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Module Objective
The objective of this module is to provide a
basic understanding and practical
application of the science of Psychrometics
that deals with the thermodynamic
properties of moist air, i.e., dry air and
water vapor. [Psychrometric Charts will be
introduced and used extensively.]

BASICS OF VENTILATION III

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(BA

Douglas L. Gunnell, PE
Gunnell Engineering Services
Clemmons, NC

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Module Objective

REVIEW

Thermodynamic properties are used to

analyze conditions and processes involving
moist air. Both normal temperature HVAC
systems including replacement air, as well
as high temperature industrial ventilation
systems, will be introduced.
A review of pertinent properties of air, as
well as the Perfect Gas Law is included.
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SELECTED PROPERTIES OF AIR

THE PERFECT GAS LAW

PROPERTIES OF AIR
DENSITY (
()

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STANDARD DENSITY
(Sea Level Density)

Density = mass/volume
pstd = 0.075 lbm/ft

Units of measure:
lbm/ft
Tons/yd
grams/cm
grains/ft

(At Standard Conditions (STP): 14.7 psi, 70F &

0% Rh)

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PROBLEM

Actual Conditions

Answer

Any condition that varies from Standard

Conditions - 14.7 psi, 70F & 0% RH

7,500 cubic feet of air flows through a duct

every minute at Standard Conditions. How
manyy p
pounds per
p minute?

Applied to correctly size the duct, fan, and

air control devices
562.5 lbm/minute

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ACTUAL DENSITY

Actual Density

Answer

With a density factor of 0.55, what is the

Actual Density of this air sample?

act = std x df

act = (std) (df)

act - actual density
std - standard density
df - density factor

act =
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Density Factor ((df

df))

ft

0 . 041

lbm
ft 3

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Answer

A gas has a density of 0.043 lbm/ft, what is

density factor?

The ratio of actual density to standard density

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act = 0.075 lbm3 (0.55)

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Density Factor:
Elevation (dfe)

Density Factor
The density of a gas is a function of
elevation (barometric pressure),
temperature, moisture content, and
pressure in
i the
th duct
d t system.
t

dfe = [1 (6.73)(10 6)(z)]5.258

z is elevation above Sea Level feet
Example:
Fan located 2400 feet above sea level

The following equations have been

developed to calculate density factors (df):
dfe, dft, dfm, dfp
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dfe = [1 (6.73)(10 6)(2400)]5.258 = 0.92

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Density Factor:
Moisture (dfm)

Density Factor:
Temperature (dfT)

dfm = (1 + )/(1 + 1.607 )

(dfT) = (70 + 460)/(T + 460)

Example:
Air at 320F

dfT =

is humidity ratio (Specific Humidity) - #H20 / #Dry Air

The value of humidity ratio is readily available on a
Psychrometric Chart
Chart.

70 460
0.68
320 460

Example:
Specific Humidity of Air = 0.15 #H20/#Dry Air
dfm=

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Density Factor:
Duct System Pressure (df)
df =

14

(1 0.15)
0.93
[1 (1.607)(0.15)]
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Total Density Factor

df (total)

407 SPduct
407

When Air in the Duct System is under extreme pressure conditions (+/- 20
w.g.), the change in the density is significant (> 5%).
Usually only considered at the Fan Inlet or Fan Outlet

df (total) = dfe * dfT * dfm * df

Example:
Air enters a fan at - 26 w.g.

df =

407 - 26
0.94
407
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Total Density Factor

df (total)

Specific Volume (S.V.)

(volume/mass - ft
ft/
/lbm
lbm))

SV = FtMix/LbmDryAir (as defined by ASHRAE, Trane Co, etc.)

SV = FtMix/LbmMix (as defined by AAF)

df (total) = dfe * dfT * dfm * df

Example:
Ai enters
Air
t
a ffan att 320F
320F, 0
0.15
15 LB
LB.H
H20/LB.Dry
0/LB D
Air, and - 26 w.g. pressure. The Fan is located
at 2400 ASL. What is the Density Factor of the
Air at the fan inlet?

Humid Volume (H.V.)

(volume/mass - ft/lbm

HV = FtMix/LbmDryAir (as defined by AAF)

Note:
Mix = dry air + water vapor

df = 0.92 * 0.68 * 0.93 * 0.94 = 0.55

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Perfect Gas Law

PV = nRT

Standard Specific Volume

(Sea Level Specific Volume)

SVstd 13.35 FtMix/LbmDryAir (as defined by ASHRAE, Trane,

etc.)
[At Standard Conditions (STP): 14.7psi, 70F, & 0% RH]

P = RgT
(Form most often applied in Industrial Ventilation)

Standard Humid Volume

(Sea Level Humid Volume)

[Perfect Gas Law Combines the three Laws

(Charles, Boyle, and Gay-Lussac) into a single
Equation.]

HVstd 13.35 FtMix/LbmDryAir (as defined by AAF)

[At Standard Conditions (STP): 14.7psi, 70F, & 0% RH]
Note:
Similar to Density, the values of Specific Volume and Humid Volume will
vary at Actual Conditions Conditions other than Standard.
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R = 1545.4 ft
ft--lbf
lbf//lbm
lbmR

Force exerted by the gas per unit area

lbf/in, lbf/ft, w.g., Hg, and Pascals.

Absolute Temperature (T)

(R - Rankine)
R ki )

Volume (V)
Volume of the gas - Ft

T = F + 460
T = 70 + 460 = 530R
(Standard Air)

Moles (n)
Number of Moles - Lbm

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Universal Gas Constant (R)

Pressure (P)

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Gas Constant for a Particular Gas

(Rg)

Perfect Gas Law

The Perfect Gas Law can be applied to determine the
density and specific volume of air at all of the infinite
number of ACTUAL conditions.

(Rg) = M

If the mass of the gas is known, the density and the

volume it occupies is a function of:
the pressure the gas sees (absolute pressure)
the temperature of the gas (absolute temperature)
the presence of moisture or any other material mixed
with the gas

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R Universal Gas Constant 1545.4 ft-lbf/lbmR

M Molecular Weight of the Gas

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Gas Constant for Air (R

(Rg)

The Molecular Weight of Air

The components of Air:
21% 02 (MW = 32)
78% N2 (MW = 28)
1% Argon (MW = 40)

Rg =

0.21 x 32 = 6.72
0.78 x 28 = 21.84
0.01 x 40 = 0.40
1.0
28.96 lbm
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1545.4 ft
f - lbf
53.36
28.96 lbm - R

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Calculate the Standard Specific

Volume of Air
Answer
(Air at Standard Conditions: 14.7 psi, 70F, and 0% Rh)

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(Air at Standard Conditions: 14.7 psi, 70F, and % Rh)

P = Rg T

V
V 53.36 x 530

RgT / P
1 14.7 x 144
n

P
14.7x144

Rg T
(53.36)(530)

= 0.075 lbm/scf

V 13.35 cf / lbm da

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Calculate the Standard Density

of Air
Answer

PV = nRT (Perfect Gas Equation)

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Calculate the Volume of a

Pound Molecule (Mole) Answer

Pound Molecule (Mole) Volume

Air at Standard Conditions: 14.7 psi, 70F, and 0% Rh

1 lb. mole = 386 scf

PV = nRT
V = nRT/P

For any gas @ 70F, 29.92 w.g. & 0 moisture

28.96 x 53.36 x 530

V
14.7 x 144
V 386.9 scf / lb.mole
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Calculate the Volume of a

Pound Molecule (Mole) of Std Air

386 scf/lb.mole
28.96 1lbmda/lb.mole

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The Molecular Weight of Water

= 13.33 scf/lbmda
Element
H2
0

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MW
2
16
18 lbm

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Calculate the Volume of a Pound

Molecule (Mole) of H20

PSYCHROMETRICS

386 scf/lb.mole = 21 scf/lbm H20

18 lbm H20/lb.mole

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Psychrometrics

Psychrometrics

The science that deals with the thermodynamic

properties of moist air dry air/water vapor
mixture, and the utilization of these properties to
analyze conditions and processes involving moist
air.

Atmospheric air consists of a large number of gases

(including oxygen, nitrogen, argon, and carbon dioxide) as
well as water vapor and various contaminants

For the accuracy required in the majority of air

conditioning/moist air problems, the perfect gas
relations can be applied when calculating the
thermodynamic properties.

Moist air is a binary (two-component) mixture of dry air

and water vapor. The amount of water vapor in moist air
can vary from zero (dry air) to a maximum (saturation)
which depends on temperature and pressure

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Dry air exists when all water vapor and contaminants have
been removed from atmospheric air

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Properties of Moist Air

Psychrometrics deals with the following defined properties

of moist air:

Dry Bulb Temperature the temperature of a gas or mixture of

gases indicated byy an accurate thermometer after correction for
g
radiation. (F)
Wet Bulb Temperature thermodynamic wet bulb,
temperature is the temperature at which liquid or solid water, by
evaporating into the air, can bring the air to saturation
adiabatically at the same temperature. (F)
Dew Point Temperature the temperature at which the
condensation of water vapor begins for a given state of humidity
and pressure as the temperature of the vapor is reduced. (F)
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Relative Humiditythe ratio of the mol fraction of water vapor

present in the air, to the mol fraction of water vapor present in
saturated air at the same temperature and barometric pressure.
(%RH)
Humidity
idi Ratio
i Ratio off the
h mass off water vapor ((steam))
associated with one pound mass of dry air. (Lbmw/Lbmda) or
(Grainsw/Lbmda)
Enthalpy thermodynamic property of a substance defined as
the sum of its internal energy plus the quantity PV/J, where
P=pressure of the substance, V=its volume, J=mechanical
equivalent of heat. Often called total heat and heat content
(Btu/Lbmda)
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PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

Specific Volumethe ratio of the volume of the mixture

to one pound mass of dry air (Ft/Lbmda)
Vapor pressure the pressure exerted by a vapor. If a
vapor is
i kept
k t iin confinement
fi
t over its
it liquid
li id so that
th t the
th
vapor can accumulate above the liquid, the temperature
being held constant, the vapor pressure approaches a
fixed limit called the maximum, or saturated vapor
pressure, dependent only on the temperature and the
liquid. (In. Hg)

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The Psychrometric Chart is a graphic representation of the

thermodynamic properties of moist air. Since it is possible
to have an infinite number of air-vapor combinations, to
minimize the complexity of the chart, the air component is
a fixed value - per pound of dry air.
Dr. Willis Carrier is credited with the development of the
psychrometric chart in 1911. There are a number of
psychrometric charts, defined by dry-bulb temperature
ranges: Normal Temperature, Low Temperature and High
Temperature; as well as, a chart for Humid Air

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COMFORT APPLICATIONS
For Comfort HVAC Systems, it is common
practice to use Standard Air (df = 1) for the
calculations when the following properties
fall within the stated ranges:

COMFORT APPLICATIONS

Dry Bulb Temperature < 100F

Dew Point Temperature < 80F
Elevation < 1000 Ft. ASL
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Sling Psychrometer

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Battery Operated Psychrometer

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Digital Psychrometer

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Psychrometric Equations

Continuity Equation

HT = HS + HL
HT = Total Heat, BTU/Hr
HS = Sensible Heat, BTU/Hr

Q = VA

HL = Lateral Heat, BTU/Hr

HS = (1.08)(CFM)(t)
HL = (0.68)(CFM)(W)

Q = Volumetric flow rate, Ft3/Min

V = Average velocity, Ft/Min
A = Cross-sectional Area, Ft2

HT = (4.45)(CFM)(h)
HT = (500)(GPM)(t)
CFM - Volumetric airflow rate, Ft2/Min
t - Temperature differential, F
W - Humidity ratio differential, Grains/Lb.
h - Enthalpy differential, BTU/Lb.
GPM - Volumetric water-flow rate
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CLASS PROBLEM SOLUTION

PSYCHROMETRIC CLASS PROBLEM

In an office, the following measurements were
made with a sling psychrometer, 70F dry-bulb, and
58.5F wet-bulb. From a normal temperature
psychrometric chart, determine the following
thermodynamic properties:
Dew Point Temperature
Humidity Ratio
Relative Humidity
Enthalpy
Specific Volume
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Dew Point Temperature: 50.6F

Humidity Ratio: 54.6 Grains/Lbm
Relative Humidity: 50% RH
E h l
Enthalpy:
25.33 Btu/Lbm
Specific Volume: 13.5 Ft/Lbm

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SENSIBLE HEAT

TOTAL HEAT =
SENSIBLE HEAT + LATENT HEAT

LATENT HEAT

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Heat which changes the temperature of a substance

without changing its state

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Heat which changes the state of a substance without

changing its substance
Two familiar examples: latent heat of fusion (changing
ice to water) and latent heat of vaporization (changing
water to vapor)
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PROBLEM
The following two air streams are mixed in an air handling
unit mixing box:
52,000 CFM @ 78F Dry Bulb and 60% Relative Humidity
19,000 CFM @ 94F Dry Bulb and 78F Wet Bulb

Determine the following thermodynamic properties of the

mixed air stream utilizing the normal temperature
psychrometric chart:
Dry Bulb Temperature
Dew Point Temperature
Relative Humidity
Specific Volume

Wet Bulb Temperature

Humidity Ratio
Enthalpy

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SOLUTION

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Solution (cont.)

NOTE:
When the mixing of two air streams is plotted on
the Psychrometric Chart, the mix point will be
g
that connects the two
located on a line segment
points.
Calculate the mix dry bulb temperature on both the
mass flow basis and the volume basis (the mass
flow basis is the more accurate).
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Solution (cont.)

PROCESS APPLICATIONS

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CLASS PROBLEM

CLASS PROBLEM SOLUTION

The following conditions were recorded at the exit of a

process: 220F dry bulb & 120F dew point
Determine the properties listed below using the appropriate
psychrometric
h
t i chart:
h t
Wet Bulb Temperature: ___F
Density Factor: ____
Humid Volume: ____Ft/LbmDA
Moisture: _____LbmW/LbmDA
Enthalphy: ______BTU/LbmDA
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Moist Air is a Mechanical Binary (Two

Two--Component)
Mixture of Dry Air and Water Vapor
Moist air is considered a mixture of independent perfect gases (i.e., dry
air and water vapor), each is assumed to obey the perfect gas equation
of state as follows:
Dry air: pdaV = ndaRT
Water vapor: pwV = nwRT

where

pda = partial pressure of dry air

pw = partial pressure of water vapor
V = total mixture volume
nda = number of moles of dry air
nw = number of moles of water vapor
R = universal gas constant 1545.32 ft.lbf/lb mol. R
T = absolute temperature, R

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Wet Bulb Temperature: 28 F

Density Factor: 0.745
Humid Volume: 19.3 Ft/LbmDA
Moisture: 0.083LbmW/LbmDA
Enthalphy: 143 BTU/LbmDA

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Class Problem
Determine the humid volume of one pound of dry air @
70F & 29.92 Hg to which has been added sufficient water
vapor to saturate it.
One pound of dry air occupies 13.35 Ft
From
F
th
the steam
t
ttables,
bl
th
the pressure off saturated
t t d steam
t
(water vapor) at 70F is 0.74 Hg & the volume occupied
by one pound of water vapor is 868 Ft
PT = PDA + PW
PDA = 29.92 Hg - 0.74 Hg = 29.18 Hg
Note: The volume of the air will increase when it is saturated with water vapor (the
pressure exerted by the dry air component has decreased, therefore its volume will
increase).

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MOIST AIR IS A MIXTURE OF DRY AIR

AND WATER VAPOR
Humid Volume = 29.92

29.18

(13.35) = 13.69Ft

Dry Air + Water Vapor = Moist Air (Mixture)

Note: The water vapor will occupy the same volume as the dry air portion of the mixture.

PSYCHROMETRIC CHART SOLUTION:

The quantity of water vapor required to saturate one pound of dry air @
70F & 29.92 Hg is ~ 110.4 Grains (From Psychrometric Chart).

110.4 Grains

0.01577 Lbm

7000 Grain/Lbm

To one pound of dry air is added 80 grains of water vapor @ 70F & 29.92"
Hg.
Determine the humid volume of the partially saturated mixture of moist air.
(383 SCF/Lb mole)(1/18 Lbw/Lbm mole) = 21.28 SCF/Lbw
80 Grains/7000Grains/Lbm = 0.0114 Lbmw
(21.23 SCF/Lbmw)(0.0114Lbmw) = 0.24 SCF
Humid Volume = 13.35 FtDA + 0.24 FtW = 13.59 Ft/LbmDA

(0.01577 Lbmw)(868 Ft/Lbmw) = 13.69 Ft

Note: The volume of water vapor is equal to the volume occupied by one pound of
dry air at its partial pressure & at 70F.
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ADIABATIC COOLING

Example:

In the Adiabatic Cooling Process, water is

introduced into the air stream by either a spray
system or by passing the air through a media
l d with
laden
ith water.
t
The
Th thermodynamic
th
d
i process is
i
constant enthalpy (h) no heat is added or
rejected. The dry bulb temperature of the air
decreases and the humidity ratio of the air
increases at a constant enthalpy. The process is
normally plotted on the psychrometric chart on the
wet bulb line.
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The moisture removed during a drying process is 120 Lbm/min.

The 20,000 SCFM of dry air required for the process is
discharged @ 500F.
Determine the following:
Water
W t tto D
Dry Ai
Air R
Ratio
ti
Dew Point Temperature
Wet Bulb Temperature
Humid Volume
Enthalpy
Density Factor Mixture
(Utilize the Psychrometric Chart for Humid Air, Fig.9-j IVM as
applicable)

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HUMIDIFYING EFFICIENCY
Water to Dry Air Ratio:

nn =

LbmW/LbmDA = (120 LbmW/Min)(1/20,000Ft/Min)(1/0.075 LbmDA/Ft)

= 0.08 LbmW/LbmDA

IVM p. 9 - 32

x 100

Ti - Ts

Where:

Dew

Point Temperature: 118F

Wet Bulb Temperature: 142
142F
F
Humid Volume: 27 Ft/LbmDA
Enthalpy: 220 BTU/Lbm
Density Factor of Mixture: 0.53

Nn = Humidifying Efficiency, %
Ti = Dry
Dry-Bulb
Bulb temperature at collector inlet
inlet, F
To = Dry-Bulb temperature at collector outlet, F
Ts = Adiabatic saturation temperature, F
0.83 =

If the above conditions exist at the inlet of a wet collector

having a humidifying efficiency of 83%, what is the air
volume (ACFM) and temperature?
Assume that the process proceeds adiabatically.
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Ti - To

( 500 - T

)
o
(500 - 142)

To = 203 F
Humid Volume = 20.7 Ft/LbmDA
ACFM = (20,000Ft/Min)(0.075 LbmDA/Ft)(20.7 Ft/LbmDA)
ACFM = 31,050
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When mixing two air streams using the

pound--mass method, the following
pound
relationships are applied:

CONSERVATION OF MASS

Mass (Ideal Gas)

ma = pa (Qa) = pstd (dfa)(Qa)
Conservation of Mass
ma + mb = mc
Conservation of Energy
ma (ha) + mb (hb) = mc (hc)

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

For Ideal Gas

ma (Cp)(Ta) + mb (Cp)(Tb) = mc (Cp)(Tc)
Cp cancels out of the equation
ma (Ta) + mb (Tb) = mc (Tc)
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EXAMPLE:
Calculate the mixture temperature of the following two air
streams, (assume sea level, and no moisture).
1 5500 CFM @ 175F
2 2500 CFM @ 70F

460 70
m ( 0.075)
(5,500)
1
460 175
m

( 0.075)

T3 =
344.3 Lbm/min

T3 =

460 70

(3,500) 187.5 Lbm/min

460 70
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m1 (T1) + m2 (T2) = m3 (T3)

Note: m3 = m1 + m2

m1(T1) m2 (T2)
(m1 m2)
(344.3)(635) (187.5)(53 0)
598 R
(344 .3 187.5)

= 598 460 = 138 F

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