Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Li Fan
College Station, Texas, USA
Billy W. Harris
Wagner & Brown, Ltd.
Midland, Texas
A. (Jamal) Jamaluddin
Rosharon, Texas
Jairam Kamath
Chevron Energy Technology Company
San Ramon, California, USA
Robert Mott
Independent Consultant
Dorchester, UK
Gary A. Pope
University of Texas
Austin, Texas
Alexander Shandrygin
Moscow, Russia
Curtis Hays Whitson
Norwegian University of Science and
Technology and PERA, A/S
Trondheim, Norway
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Syed Ali,
Chevron, Houston; and Jerome Maniere, Moscow.
ECLIPSE 300, LFA (Live Fluid Analyzer for MDT tool), MDT
(Modular Formation Dynamics Tester) and PVT Express are
marks of Schlumberger. CHEARS is a mark of Chevron.
Teon is a mark of E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company.
14
Oileld Review
60%
De
w
70%
Pressure
Bu
b
e
lin
int
o
p
ble
Initial reservoir
condition
e
lin
Winter 2005/2006
Critical point
int
po
80%
90%
C i d th
Cricondentherm
Separator
condition
100%
00% vapor
apo
Temperature
> Phase diagram of a gas-condensate system. This pressure-volumetemperature (PVT) plot indicates single-phase behavior outside the twophase region, which is bounded by bubblepoint and dewpoint lines. Lines
of constant phase saturation (dashed) all meet at the critical point. The
numbers indicate the vapor phase saturation. In a gas-condensate
reservoir, the initial reservoir condition is in the single-phase area to the
right of the critical point. As reservoir pressure declines, the uid passes
through the dewpoint and a liquid phase drops out of the gas. The
percentage of vapor decreases, but can increase again with continued
pressure decline. The cricondentherm is the highest temperature at which
two phases can coexist. Surface separators typically operate at
conditions of low pressure and low temperature.
15
7,000
6,000
Rich Gas
Condensate
Lean Gas
Condensate
Reservoir temperature
6,000
Reservoir temperature
5,000
4,000
Critical
point
Pressure, psi
Pressure, psi
5,000
4,000
3,000
Critical
point
3,000
2,000
2,000
95%
99.5%
90%
1,000
75%
80%
0
1,000
85%
5
99%
98 5%
98.5%
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
150
900
200
250
300
Temperature, K
25
400
450
500
550
600
1.0
20
0.8
Liquid dropout, %
350
Temperature, K
15
10
0.6
L
Lean
gas
g condensate
d
0.4
0.2
0
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
0.2
Pressure, psi
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Paverage /Pdewpoint
> Examples of rich and lean gas-condensate behavior. When pressure decreases at reservoir temperature, a rich gas (top leftt) forms a higher
percentage of liquid than a lean gas (top rightt). The rich gas drops out more condensate than the lean gas (bottom leftt). The liquid dropout curve
assumes the two phases remain in contact with one another. However, in a reservoir, the mobile gas phase is produced; the liquid saturation in the
near-well region builds until it is also mobile. As a result, eventually condensate blockage can affect formations with both lean and rich gases, and
the normalized well productivity index (J/J0) of both can be severely impacted (bottom rightt).
16
Oileld Review
Formation testers have improved signicantly over the past decade. The MDT Modular
Formation Dynamics Tester collects uids by
pressing a probe against an uncased borehole
wall and withdrawing uids from a formation.1
The LFA Live Fluid Analyzer module on the
tool measures the cleanup of contamination
from oil-base drilling or completion uids,
minimizing the wait time and assuring quality
samples.2 The LFA detector also provides an
indication of the amount of methane, other
light components and liquids. From these
data, the ratio of methane to liquid provides
a measure of the condensate/gas ratio, an
important consideration for early economic
evaluation of a prospect. The analysis can
also show zones with different compositions
or compositional gradients.
Measured data from the MDT tool are transmitted to surface immediately, so sampling
decisions can be made based on knowledge
of approximate composition and reservoir
pressure, another measured parameter. If
desired, uid samples can be collected before
moving to another downhole location.
For gas condensates that are at pressures
above the dewpoint in the reservoir, it is
important to capture and maintain singlephase uid. If the uid pressure drops below
dewpoint, it may take a long time to
recombine the sample. Even worse, some
changes that occur in a sample on its trip to
surface may be irreversible. By providing
Winter 2005/2006
17
18
Relative permeability
Dewdrops in a Reservoir
When condensate liquid first forms in a gas
reservoir, it is immobile because of capillary
forces acting on the uids. That is, a microscopic
liquid droplet, once formed, will tend to be
trapped in small pores or pore throats. Even
for rich gas condensates with substantial
liquid dropout, condensate mobility, which is the
ratio of relative permeability to viscosity,
remains insignicant away from wellbores. As a
consequence, the condensate that forms in most
of the reservoir is lost to production unless
the depletion plan includes gas cycling. The
effect of this dropout on gas mobility is
typically negligible.
Near a producing well, the situation is
different. Once bottomhole pressure drops
below the dewpoint, a near-well pressure sink
forms around the well. As gas is drawn into the
pressure sink, liquid drops out. After a brief
transient period, enough liquid accumulates
that its mobility becomes significant. The gas
and liquid compete for ow paths, as described
by the formations relative-permeability
relationship. Condensate blockage is a result of
the decreased gas mobility around a producing
well below the dewpoint (right).
Reservoir pressure dropping below the
dewpoint has two main results, both negative:
gas and condensate production decrease
because of near-well blockage, and the produced
gas contains fewer valuable heavy ends because
of dropout throughout the reservoir, where the
condensate has insufficient mobility to flow
toward the well.
Large productivity losses have been reported
for wells in gas-condensate fields. In the Arun
field, which was operated by Mobil, now
ExxonMobil, the loss in some wells was greater
than 50%. 7 In another case, Exxon, now
ExxonMobil, reported two wells that died due to
condensate blockage. 8 Shell and Petroleum
Development Oman reported a 67% productivity
loss for wells in two elds.9
In another field, the initial productivity
decline has reportedly reversed. The productivity
of wells in the moderately rich gas-condensate
reservoir declined rapidly when bottomhole
pressures dropped below dewpoint. This decline
continued until pressure throughout the
reservoir dropped below dewpoint, then gas
productivity began to increase. Compositional
modeling showed that condensate saturation
increased near the wells to approximately 68%,
decreasing gas permeability and therefore gas
productivity. However, when pressure throughout
the reservoir dropped below dewpoint, some
1.0
k rgg
0.5
k ro
0
0
0.5
1.0
Condensate saturation
krg
Sand grain
So
Condensate
flow channel
kro
Gas flow
channel
Oileld Review
Wellboorre
We
Pressure
Reservoir pressure
PD
PBH
Dewpoint pressure
r1
Distance
Winter 2005/2006
19
Komi
Component
Type
Permeability, mD
Porosity, %
<0.1
0.01 to 0.1
0.1 to 4513
0.1 to 3
3 to 6
>6
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5+
N2
mi
Composition,
% by mole
volume
74.6
8.9
3.8
1.8
6.4
4.5
> Vuktyl eld, Russia. The Vuktyl eld in the Komi Republic in western Russia (top) is an anticline,
80 km [50 mi] long and up to 6 km [3.7 mi] wide (bottom). The Roman numerals denote gas-processing
facility collection areas. The uid is predominantly methane [C1], but with a signicant amount of
intermediate hydrocarbon components and nitrogen (table, rightt). The eld has three lithotypes
(table, leftt).
20
Oileld Review
Winter 2005/2006
Injector well
Monitor well
Production well
Pilot area
64
3 000 m
3,000
22,900
900
2 8000
2,80
22,700
700
91
90
66
159
257
102
1
101
15
86
93
95
38
256
103
GPF-1
104
92
105
600
22,600
00
2 500
2,5
00
22,4400
106
12
300
2 30
2,
264
19
> Plan view with depth to the formation top at a solvent-injection pilot
project near gas-processing facility number 1 (GPF-1). Propane and butane
were injected into Well 103, followed by separator gas. Six production
wellsdesignated 91, 92, 93, 104, 105 and 106and three monitor wells
designated 38, 256 and 257made up the pilot study area. Solvent was
observed and produced only from the two closest monitor wells: Wells 38
and 256.
21
2,700 m
2,200
2,100
100
Injector well
Production well
Pilot area
128
131/150
158
127
2,100
2,200
22,3300
00
132
151
254
195
273
269
270
129
133
130
40
30
20
10
0
Oct
93
Jan
94
April
94
July
94
Oct
94
Jan
95
April
95
July
95
Oct
95
Jan
96
April
96
July
96
Oct
96
Jan
97
April
97
July
97
Oct
97
Gas fraction, %
22,6600
00
2,500
2,400
2 300
2,3
00
0
Jan
98
Date
Component from:
Injected gas
Produced gas
Produced C2 to C4
Produced C5 +
Dry gas,
million m3
Formation gas,
million m3
10,035
7,366
5,973
Formation gas,
thousand tons
Stranded
condensate,
thousand tons
1,996
380
238
208
> Dry-gas injection pilot. Separator gas injected into three wells designated 269, 270 and 273
vaporized stranded condensate for production from surrounding wells (top). Dry gas (blue) broke
through a few months after the pilot began (middle). Nitrogen in the produced gas (green) gradually
decreased, indicating that less formation gas was being produced. The liquid C5+ fraction (red)
indicates a slow decline after gas breakthrough. The results show signicant production of formation
gas, light (C2 to C4) and intermediate components (C5+) from both produced formation gas and
remobilized stranded condensate (table, bottom).
22
Oileld Review
16
12
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
Winter 2005/2006
23
Fracture
Well
Gas production rate, million ft3/d
5
4
3
2
1
0
11,000
9,000
7,000
5,000
3,000
Field data
Simulation
13,000
4
3
2
1
0
Mar
2002
April
2002
May
2002
June
2002
July
2002
Aug
2002
Sept
2002
Oct
2002
Nov
2002
Dec
2002
Jan
2003
Mar
2002
April
2002
May
2002
June
2002
July
2002
Aug
2002
Sept
2002
Oct
2002
Nov
2002
Dec
2002
Jan
2003
> History-match of model of SW Rugeley eld with a hydraulic fracture. The ECLIPSE 300 model of one well in the Frio sand has small grids around the
well and along the fracture (top leftt). Smaller grids were also placed at the fracture tips. The eld gas-rate history was matched by the simulation (top
rightt), yielding good results for condensate rate (bottom rightt). The changes in production after the fracture job were due to fracture cleanup and
changes in pressure in owlines. The model indicated the average reservoir pressure dropped below the 6,269-psi dewpoint pressure during this
production period (bottom leftt).
5
Production history
Model with no fracture
0
Mar
2002
April
2002
May
2002
June
2002
July
2002
Aug
2002
Sept
2002
Oct
2002
Nov
2002
Dec
2002
Jan
2003
> The hydraulic fracture effect. Rerunning the Frio well model with no fracture generated a simple
decline curve indicating a signicant productivity increase could be attributed to an induced fracture.
24
Oileld Review
6,250
5,000
3,750
7,500
2,500
0.2
0.1
0.3
< Condensate
C d
blockage
bl k
aroundd a
fracture, Frio model. For each time
step, model results indicate
pressure decline (top), condensate
saturation (middle) and gas relative
permeability (bottom). The rst two
time steps in July 2002 (leftt) focus
on the immediate vicinity of the
fracture and the later three time
steps (below
w) show a wider view
of the whole model area. Pressure
declines rapidly along the fracture
(left, top
p). The approximate dewpoint
prole (oval curves) expands outward
from the fracture. The low gas
permeability around the fracture
at later time steps indicates the
condensate blockage.
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
6,250
5,000
3,750
7,500
2,500
0.2
0.1
0.3
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
Winter 2005/2006
25
90
80
Bottomhole
pressure, psi
70
2,000
1,250
1,000
500
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
> Spreadsheet model results for a North Sea well. A homogeneous single-well model in a spreadsheet
provided a way to quickly examine different effects. For example, the bottomhole pressure had little
effect on gas productivity index, PI.
26
Oileld Review
100
90
80
70
Simulation
60
50
40
Field data
30
20
10
0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
5.0
5.5
Time, yr
3,500
3,000
Si l i
Simulation
2,500
2,000
Field data
1,500
1,000
500
0
3.5
4.0
4.5
Borehole
Time, yr
0.2
0.4
> Single-well simulation results. The simulator gave a good match to both
gas PI (top) and bottomhole pressure (middle) for behavior in a North Sea
well. Different layer properties resulted in different extents of condensate
saturation buildup (bottom).
Winter 2005/2006
27