MA2101 Linear Algebra II

Lecture 1: Vector Spaces

Yang Yue
S17 07-05
Department of Mathematics
National University of Singapore
email: matyangy@nus.edu.sg
Tel: 6156 2490

Aug 11, 2011

Outline

Introduction

Vector Spaces

Grading Policy

Graded homework and a mid-term test (Sept 29, 4pm

MPSH 1A): 30%;

Final exam (Nov 28 Monday evening): 70%.

Other Information

Textbook: Friedberg, Insel and Spence, Linear Algebra, 4th

ed., Prentice Hall 2003.
available at Science Co-op.

Notes/Tutorials will be available at IVLE. They were mainly

from the textbook.

You are encouraged to try all problems from the textbook.

What is Linear Algebra II?

Algebra is a main branch of pure mathematics. It studies

operations and structures.

The word linear means pertaining to or represented by

lines. In mathematics, a linear function f (x) satisfies
f (ax + by ) = af (x) + bf (y ).

What about II? Lifting concrete objects in I to abstract

notions.

What is in MA1101?

Linear systems and Gaussian elimination;

Matrices and determinants;

Euclidean n-spaces Rn ;

Orthogonality in Rn ;

Diagonalization;

Linear transformations from Rn to Rm .

From Concrete to Abstract

Importance of abstract thinking.

MA1101 emphasizes on computations.

In MA2101 there is a greater emphasis on conceptual

understanding and proof techniques than on
computations.

Essential for further studies in both pure and applied math

(e.g. Abstract Algebra, Function Analysis, Numerical
Computation, and Operational Research etc).

An Example of Abstraction: From numbers to fields.

Known: 32 22 = 5 = (3 + 2)(3 2),

42 12 = 15 = (4 + 1)(4 1), etc.

Abstractly: a2 b2 = (a + b)(a b).

a and b can stand for not only integers, but also other
numbers or objects like numbers, for example, real
numbers or polynomials.

Why Axioms?

Q: If a and b are arbitrary objects, how do we guarantee

correctness?

Since we are only interested in arithmetical operations

+, , and , lets write down some basic properties on
those operations that everybody agrees upon. Those
properties are called axioms.

(Any collection of objects satisfying those axioms form a

field, which is a generalization of the rational or real
numbers Q or R.)

Definition of a Field (part 1)

A field F is a set on which two operations called addition a + b

and multiplication ab are defined, so that, for all a, b F, there
are unique elements a + b and ab in F; and satisfying the
following axioms:
(Remark: In algebraic term, this is referred as F is closed
under addition and multiplication.)
(F 1) For all a, b F, a + b = b + a and ab = ba.
(commutativity of addition and multiplication)

Definition of a Field (part 2)

(F 2) For all a, b, c F, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) and

(ab)c = a(bc).
(associativity of addition and multiplication)
(F 3) There exist distinct elements 0 and 1 in F such that
0 + a = a and 1a = a for all a F.
(existence of identity elements for addition and
multiplication)

Definition of a Field (part 3)

(F 4) For every a F and nonzero b F, there exist c and d in F

such that a + c = 0 and bd = 1.
(existence of inverses for addition and multiplication)
(Remark: This allows us to study subtraction and division
in a field.)
(F 5) For all a, b, c F, a(b + c) = (ab) + (ac).
(distributivity of multiplication over addition)

Remarks

A field is a structure, which has an underlying set F

together with two operations. When the operations are
clear, we simply use F for the field.

Typical examples are Q, R and C with the usual addition

and multiplication.

Essentially, we can do +, , , as usual within a field.

For example a2 b2 = (a + b)(a b) holds in any field F.

Remarks on Intensions

On the one hand, wed like to state our theorems in most

general terms, e.g., in terms of a field F rather than just R;
moreover, finite field is important in future courses like
Coding Theory.

On the other hand, field is not the main topic in MA2101.

We covered more during the e-learning week, much more
in further algebra courses.

In the first half of the semester, you may think of F as R or

C.

Final Words on Introduction

MA2101 offers an excellent opportunity to learn abstract

thinking, as it has many concrete examples.

Euclidean n-Space Rn - Revisited

Lets look at R2 so that we can draw pictures. The vectors

are of the form v = (v1 , v2 ) where v1 , v2 R.

Let u = (u1 , u2 ) and v = (v1 , v2 ) be two vectors. The

addition u + v is defined to be (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 ) and it
follows the parallelogram law.

Let u = (u1 , u2 ) be a vector and a R. The scalar multiple

au is defined to be (au1 , au2 ) which also has a geometrical
interpretation.

Properties of Rn - Revisited
(Exercise: Find the geometrical meaning for the case n = 2 or
3.)
(1) For all vectors u, v, u + v = v + u.
(2) For all vectors u, v, w, u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w.
(3) The zero vector 0 = (0, 0) satisfies u + 0 = u for all vectors
u.
(4) For every vector u, there exists a vector v such that
u + v = 0. We denote v by u.

Properties of Rn (conti.)

(5) For all vectors u, 1u = u.

(6) For all a, b R and vectors u, a(bu) = (ab)u.
(7) For all a R and vectors u, v, a(u + v) = au + av.
(8) For all a, b R and vectors u, (a + b)u = au + bu.

Remarks

We normally use boldface letters for vectors and plain ones

for numbers/scalars.

We now lift the concrete example of Rn to abstract notion

of vector spaces.

Definition of Vector Spaces (part 1)

A vector space V over a field F consists of a set on which two

operations (called addition and scalar multiplication) are
defined so that
I

for each pair of elements x, y V, there is a unique

element x + y V; and

for each element a F and each element x V, there is a

unique element ax V.

satisfy the following axioms:

Definition of Vector Spaces (part 2)

(VS 1) For all x, y V, x + y = y + x (commutativity for addition).

(VS 2) For all x, y, z V, x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z (Associativity
for Addition).
(VS 3) There exists a vector 0 V, called the zero vector, such
that x + 0 = x for all x V.
(VS 4) For every vector x V, there exists a vector y V such
that x + y = 0.

Definition of Vector Spaces (part 3)

(VS 5) For all x V, 1x = x.

(VS 6) For all a, b F and x V, a(bx) = (ab)x.
(VS 7) For all a F and x, y V, a(x + y) = ax + ay.
(VS 8) For all a, b F and x V, (a + b)x = ax + bx.

Remarks

The elements in F are called scalars, and the elements in

V are called vectors.

Addition is between two vectors; and scalar multiplication

is between a scalar and a vector.

When the field F is clear, we simply say V is a vector

space. In particular, if F = R, V is called a real vector
space; and if F = C, V is called a complex vector space.

Examples (I)

The Euclidean n-space Rn is a real vector space.

Similarly the set Cn = {(u1 , u2 , . . . , un ) | u1 , u2 , . . . , un C}

is a vector space over C with the natural addition and
scalar multiplication.
(What are they? and what is the zero vector?)

Examples (II)

Let F be a field and let Mmn (F) be the set of all m n matrices
over F, i.e. A Mmn (F) if and only if

a11 a12 a1n

a21 a22 a2n

A = (aij )mn = .
..
..
..
.
.
am1 am2
where aij F for all i, j.

amn

Examples (II) (conti.)

Recall matrix addition and scalar multiplication for matrices as

defined in MA1101,
(aij ) + (bij ) = (aij + bij ), where (aij ), (bij ) Mmn (F),
and
c(aij ) = (caij ) where c F, and (aij ) Mmn (F).
Then Mmn (F) is a vector space over F. The zero vector is the
zero matrix 0mn .

Examples (III)

Let S be a nonempty set and F a field. Let F(S, F) be the

set of all functions f : S F.

For f , g F(S, F) and c F, define the functions f + g and

cf : S F by
(f + g)(a) = f (a) + g(a) for a S.
(cf )(a) = cf (a) for a S.

Then F(S, F) is a vector space over F. The zero vector is

the zero function O : S F define by O(a) = 0 for a S.

Polynomials over F
I

A polynomial with coefficients from a field F is an

expression of the form
f (x) = an x n + + a1 x + a0 ,
where n is a nonnegative integer and each ak , called the
coefficient of x k , is in F.

If an = an1 = = a0 = 0, then f (x) is called the zero

polynomial, denoted by 0.

If F = R or C, then f (x) is called a real or complex

polynomial resp.

Examples (IV)

Let P(F) be the set of all polynomials with coefficient from F.

For
f (x) = an x n + + a1 x + a0
and
g(x) = bm x m + + b1 x + b0
in P(F) where m n, define bm+1 = = bn = 0 and write
g(x) as
bn x n + + bm+1 x m+1 + bm x m + + b1 x + b0 .

Examples (IV) (conti.)

Define the addition of the polynomials and scalar multiplication

for c F by
f (x) + g(x) = (an + bn )x n + +
+(a1 + b1 )x + (a0 + b0 )
cf (x) = can x n + + ca1 x + ca0 .
Then P(F) is a vector space over F. The zero vector is the zero
polynomial 0.

More Examples

Let R+ = {x R : x > 0} be the set of positive real numbers.

Define addition on R+ and scalar multiplication k a between
k R and a R+ by
a b = ab,

and k a = ak

Show R+ is a vector space over R with and . What is the

zero element?

Verifications

To prove V is a vector space, we need to verify:

I

Closure properties of addition and scalar multiplication.

Find the zero element and verify (VS 3).

For each u, find its additive inverse and verify (VS 4).

Verify the remaining six axioms.

Nonexamples (I)

Let S = {(a1 , a2 ) : a1 , a2 R}. For (a1 , a2 ), (b1 , b2 ) S and

c R, define
(a1 , a2 ) + (b1 , b2 ) = (a1 + a2 , b1 b2 ) and
c(a1 , a2 ) = (ca1 , ca2 ).
Then S is not a vector space with those two operations,
because (VS 1) (and more) fails.

Nonexamples (II)

Let S be as above and define

(a1 , a2 ) + (b1 , b2 ) = (a1 + b1 , 0) and
c(a1 , a2 ) = (ca1 , 0).
Then S is not a vector space with those two operations,
because (VS 3) (and more) fails.