old order in Europe. The strong foundation for the modern day states and
institutions were built as a result of these.
Nonetheless the monarchs and their respective nobility of Europe failed to realize these popular aspirations of
people. The vested interests of these sections made them reactionary and status quoits. Monarchs of Europe
at this juncture wanted to restore the old order at any cost. This was explicitly reflected from the arrangements
they came up with after the defeat of Napoleon in 1813.
Defeat of Napoleon and reconstruction of Europe
The Seventh Collation of the European powers defeated Napoleon in the Battle of Waterloo in 1813. The
Seventh Collation comprised of an Anglo-Allied army under the command of the Duke of Wellington combined
with a Prussian army under the command of Gebhard von Blcher. The coalition forces defeated France and
restored King Louis XVIII to the French throne. Napoleon abdicated, surrendered to the British, and was exiled
to Saint Helena, where he died in 1821.
Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia emerged as the dominant power after Napoleon was defeated and the
absolute monarchy was restored in France against the ideals of the Revolution. France was defeated by the
group of countries ruled by the reactionary monarchs. But the people of Europe in general and France in
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particular had tasted the ideals of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. The Napoleonic wars had taken these ideals
to every nook and corner of Europe. Moreover the Napoleonic wars had fractured the boundaries of nations
and empires. The immediate task in front of the victorious powers at this juncture was reconstruction of
Europe according to the old order and to check the growth of the popular ideals generated by the Revolution.
Congress of Vienna (1813)
An assembly of the victorious powers met in Vienna after the defeat of Napoleon in 1815 to resettle the
perturbed continent. This is popularly known as Congress of Vienna. Although nearly all the European
countries sent their delegates and diplomats to the Congress but the main business of the Congress was
transacted by the four Great Powers which had taken the lead in defeating Napoleon England, Russia,
Austria and Prussia. The Congress was presided over by Metternich, the Austrian minister and a diplomat par
excellence.
The labors of the Congress were mainly determined by three principles:
1. The Balance of Power which would provide effective safeguards for the future peace of Europe
2. The principle of Legitimacy whereby pre-revolutionary conditions were to be restored as far as possible
3. The reward to the victors and retribution to the defeated.
The term Balance of Power meant that the Congress envisaged preventing the extensive expansion of any one
great power in Europe, such as that Napoleon had brought about. The altruistic attitude of the national
representatives present and supported the overall purpose of preventing future widespread conflict.
Since France was the epicenter of Revolution the final settlement at the Congress of Vienna redistributed the
territories in such a manner as to prevent any one of them from becoming too powerful, the spoils were
distributed in order to create a buffer against France.
France was encircled with the strong European powers. This was formally done under the principle of
Security. The states near or adjacent to France were enlarged to act as a buffer against France.
Holland received the old Austrian Netherlands; Prussia obtained Rhenish and Westphalian territories; and
Switzerland was perpetually neutralized and assigned three additional cantons on the French frontier.
A German Confederation of 38 states was created from the previous 360 of the Holy Roman Empire, under the
presidency of the Austrian Emperor. Only portions of the territory of Austria and Prussia were included in the
Confederation.
Another important goal of the Congress was to restore "legitimate" or traditional governments to power and to
prevent political revolutions in Europe. In other words the goal was to maintain the status quo and the old
order. Thus following changes were made in order to reinstate the absolute monarchy:
Dynasty/House

Restored to

Burbons

France, Spain and Naples

House of Savoy

Sardinia-Piedmont

House of Orange

Holland

German Princes

Confederation of Rhine
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Pope

Central Italy

Concert of Europe
The Concert of Europe was formulated in 1815 as a mechanism to enforce the decisions of the Congress of
Vienna. The proposal of periodical meeting to solve international issues by the four powers came to be known
as Concert of Europe. It was composed of the Quadruple Alliance: Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain,
its main priorities were to establish a balance of power, thereby preserving the territorial status quo, and to
protect "legitimate" governments.
The Concert was headed by Prince Metternich of Austria; the Concert of Europe was one of the first serious
attempts in modern times to establish an international society to maintain the peace. This made it a significant
event in world history, even though it only lasted for a few decades.
Criticism of Congress of Vienna
Although redistribution of Europe that Congress of Vienna envisaged could preserve relative peace in Europe
for decades, yet it was not without faults. The strongest criticism of the congress points towards its disregard
for nationalistic sentiments. These nationalistic attitudes and sentiments were well established by the time of
Congress. But instead of unifying territories and their people by shared and common language and culture, the
Congress established boundaries from the purview of national interests of the victorious powers for maintaining
the balance of power in Europe. The consequences of this oversight were soon felt in the ripples of revolution
in the years following.
A further criticism of the Congress was its unsighted support and encouragement for the traditional
Conservative Order which promoted stability and peace at the virtue of progress in liberty and civil rights.
The Congress helped to keep reactionary regimes in power and consequently stifled the social progress; it
thus promoted the tenets which were regressive in nature. Some critics go as far as to allege that the
Congress held an overall disrespect for the positive ideals of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars,
to be precise the advances in constitutional rights for ordinary people. So in nut shell though the Congress may
have made momentous progress in diplomacy and maintaining the stability of Europe, it was rarely done with
the common people in mind and often at the sacrifice of their rights.

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Unification of Germany

Since 9th Century, the German states were bound together in a loose political entity known as the Holy Roman
Empire. There were hundreds of small states, duchies etc which were semi autonomous under the Holy
Roman Empire. By the late eighteenth century, the Holy Roman Empire was, as Voltaire remarked, Neither
holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire.
During Napoleonic wars French armies occupied Germany, moved through, or were allied with the German
states. In 1806 the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved. In the Congress of Vienna (1814-15) a major question
was what to do with Central Europe in general and Germany in particular.
Germans had hoped that the Settlement will result in unified Germany, but instead, to the dismay and disgust
of the people, they got a confederation of 39 German States. This arrangement created many more problems
rather than solutions. The parochialism and particularism were deep rooted in German states. Unlike in case of
Italy where Sardinia-Piedmont was the dominant state, in case of German unification there were two strong
powers i.e. Austria and Prussia, both were willing to unify Germany under their respective aegis.
Early attempts for Unification
As mentioned in the earlier chapter as well, in the year 1848 the Revolution started in France which envisioned
liberalism, nationalism and democracy and was against the principles of balance of power and legitimacy as
advocated by the Congress of Vienna. The Revolution had deep impact on whole Europe and Germany was
no exception.
In Germany the champions of Revolution demanded that each state should be given a liberal constitution. In
the same year the states had a meeting in which a liberal program was adopted. The other demands of the
agitators were that there should be freedom of press, perfect religious toleration and also trial by jury. A
demand was also made for consisting assemblies consisting of elected representatives of the people, in every
state. Thus for the time being the liberalism triumphed all over Germany.
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Under the utmost pressure of the liberal revolutionaries the ruler of Prussia; William IV also agreed to give
liberal Constitution after some clashes between his army and the people. He also promised to assume the
leadership of the national movement for the united Germany.
Parliament of Frankfurt
The acceptance of Prussian king for a liberal constitution and national unity stirred up immense fervor among
the German liberals. They summoned a national parliament which met at Frankfort in 1848.
It was at this meeting that it was decided that Germany should have a bicameral legislature and a federal
Government. It was also agreed that the people of Germany should be given certain fundamental rights, which
included freedom of press, trial by, jury, abolition of special privileges and religious and civil equality.
In the Assembly there was a school of thought commonly known Little German which believed that Austria
should be excluded. Whereas the others called Great Germans were of the view that Austria should be
included. After great deliberations it was decided that Austria should be kept out.
The Assembly decided that there should be a hereditary king and a German Confederation. It also decided that
the throne should be offered to Fredrick Williams IV but he did not accept the offer.
Why Fredrick William IV Rejected Throne?
There were several reasons of throne by Williams IV of Prussia. There were:
1. He was conservative by nature, earlier only under the pressure of revolution he agreed to give a liberal
constitution to Prussia and to be a front runner for the German unity.
2. He did not agree with many of the demands of Frankfurt Parliament.
3. He did not wish to remain as a serf in the hands of revolutionaries, particularly when he believed in the
theory of Divine Rights of Kings. He looked upon the crown given by revolutionaries as the crown of
shame.
4. He was not prepared to fight with Austria which had been excluded from the Assembly. He knew that in
any such war he will be defeated.
The refusal of King William IV of Prussia to be the leader of the Parliament proved to be a huge setback for the
liberalism and the revolutionaries. It was also clear to the nationalists that unification of Germany through
liberal principles was impossible in those circumstances. All efforts made to frame a new Constitution failed
and the people were now convinced that not constitutional but some other methods will have to be used if
Germany was to be unified. Austria regained her influence as the German unity passed into the oblivion.
The revolution of 1848 although was unable to achieve its final goal, yet it cannot be termed as a total failure.
The liberal and democratic tendencies got a huge impetus in Germany as a result of this and most importantly
the King of Prussia William IV had to accept constitutional monarchy in his state.
Zollverein
Although in the Congress of Vienna the political unification of Germany was checked by the reactionary forces,
the market forces which were in the pursuit of economic unification based on free trade cannot be curtailed.

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Initially, in various states there were many custom areas which were a great stumbling block in flourishing of
trade. Prussia had thus remained much behind England in trade and commerce. The trade and commerce in
the states were also marred by smuggling.
In 1818 on the initiative of Prussia, a customs union or Zollverein was established, consisting of the
neighboring states based on the free trade. In Zollverein the member states removed the trade barriers and it
was also provided that there will be uniform tariff on all frontiers and net proceeds will be divided on the basis
of the population of the states.
Importance of Zollverein was not fully realized initially by Austria. By 1850 most of the states joined Zollverein
except Austria. Even Austria who was not very keen to join it in the beginning became very keen to become its
members. But Prussia had decided that Austria should keep away from it. In 1853 Austria was, however, in a
position to get some concession from Zollverein.
According to various historians Zollverein provided the viable material base for the unification of Germany. It
was for the first time that Germany became fiscal and commercial unit. It helped in uniting Germany in the
bonds of mutual economic interests.
Zollverein proved to be beneficial for Prussia in following ways:
1. The free trade and commerce strengthened the economy of Prussia and other states.
2. Prussia now emerged as leader of German States. Austria which did not join Zollverein was practically
out of the leadership race.
3. Prussia gained the support of rich and influential capitalist class and bankers who were of the view that
their counterparts in England could do better in trade and commerce because of the political and
economic unification. Thus they became ardent supporters of unification
Bismarck: Policy of Blood and Iron
Like Italy, the unification of Germany did not take place by popular revolts and mass agitations. In both these
countries the subaltern pressure of liberals from the below tried to assert itself in the revolutionary year of
1848, but the impact was very limited. Both the countries were unified from above by bureaucratic processes,
diplomacy and manipulating the foreign relations. While Cavour was the chief architect in Italian unification,
Otto Von Bismarck proved to be his counterpart in case of German unification.
In 1857 Fredrick William IV became insane and after his death William I became the ruler of Prussia. He was
an autocrat and wanted that Prussia should be strong and powerful. In 1862 William I appointed Bismarck as
Minister President of Prussia. Bismarck had no faith in Parliamentary institutions and was fully an autocrat.
He was convinced that solution to the problems which Germany faced did not lie in the resolution and majority
of votes but iron, blood and use of forces
William I was convinced that in order to attain German unification, Prussia should have a strong army. William I
envisaged unification of Germany but under the dominance of Prussia. But any attempt to enhance the
dominance of Prussia was very much against the interests of the Austria. The only possible solution in such
situation was to expel Austria from Germany through military action. For this William I wanted to reorganize
and strengthen the army and to mobilize the expenditure that was to be incurred in reorganization of army
through increased taxation. However, the Prussian legislature which was dominated by the liberals was
determined to have constitutional reforms before the reorganization of the army.

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The King and the legislature took the extremely opposite stances on the issue of military reorganization, thus a
constitutional deadlock aroused in Prussia. Bismarck was appointed as Minister President of Prussia during
this decisive time in 1862.
Bismarck agreed with the view point of the King William I that need of the hour was reorganization of Prussian
army if Germany was to be unified. Bismarck being a seasoned reactionary was of the view that the great
questions of the day will not be settled by means of speeches and majority decisions but by iron and blood. In
order to accomplish these task and designs he sidelined the liberals and did not care for the legislature for
raising money or for the reorganization of the army.
Foreign policy of Bismarck
In unification of Italy, the diplomacy and foreign policy of Cavour played a pivotal role. Unlike SardiniaPiedmont which essentially required the assistance of foreign nations for the unification of Italy, the case of
German unification was different. Prussia at that time was strong state and thus had not to look at the foreign
states for the unification of Germany. The neutrality of the foreign powers was enough for Prussia to ensure
the unification of Germany. Thus Bismarck wanted that in case of the conflict of Prussia with Austria or any
other country the rest other European powers should remain neutral and must not ally with the hostile state.
To diplomatically isolate Austria Bismarck made the following arrangements with the other European countries:
1. He concluded a commercial treaty with France, giving her the favorable terms.
2. In 1863, he helped Czar of Russia to suppress the Polish revolt and thus gained his support for the
future.
Three significant wars
After reorganization of the army, Bismarck used the army and the diplomacy with great effect in three wars
which proved extremely significant for the unification of Germany.
1) War with Denmark (1864): Schleswig-Holstein Question
Schleswig Holstein were two Duchies located on the border of Prussia and Denmark, which were under the
control of Denmark. The population of Schleswig was Danish in its northern portion, German in the south, and
mixed in the northern towns and centre. The population of Holstein was almost entirely German.
The King of Denmark was eager to annex both these Duchies to his Kingdom. Since the Duchies had German
population therefore, these were opposed to any such move and wanted to be a part of German
Confederation. Prussia and Austria were both against the intentions of Denmark to annex the Duchies.
The British Prime Minister, Lord Palmerston, famously said that only
three people had ever known the answer to the Schleswig-Holstein
question, and of these, the first, Prince Albert was dead; the second, a
Foreign Office official, was mad; and the third and last, he himself, had
known the answer but had now forgotten it"
In 1863 a new ruler came to the throne of Denmark and made endeavors to annex both these Duchies to his
kingdom. This caused Prussia and Austria to declare war in 1864 against Demark. Denmark was defeated in
the two decisive battles. After the war it was agreed between the victors that Austria will administer Holstein
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while Schleswig will be administered by Prussia. But soon the administrative rights over Schleswig Holstein
became the bone of contention between the victors which finally culminated into Austro Prussian War.
2) Austro Prussian War: Battle of Sedowa (1866)
Prussia and Austria, the arch rivals entered into an alliance in war against Denmark (1864) to get the lions
share from the two Duchies. After the defeat of Denmark, Bismarck was very keen that advantage should be
taken of the situation to strengthen the position of Prussia.
Bismarck by the use of diplomacy gave Holstein to Austria. Holstein was surrounded by Prussian territories.
This made Austria apprehensive about its control in the future therefore she demanded the unification of two
Duchies under her domination. Bismarck needed to get rid of Austrian influence in order to make a unified
Germany for this Prussia sends its army into Austrian-held Holstein which proved to be the immediate cause of
war.
As mentioned earlier, Prussia was strong enough to tackle the Austrian danger alone. However any foreign
help to Austria could have proved fatal for Prussia. Thus Bismarck diplomatically ensured that Austria should
have no friends. Bismarck ensured the neutrality of the other powers in the following manner:

France: Bismarck claimed that he has no aggressive intentions towards France. He gave France a
dubious promise about getting some territory
Italy: Italy was promised Venetia, if she remained neutral or sided with Prussia in the war.
Russia: In 1863 Bismarck helped Czar of Russia to suppress the Polish revolt and thus gained his
support for the future

Austria was decisively defeated in the battle of Sedowa (1866). The German Confederation was dissolved after
the war and the whole northern Germany got unified under the domination of Prussia. Prussia gained the
control Schleswig and Holstein as well.
Importance of Battle of Sedowa
Battle of Sedowa finally eliminated Austria, the biggest stumbling block for Prussia to unify Germany under her
domination. Thus battle proved to be watershed in the unification of Germany by establishing a North German
Confederation.
The battle also proved to be a stepping stone in the unification of Italy as after the defeat of Austria the state of
Venetia got unified with Italy.
The battle of Sadowa was also a diplomatic defeat for France. France got no compensation (as promised by
Bismarck) for remaining neutral. Prussia now turned out to be stronger than France, and thus the balance of
power shifted in Europe in the favor of Prussia.
Bismarck treated Austria very generously after the defeat. This was done in order to ensure her support in
future for unification.
3) France Prussian War: Battle of Sedan (1870 71)
After the battle of Sedowa the North German states got unified under the domination of Prussia. Nonetheless
the Southern states were yet to be unified. The following were the two biggest impediments in the unification of
the Southern states:
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Many of the Southern states were jealous with the growing domination of Prussia.
France was alarmed by the growing power of Prussia and gradual shift of balance of power in Europe.
Moreover the people of France had a feeling that the defeat of Austria in Austro Prussian war was
that of France and not that of Austria.

Bismarck in such critical circumstances wanted a national war with France i.e. a war in which the people of
Northern and Southern states of Germany get aligned together against France. He got this opportunity when
Spanish throne got vacant and Prussia supported the candidature of Leopold, a distant relative of Prussian
King.
This was not acceptable to French king Napoleon III who sent his ambassador to the King of Prussia
demanding an assurance that the candidature of family member of the King should not be supported by
Prussia. Bismarck manipulated one of the telegrams of the King in such a way that France felt that her
ambassador had been insulted whereas Prussians felt that their king had been disgraced. Resentment in
France was so great that Napoleon was forced to declare a war on Prussia. The war was declared.
Bismarck diplomatically isolated France in the following ways:
1. Austria was generously treated after the Battle of Sadeowa (1866), the purpose was to gain her support
in the near future for the unification.
2. Italy was given Venetia for remaining neutral after the Austro-Prussian war. Also Papal States in Italy
were yet to be unified and France was the main obstacle in the unification. Thus the neutrality of Italy
was ensured
3. Russia was defeated by France in Ceriman War in 1855. Russia wanted to avenge that defeat;
therefore an alliance between Russia and France was next to impossible.
French armies were defeated on the Battle of Sedan. The war came to an end with the Treaty of Frankfurt
(1871) the main provisions of the Treaty were:
1. King of Prussia was accepted as the ruler of Germany and Southern State of Germany was to be part
of German Confederation
2. France agreed to give Alsace and Lorraine to Germany.
3. France agreed to pay to Prussia heavy war indemnity.
In this way task of unification of Germany was completed with the efforts of Bismarck.
The Battle of Sedan also proved significant for the unification of Italy and France. During the war French army
withdrew from Rome, which was occupied by Italian forces. This unified Papal States with Italy and completed
the final stage of Italian unification as well. Also after the defeat of Napoleon III, a republic was created in
France.
Battle of Sedan reinforced the fact that balance of power had shifted in Europe in the favor of Germany. France
no longer remained to be the most powerful country. The glory of France of Napoleonic era passed into
oblivion after this battle. Its not an exaggeration to say that after the battle "Europe has lost a mistress
(France) and has gained a master (Germany)".

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The Socialism and Labor Movements in Europe

The Industrial Revolution in Europe resulted into the paradigm shift in the means of production and production
relations. The implications of the revolution were phenomenal and influenced nearly all the dimensions of the
human lives. One of the prominent results of the Industrial Revolution was socio-economic division of the
European society on the basis of private property. On the basis of ownership rights over private poverty, the
European society got stratified into Capitalist Class and Working Class and the revolution gave birth to
economic system called capitalism.
It was after Industrial Revolution that the capitalist class gained the control over all the means of production.
On the virtue of the concept of the private property the capitalist class maintained its hegemony over the nonpossessing class or the working class.
The concept of private property enabled capitalists, not only to live without working, but also to determine
whether the non-owners shall work and under what conditions. It established a master and servant
relationship, with working class in a disadvantageous position. The margin of profit of capitalists depended on
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the hard labor which the workers put in and less wages which they were paid. This clash of interests between
the two gave rise to Class Conflict, wherein the interests of capitalist class and the working class were
considered to be mutually conflicting.
Under this system the conditions of the workers became really miserable. None cared for their comforts and
the laborers had no security of service. Their plight was miserable and neither their life nor honor was secure.
The working hours were far more than the wages paid. Even the children and women had to work under very
odd circumstances. The state paid no heed to them and did not look after their interests.
Flipside of Capitalism
There were certain inherent defects in the capitalism, which proved to be pivotal in the growth of socialism. The
major challenges from which the Capitalism suffered are as:
1. In the capitalist system the basis of production is not on the needs of majority of people, but the bases
production in capitalist system is profit motive. Moreover this profit belongs not to the majority but to a
handful i.e. capitalists.
2. On the basis of ownership over means of production the capitalist system creates sharp cleavage in the
society on the basis of class., the capitalist system makes for a disunited community with one class that
works and the other that owns.
3. Though the production was possible only when the machine and the labor worked but maximum
attention was paid towards money and the machine rather than the labor. The laborers were living in
shanties outside the factories under sub-human conditions, whereas the factory owners, who lived on
their labor, resided in beautiful palaces with all the joys and comforts of life. Thus capitalism
perpetuated inequality.
4. The biggest drawback of the capitalism was the fact that the bulk of population was reduced to penury
and destitution. Ironically, the champions of capitalism and early thinkers found nothing wrong in such
system and paid no attention to the sad and bad plight of the factory workers.
In early nineteenth century, in both England and France, the evils of capitalism were brought before the public
through pamphlets, books, and speeches. The thinkers like Robert Owen in England, and Charles Fourier and
Comte Henri de Saint-Simon in France were the first few thinkers who focused their attention about the sad
plight of the factory workers. Their books were widely read, their speeches drew large audiences which
criticized capitalism.
Socialism: Meaning
The unifying theme of socialism is the call for social ownership of all nonhuman factors of production---capital
and natural resources. It is an economic theory or system in which the means of production, distribution, and
exchange are owned by the community collectively, usually through the state. It is characterized by production
for need rather than profit, by equality of individual wealth, by the absence of competitive economic activity,
and, usually, by government determination of investment, prices, and production levels.
In contrast to the capitalism where means of production are controlled and owned by the capitalist class,
socialism advocates for means of production to be controlled by the society or community. Also in capitalist
system where the profit is the primary motive for the production, socialism stood for production to be based on
satisfying human needs.
Socialism initially started as a protest movement against the evils perpetuated by capitalism. Those who
championed the cause of the working class raised their voice to expose the deplorable conditions of the
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workers and wished to stir and touch the conscience of the factory owners as well as the government to protect
the interests of the workers and to provide them basic amenities and facilities, while at work.
Nonetheless gradually these forces became more vocal and began to consolidate the working class apart from
just confining themselves to the demands to improve the work conditions. The term socialism connotes a
movement which aims at realizing the workers about their rights and role which they play in the production.
The aim of the socialism is that in the profit the workers should get their just and equitable share. The ideology
envisages that the workers have a right to unite and demand better working conditions.
Types of Socialism
Different scholars and theorists have interpreted socialism as per their cultural, political and social context.
Though it is difficult to discuss all the types of Socialism, yet some of the important types of socialism are:
1. State Socialism or Collectivism
2. Utopian Socialism
State Socialism
During 19th century individualism emerged as an important concept. According to this concept, an individual
should be the focus round which every state activity should revolve. The rights and interests of an individual
are supreme and the state should not interfere with private life and property of the individuals. The champions
of individualism placed individual above the State.
The State Socialism was a staunch reaction against individualism. The State Socialists on the other hand
placed individuals secondary to the state. They were of the view that state which is an aggregation of the
individuals must be given prominence above the individuals. Their main points of philosophy were as under:1. They believed in the supremacy of the State. State was considered to be a positive good which is
necessary for bringing the people out of exploitation.
2. The people have the capacity to improve their conditions as members of the State and within the aegis
of the State and not outside the State.
3. They wish that State activities should be increased so that State becomes a welfare State and
undertakes maximum welfare activities.
4. They were bitterly opposed to the capitalist system because in that the means of production are
controlled by few persons and used for their own advantage.
5. All means of production should be controlled by the State and used for collective welfare.
6. The factories should be allowed by the produce only what is needed by the society. They therefore,
favor State controlled industry.
7. There should be a just distribution of wealth and the State should not allow concentration of wealth just
in few hands.
State Socialism got the name of Fabian Socialism in England. Its chief exponents were G.B. Shah; Sidney
Webb, H.G. Wells, Laski, Graham Wallas and many others. The protagonists of the State Socialism had full
faith in the efficacy and the intentions of the state. They believe in constitutional means and methods and their
stress is on ballots rather than on bullets. According to them the State itself should be used as agency for socio
economic transformation.
Criticism of State Socialism

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The views and ideas of State Socialists have been criticized on several accounts. The nationalization of all
means of production is neither possible nor advisable. The state owned means of production discourage the
individual entrepreneurship zeal. State Socialism gives no weightage to the profit motives in the industry. This
can gradually result into inefficient practices and dysfunctional processes.
Participation of State in the production process is also marred by red tape and bureaucratic delays. The
involvement of State in every dimension of citizens life can make it very powerful and overdeveloped. This is
against the theory of checks and balances. This can result into corruption, nepotism and favoritism.
In nut shell excessive nationalization can result into concentration of both work and authority and that will lead
to in-efficiency and delays.
Utopian Socialism
Utopian Socialism is based on the belief that social ownership of the means of production can be achieved by
voluntary and peaceful surrender of means of production by capitalist class. It is based on the tenet that
collective ownership eliminates greed and promotes personal growth, cultural enrichment, and democracy.
This school of socialism is exemplified in the work of Henri de Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, and Robert Owen.
The word "Utopia" which literally means "nowhere" comes from
Thomas More's book where he described a hypothetical egalitarian
society.
The term Utopian Socialism was coined by the scholars of later
period who were of the view that socialism of this kind, i.e. voluntary
surrender of the property rights by the capital class is possible only in
theory. They were of the view that it would be impossible to implement
these ideas practically. Thus they called the socialism of this kind to
be Utopian i.e. only possible hypothetically.
The system is based on the premise that if capitalist class voluntary surrender their rights over means of
production to the State or workers the state of workers and their living conditions will improve and poverty
would get abolish.
A key difference between "utopian socialists" and other socialists is that utopian socialists generally don't feel
class struggle or political revolutions are necessary to implement their ideas. They are of the view that people
of all classes might voluntarily adopt their plan for society if it were presented convincingly. They often feel their
form of cooperative socialism can be established among like-minded people within the existing society and
establish small enterprises designed to demonstrate their plan for society.
Criticism of Utopian Socialism
The biggest criticism of Utopian Socialism is the fact that voluntary surrender of property rights by capitalist is a
remote possibility. It does not seem plausible that the capitalist class would surrender property rights without
any pressure or conflict. The surrendering of property rights is against the interests of the capitalist class.
Therefore voluntary surrender of these rights is only hypothetically possible.
Karl Marx and his philosophy

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Labor movement all over the world received great impetus with the arrival of Karl Marx and his philosophy. He
made the workers realize that without their labor there can be no production. He popularized the slogan that
the workers of the world unite; you have nothing to lose except your chains.
In the development of his ideas he was very much influenced by the philosophy of Hegel. He picked up
dialectic principles of his philosophy namely Thesis, Antithesis and Synthesis. In fact Hegels ideas became
basic principles of Marxian philosophy. He was also influenced by French Socialists. The idea of class struggle
as propounded by the French socialist also became the mainstay of his philosophy.
Karl Marx viewed society in terms of economic relations, on which he developed his legal and political
framework. As economic relations change with mode of production, society and polity also changed with these
modes of production. However, as these relations are based on surplus production and its appropriation, these
relations produced two classes, one which produced the surplus and the other who appropriated it. There was
an inherent antagonism between these classes which led to class conflict. This resulted in breaking up of the
old order and formation of a new one.
Thus, Marxist perspective is centered on the economic aspects being the essential causes of social conflict.
Capitalist class controls the state and the resources and hence is able to appropriate major part of the surplus
while the working class or the proletariat despite producing most of the surplus remains deprived. This brings
in inequalities between two classes, which results in class conflict.
The capitalist class always tries to capture maximum power and is bound to use it in its own favor. The power
is thus bound to be misused. But with the passage of time an old order yields to the new one. According to him
history of society is nothing else but that of a class struggle which is going on between economic and political
classes.
Karl Marx is of the view that the modern capitalism system is sowing the seeds of its own destruction.
According to him the capitalists, in order to have quick access to market places for selling their commodities,
develop road and transport system, which are used by the workers for coming together. Moreover, by trying to
monopolize trade and industry small traders and industrialists are wiped out and they join the rank of the
workers. Thus their rank goes on swallowing. The workers nowhere are provided facilities and they realize that
their problems are the same all over. Thus they become class conscious. Moreover, the employers keep them
in a state of misery and that helps them in coming together and building a united camp against the employers.
Marxist Theory of State
According Marx the State expresses the will of the ruling classes only. Unlike Fabian socialists who considered
that emancipation of the workers was possible within the aegis of the state, Marx considered state to be
coercive.
The State, according to Marx, has always sided with the rich and tries to maintain their hegemony. It passes
only such laws that perpetuate the interest of the capitalist class. He has also said that state protects private
property, which is based on exploitation. Marx thus envisaged a classless and stateless society.
Criticism of Marxian Philosophy
Marxist philosophy takes into account only one factor into consideration i.e. economic. Entire Marxist
philosophy revolves around the economic factor. Of course the significance of economic factor cannot be
undervalued but at the same time the philosophy has completely discounted social and religious factors.

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Marx viewed the state to be coercive and an instrument for the oppression for the poor. He lacked in
imagination regarding the concept of welfare state. He failed to realize that state led interventions can pay
pivotal role in development and eradicating poverty. Today everywhere the need and necessity of the state is
being realized. State, today is performing not compulsory but also optional functions and more responsibilities
are now being assigned to it.
Marx believed in only two identities for human kind i.e. capitalist class and working class. He was of the view
that members of these classes to be two different homogeneous groups. He discounted other important
identities like gender, caste, religion and nationality.
Marx has glorified the idea of revolution and the role of violence in it. He tried to establish that the problems of
the workers are such that these will not be solved by peaceful methods. But again that has not come true
because in every state methods like arbitration, joint consultative machinery etc. have been evolved which
bring the employers and employees together on the same forum and they amicably solve their problem.
Despite of all the drawbacks in his philosophy it cannot be denied that Marx brought a new life and vigor in the
workers movement. He awakened them and today his philosophy is the basis of labor movement all over the
world.

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First World War

The First World War, originally called the Great War, raged from 1914 to 1918. The war was sparked by the
assassination of Archduke of Austria, Franz Ferdinand in 1914 and ended with the Treaty of Versailles in 1919.
This War affected nearly all of the world's most powerful and populous countries. The War spanned multiple
countries on multiple continents, with battles fought in multiple theaters. The war witnessed causalities of about
nine million soldiers and 12 million civilians. There were many reasons which resulted into the First World War,
but the roots of the War could be traced in German unification, which abruptly shifted the Balance of Power in
Europe.
Europe on the eve of First World War
During early 19th Century French ascendency in Europe was at its climax at the time of Napoleon Bonaparte.
The only power in Europe which matched the might of France during that time was Britain. However, Britain
was least interested in the European affairs and had adhered to the policy of Splendid Isolation. Britains
insular position, vast colonial territories, the strongest navy in the world, and, most important, its industrial and
financial supremacy over other powers allowed it to maintain freedom of action in the international arena. As a
result France had the hegemony in the continent.
After the defeat of Napoleon one of the main aims of the Congress of Vienna (1815) was to maintain Balance
of Power in Europe. In other words the European powers tried to ensure that no country in continent should
become strong enough to conquer or dictate terms on the others. Since France under Napoleon had
conquered almost whole Europe prior to his defeat, the Congress of Vienna tried to ensure that this should not
happen in future. As a result France was encircled with the territories of the other powers. This reduced the
prestige and power of France to a great extent but she still remained the most powerful country of Europe that
was interested in the affairs of the continent.
Ignominious defeat of France at the hands of Prussia in Battle of Sedan (1871) culminated into unification of
Germany. France had to surrender Alsace and Lorraine to Germany. After the unification, Germany became
the most powerful country of Europe. The hegemony, power and prestige that France enjoyed not only just got
ruined but were also passed in the hands of Germany. After Battle of Sedan, Germany became the chief
arbitrator of European affairs.

Foreign Policy of Bismarck and formation of Alliances

Bismarck the chief architect of the German unification was aware of the fact that France had been aggrieved in
the battle of Sedan. He also knew that France will leave no stone unturned to gain back her lost prestige and
power. Moreover the surrender of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany had aggrieved French nationalism.
Bismarck feared that France might wage a war of vengeance against Germany and so henceforth it became
his chief business to build up a comprehensive system of alliances so as to keep France completely isolated.
Thus the foreign policy of Bismarck was centered on the principle of isolating France.
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The diplomatic achievement of Bismarck in 1879 was formation of a dual alliance with Austria. In 1882, Italy
joined this alliance which culminated into the formation of Triple Alliance. Since the interests of Russia and
Austria clashed over Balkan states, Bismarck did not want to antagonize Russia by entering into an alliance
with Austria. He also concluded a Reinsurance treaty with Russia which guaranteed Russian neutrality in
case Germany was attacked.
Reaction of France towards foreign policy of Bismarck
France was eager to regain her lost power and prestige which she had lost in Battle of Sedan (1871). When
isolated by Germany, France was in pursuit of the formidable allies to counter balance the Triple Alliance.
As mentioned earlier, the interests of Russia and Austria clashed over the Balkan states and Ottoman Empire.
Germany formed a dual alliance with Austria in 1882. Due to this France got an opportunity to befriend Russia.
After the death of Bismarck, Kaiser William II became the chief architect of the foreign policy of Germany. He
was over ambitious and reversed the foreign policy of Bismarck. He gave his blind support to Austria in Balkan
affairs and thus antagonized Russia. The Reinsurance Treaty with Russia also lapsed during his reign. France
took the advantage of this situation and was successful is forming an alliance with Russia in 1891. As a result
Dual Alliance was formed between the two countries and this marked an end to the isolation of France.
Foreign policy of Germany after Bismarck
After the death of Bismarck, Kaiser William II became the chief architect of the foreign policy of Germany. He
reversed the foreign policy of Bismarck. He was over ambitious and wanted that Germany should play vital role
in not just the politics and affairs of Europe but that of the whole world i.e. Weltpolitik. The foreign policy of
Kaiser can be best exemplified by one of his remark nothing must go on anywhere in the world in which
Germany does not play a part.
This led to the breakdown of the alliance system created by Bismarck to contain and curtail the power of
France. The other European powers also got apprehensive about the motives of Germany. Russia was
antagonized when Kaiser gave blind and heedless support to Austria in the issue related to Balkan states and
Ottoman Empire. As a result Russia drove into the arms of France.
Britain which followed the policy of Splendid Isolation, got perturbed when Kaiser decided to strengthen
German navy. Kaiser openly declared that our future lies in water. Germany already had the largest army in
Europe by that time. Strengthening of the navy was a direct challenge to Britain and poised a series threat to
her colonial empire across the world. By 1906 German navy reached a size and strength second only to
Britain. The suspicion between the two countries got enhanced when Kaiser expressed his enthusiasm to built
colonial empire in Asia and Africa.
Kaiser Wilhelm gave an interview to the Daily Telegraph newspaper on 28 October 1908,
in which - although he claimed that he wanted to be friends with Britain - he said that
the English were 'mad', said that the German people hated them, and demanded that:
'Germany must have a powerful fleet to protect her interests in even the most distant
seas'.
As a result of this change in the foreign policy of Germany, Britain in compulsion had to join hands with France
and Russia. France, Britain and Russia formed Triple Entente. This Entente was not a defensive or
aggressive arrangement against Germany, but rather was a channel that was expected to work in harmony to
solve certain relevant issues. However, its significance was in the fact that two important powers of Europe
came closer to France and started looking Germany with suspicion and distrust. Thus its no exaggeration to
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say that while the foreign policy of Bismarck gathered friends for Germany, the foreign policy of Kaiser created
foes.
Causes of First World War
The following were the important causes which resulted into the First World War:
Chauvinist Nationalism
First World War was the result of leaders aggression towards other countries which was supported by the
rising nationalism of the European nations. The rise of nationalism which got an impetus because of events
like American Revolution and French Revolution reached to a hazardous extent in Europe when it got replaced
by extreme nationalism and Social Darwinism. It inflamed the racial pride of people and made them
arrogant in their attitude towards the other countries.
The public sentiments of countries in Europe at this time considered their own country to be superior and
supported the enhancement of their own power and prestige at the cost of the other. This created an ambience
of suspicion and distrust which finally culminated into First World War.
Social Darwinism is a belief, which states that the strongest or fittest should survive
and flourish in society, while the weak and unfit should be allowed to die. Social
Darwinism was used to justify numerous exploits which we classify as of dubious
moral value today. Colonialism was seen as natural and inevitable, and given
justification through Social Darwinian ethics - people saw natives as being weaker and
more unfit to survive, and therefore felt justified in seizing land and resources.
Rise of militarism in Europe
Rise of militarism in Europe was also one of the major causes for First World War. All the Continental
European powers had adopted the conscription system since 1870s. France had conscription since 1789,
Austria-Hungary since 1868, Germany since 1870, Italy since 1873 and Russia since 1874. Only Britain did not
have conscription.
After 1890, the deteriorating diplomatic relations among the powers accelerated their military expansion
program. From 1913 to July 1914, Germany increased her standing forces by 170,000 men. France
lengthened her period of military service from two to three years. Russia lengthened her term of service from
three to three and a half years. Britain did not introduce conscription but had prepared her armed forces for
both European expedition and for home defense.
The German Kaiser wanted his forces to match the armies of France and Russia and his navy to rival Britain.
This German policy to strengthen navy was perceived by Britain as the direct challenge to her naval hegemony
in the world. Britain, which initially had adopted the policy of non intervention in geopolitics of Europe, was
alarmed by this and entered into alliance with France and Russia to counter balance Germany.
In general, all the powers increased their stocks of arms, produced more modern weapons of war and built
more strategic railways.

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Colonial rivalry
The interests of European powers clashed for colonization in Asia and Africa which resulted into rivalry. In
order to control and exploit the colonial resources very often the European powers antagonized each other.
There were many instances of clashes among France, Britain, Germany and Italy. For example, France rivaled
with Italy over Tunis and with Germany over Morocco.
Moroccan Crisis
In 1904 Morocco had been given to France by Britain, but the Moroccans wanted their
independence. In 1905, Germany announced her support for Moroccan independence.
War was narrowly avoided by a conference which allowed France to retain
possession of Morocco. However, in 1911, the Germans were again protesting against
French possession of Morocco. Britain supported France and Germany was
persuaded to back down for part of French Congo
Although indirectly, colonial rivalry led to the formation and strengthening of Alliances and Ententes. Italy allied
with Germany and Austria when she lost Tunis to France in 1881. Russia and Britain could patch up their
differences and form an Entente in 1907 as a result of their mutual fear of Germany's expansionist activities in
the Balkans. Russia, Britain and France could become firm friends after 1907 partly because of aggressive
attitude of Germany in both the first and the second Moroccan crises.
Colonial rivalry created a surcharged atmosphere of suspicion and distrust and led to an intensification of the
arms race.
Formation of alliances
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, in the first decade of 20th century, the powerful countries of Europe were
divided into two rival and hostile groups. Austria, Italy and Germany formed Triple Alliance; on the other hand
France, Britain and Russia allied themselves to form Triple Entente. The following tables indicate the details
of the two rival camps.

Triple Alliance
S.No

Country

Type
of
Allies
Government

Disputes

Germany

Constitutional
Monarchy

Austria, Italy

Rivals with France over Alsace, Laurine.

Britain over her navy.

Austria

Constitutional
Monarchy

Germany,
Italy

Rivalry with Russia over the Balkans

and other regions of Ottoman Empire

Italy

Constitutional
Monarchy

Germany,
Austria

Disputes with France in North Africa

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Triple Entente
S.No

Country

Type of Government Allies

Disputes

Britain

Constitutional
Monarchy

France,
Russia

Rivalry with Germany over her

navy.

France

Parliamentary
Democracy

Britain,
Russia

Rivalry with Germany to get

back Alsace and Lorraine.

Russia

Absolute Monarchy

Britain,
France

Disputes with Austria in Balkan

region related to Pan Slav
movement.

It should however be noted that these alliances were defensive agreements. The allies in both the group
promised to help each other in case any other European country attacks their ally. The group members were
not liable to help the allies in case of any act of aggression by their respective allies. For example when in
1914 Germany and Austria declared war on their rivals, Italy initially didnt join them. The reason being she
was not predisposed to help her allies in case they declare a war against any other European country.
Although the formation of these two rival alliances did not provoke the powers in Europe to declare an
aggressive war, it definitely created an ambiance of suspicion, distrust and disbelief among the European
countries which finally culminated into the World War.
Disintegration of Ottoman Empire: The Sick Man of Europe
For several hundred years, the Ottoman Empire had been slowly collapsing under its own weight. The Empire
had previously been called the "Sick Man of Europe", but prior to the war it is called the "Dying Man of
Europe".
The bulk of population in the Empire was Christian while the ruling class was ardent Muslim. The powerful
European countries had a great influence of church and conservative elements. As a result the religion was
also involved in the affairs related to the Ottoman Empire.
In 19th Century the Ottoman Empire consists of many ethnic groups which were multiracial and multicultural.
The concept of nationalism, appearing from France and the German countries, swept into the Balkan
Peninsula early in the nineteenth century. The Balkan peoples perceived nationalism as a justification for the
creation of specific geopolitical entities. Various demands like carving out the separate nation sates and
unification with other countries gained prominence. The major European powers also became the stake
holders to gain the maximum out of the disintegrating empire. Apart from this, the region also had a number of
ports which were strategically important to control trade and colonial empires in Asia and Africa. The Balkan
region thus became the major bone of contention.
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The interests of Russia and Austria were highly antagonistic in the Balkan region. Russia based its foreign
policy of pan-Slavism, or fraternal allegiance between all Slavic peoples of Eastern Europe and supported
Serbia. Serbia looked at herself as the liberator and the champion of the Slavs. On the other hand Austria,
which at that time was also a multicultural empire and had a large Slavic population. She feared that the panSlavism supported by Serbia could inspire the Slavs in her Empire to demand secession and can finally result
into disintegration of empire.
The First Balkan crisis came into being in 1908 when Austria annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina which was under
the political control of Ottoman Empire. These regions had a considerable Serb population. Apart from
Ottoman Empire; Russia and Serbia had strategic interests in these two provinces.
To make matters more complicated, the largely Slavic population of the two provinces had nationalist
ambitions of their own, while their fellow Slavs in nearby Serbia yearned to annex them to further their panSlavic ambitions. Serbia and Russia were alarmed by this aggressive policy of Austria. The rivalry of Russia
and Austria over Balkan region became the major cause of First World War.
Balkan States
Balkan region consists of the Peninsula in the southeastern Europe. It is located
between the Adriatic Sea, Mediterranean Sea, and the Aegean and Black seas it contains
many countries, including Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia,
Serbia, Montenegro, Albania, Moldova, Romania, and Bulgaria.
From 168 BC to AD 107, part of the area was incorporated into Roman provinces,
including Epirus, Moesia, Pannonia, Thrace, and Dacia. It was subsequently settled by
Slavic invaders, Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, and Slavonized Bulgars, the last of whom
were pushed into the Balkan region in the 6th century. It was gradually organized into
kingdoms, many of which were overrun by the Ottoman Empire in the 14th15th
century.
Immediate cause of First World War
The immediate cause that sparked the First World War was the murder of Austrian Archduke Francis
Ferdinand and his wife in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia. The Archduke was the nephew and heir of Emperor
of Austria. The crime was committed by a fanatic Serbian who was the member of secret society Black Hand.
A few Serbian high officials knew about the plot in advance but they did not intervene to prevent the incident.
Archduke Francis Ferdinand wanted to unite Serbia with Austria. He was the heir apparent of Emperor of
Austria. The 84 year old Emperor was on his death bed and after ascending to throne it was expected that
Archduke Francis Ferdinand would move ahead with his plans related to Serbia. His plans were very much
against the pan-Slav movement and ambitions of Serbia to unify the Slavic population in Balkan region. This
was the primary reason of his assassination by the Serbian fanatic and non intervention of Serbian high official
to prevent the assassination.
Although Austria could not find any evidence that the Serbian government was connected with the
assassination, she consciously exploited the occasion to destroy Serbia. Austria wanted to put an end to the
Serbian propaganda which was fanning nationalism and secessionist tendencies in the Slavic in the Austrian
Empire.

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The outbreak of war

On July 28, Austria declared war on Serbia, and the fragile peace between Europe's great powers collapsed.
On July 29, Austrian forces began to shell the Serbian capital of Belgrade, and Russia, Serbia's ally, ordered a
troop mobilization against Austria. France, allied with Russia, began to mobilize on August 1. France and
Germany declared war against each other on August 3. After crossing through neutral Luxembourg, the
German army invaded Belgium on the night of August 3-4, prompting Great Britain, Belgium's ally, to declare
war against Germany.
Prior to the outbreak of war in August 1914, Italy had tended to side with Germany and Austria. To begin with,
Italy kept out of the war. However, tempted by offers of more land once the war was won, Italy entered the war
in April 1915 on the side of the Allies.
Important Events during the War
Theaters of War
Although in the First World War nearly the entire world's most powerful and populous countries got engaged.
The War spanned multiple countries on multiple continents, with battles fought in multiple theaters, most of the
fighting was confined to a few key areas. These areas are usually referred to as the theatres of war. The
following table indicates the important theaters of war in Europe:
S.No

Theater

Western Front

Eastern Front

Italian Front

Austro and the Balkans

Remarks
It was one of the key battlegrounds during the war. This front
extended through northern France and Belgium. Western
Front settled down into static trench warfare. On one side were
the Germans, and on the other were Belgian, French, British,
colonial, and Commonwealth troops.
This was located in Eastern Europe. The fighting on this front
took place in East Prussia and Poland. German armies faced l
Russian armies. Fighting was much more mobile than the
trench-based warfare in the West, but casualties were also very
high in the East
Italy joined the war on the Allied side on May 23, 1915. Italian
attempts to invade Austria led to inconclusive fighting in the
Alps. Then, on October 24, 1917, German and AustroHungarian forces inflicted a decisive defeat on the Italians at
Caporetto. The British rushed forces from the Western Front to
help their Italian allies.
Hostilities first broke in the Balkans in 1914, and this theater
saw a great deal of fighting during the war. Austro-Hungary
launched three unsuccessful attacks on Serbia in 1914.

Revolution in Russia
As a result of Revolution in Russia in 1917 the Czar was dethroned and the government was formed under the
leadership of Bolsheviks. The new government under Bolsheviks in 1918 concluded Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
with Germany. Germany imposed very harsh terms and conditions on Russia to end the war. As a result,
Russia had to surrender all her western provinces. Since the Russians decided to quit the war, the Germans
were able to move many of their troops from the eastern front to the stalemate in the West.
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United States joined Allies

When World War I erupted in 1914, US President Woodrow Wilson pledged neutrality for the United States.
The US President envisaged continuing trade relations with both the groups without any prejudice. The affluent
investors and bankers in US had liberty to help either side in the war. However, public opinion in US was
inclined towards Allies because of the following two factors:
1. A bulk of population in US had British antecedents.
2. Britain was the most important trading partner of US.
It was only after February 1915, when Germany announced unrestricted warfare against all ships, neutral or
otherwise, that entered the war zone around Britain, the US had to change its policy of neutrality.
On May 7, the British-owned ocean liner Lusitania was sunk by Germany without warning. In this incident
about 1,201 passengers were killed, including 128 Americans. After this incident, pressurized by US, Germany
pledged to see to the safety of passengers before sinking unarmed vessels, but in November a German U-boat
sank an Italian liner without warning, killing 272 people, including 27 Americans. With these attacks, public
opinion in the United States began to turn irrevocably against Germany.
In February 1917, Germany continued its policy of unrestricted submarine warfare in war-zone waters. Three
days later, the United States broke diplomatic relations with Germany; the same day, the American
liner Housatonic was sunk by a German U-boat.
On February 22, American Congress passed a $250 million arms-appropriations bill intended to ready the
United States for war. In late March, Germany sank four more U.S. merchant ships, and on April 2, President
Wilson went before Congress to deliver his famous war message. Within four days, both houses of Congress
had voted in favor of a declaration of war against Germany.

End Result
The World War I ended up with the defeat of the Central Powers under the leadership of Germany.
Impact of War
First World War had serious socio-economic, political and cultural implications. The following were the results
of the War:
Social
In the War millions of soldiers and civilians lost their life. Thousands became crippled or disabled. Since male
members died in large numbers which created serious issues like:
1. Thousands of families were devoid of their primary bread earners
2. Many young women became widows which resulted into serious family disharmonies
3. The male-female ratio in the society got skewed
Economic
On the economic front the impact of the war was horrendous. Economies in Europe got affected by the War in
the following ways:
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1. There was unprecedented loss to infrastructural assets like dams, bridges, roads, railways etc which
proved detrimental for industries and trade.
2. During war as maximum attention was given to produce the war material therefore the production of
essential commodities received a serious setback. This resulted into the acute shortages and scarcities
of essential commodities.
3. World trade received a serious setback.
4. There was a decline in purchasing power of the people as a result the price of the goods went down
considerable after the war. This squeezed the profits of the manufacturing units which resulted into
unemployment. Millions of people in Europe lost their jobs.
5. Defeated nations were forced to pay exorbitant war damages which further deteriorated their
economies.
Political
The political impact of First World produced a formidable change in the geopolitics of Europe and the world.
The following were the most important political implications of the First World War:
1. The rule of the three oldest dynasties in Europe i.e. Romanoff in Russia, Hohenzollern in Germany and
Hapsburg in Austria was thrown away after the First World War. While Germany and Austria adopted
democratic constitution, the Revolution in Russia marked the victory of communism and socialism.
2. Before the First World War, monarchy was the most popular form of the government in Europe.
However after the war the ideas of democracy and nationalism gained impetus. These ideals were not
just confined to the soil of Europe, but also to the colonial people. The freedom movements in various
colonies got intensified after the First World War.
3. The political arrangements that were accepted after the First World War adhered in principle to the
tenet of nationalism. Although practically the vested interest of the powerful victors of the war gained
prominence over the mandate of people at various instances. Thus after the war Hungary, Poland,
Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia gained independence.
4. After the First World War, United States of America became a major player in in international politics
and diplomacy.

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