Topic

Approaches to
Organisational
Change

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.

Describe the planned approach and the emergent approach;

2.

Distinguish between the characteristics of the planned approach and

the emergent approach;

3.

Examine the main criticisms of the planned approach and the

emergent approach; and

4.

Evaluate the change situation and the appropriate change approach

using the framework for change.

X INTRODUCTION
This topic presents two major approaches to change the planned approach and
the emergent approach. We will look at the major characteristics and criticisms of
these two approaches, as well as a framework for change used to achieve an
optimal match between the change situation and the most appropriate approach
to change.
The increasing pace of global, economic and technological development makes
change a part of organisational life. Such change can be planned or otherwise.
Changes planned by an organisation can be distinguished from unpredictable
changes that happen to the organisation. Hence, the two main approaches to
managing organisational change are the planned approach, which deals with
planned change (Burnes, 2004; Waddell, Cummings & Worley, 2004) and the
emergent approach, which deals with continuous, incremental change subject to
changes in the external environment.

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3.1

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APPROACHES TO ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE

THE PLANNED APPROACH TO CHANGE

According to Burnes (2004), the planned approach to change dominated the

theory and practice of change management from the late 1940s to the 1980s. It
aims to enhance an organisations effectiveness and efficiency. Organisations can
use planned change to improve many aspects of organisational life such as the
attitudes and behaviour of organisational members, team functioning, existing
products and services and problem solving. Planned change can also be used to
resolve organisational conflicts and to serve customers better.
Planned change has typically been characterised as involving a series of activities
for carrying out effective changes in organisations. Steps in planned change can
be implemented in a number of ways which are dependent on the organisations
needs, goals and context. Hence, the type of planned change can vary to a certain
degree from one organisation to another. Change is generally initiated and
implemented by managers, often with the help of a change agent. The change
agent can be someone from within or outside of the organisation.
Central to the planned approach is the emphasis placed on the collaborative
nature of the change effort. All parties involved the managers who initiate the
change, the recipients of the change and the consultant or change agent must
jointly diagnose the problem, plan and design the specific change interventions.
It is based on the assumption that common agreement can be reached and that all
parties involved in a particular change project have the willingness and interest
in making the change.
The planned approach also assumes that only one type of approach to change is
suitable for all organisations and all situations at all times. Most of the planned
models specify a general set of steps that are intended to be applicable to most
change efforts. However, turbulent times demand different responses from the
organisation in varied circumstances. So, managers and change agents need a
change approach that is essentially situational and that gears to a specific set of
situational conditions. If the external environment is changing in a rapid and
uncertain way, organisations need to be continuously studying the environment
in order to respond in a timely and appropriate manner. Since this is a
continuous and open-ended process, the planned approach to change is deemed
inappropriate.
Burnes (2004) pointed out the inability of this planned approach to deal with
radical changes arising from the external environment. A major criticism of the
planned approach is its assumption that all organisations operate in stable
environments, which raises question over its suitability in a world of dynamic

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and complex changes. This leads to the emergent approach to organisational

change.

SELF-CHECK 3.1
Describe the planned approach to change.

ACTIVITY 3.1
Give an example of planned change implemented in your organisation.

3.2

THE EMERGENT APPROACH TO CHANGE

From the early 1980s onwards, the planned approach to change has faced an
increasing level of criticism as to its appropriateness and efficacy. It has been
criticised specifically for its inability to cope with continuous change, its
emphasis on planned incremental changes and its advocacy of a one best way
approach to change. Since then, the emergent approach, which assumes that
change is a continuous, open-ended and unpredictable process of aligning and
realigning an organisation to its changing environment, has taken over from the
planned approach as the dominant approach to change (Burnes, 2004).
Proponents of the emergent approach adopt an open systems perspective. They
see individual organisations as interdependent parts of a much larger
environment. Various factors in this larger, external environment impact upon
and affect the decisions and actions of the organisations. Change can emerge
from the day-to-day actions and decisions of organisation members, attempting
to align the organisation with its environment.
Advocates of the emergent approach argue that it is more suitable for the
turbulent environment in which organisations operate. The emergent approach
stresses that change is an open-ended and continuous process of adaptation to
unpredictable changing conditions and circumstances. It recognises the
importance of adapting internal practices to changing external conditions. It also
sees the process of change as a process of learning, and not only a method of
changing organisational practices. The emergent approach tends to see change as
driven from the bottom-up rather then from the top-down. Furthermore, it sees
change as a political process whereby different groups in an organisation
struggle to protect their own interests.

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The role of managers is not to plan or implement change per se, but to foster an
organisational climate that encourages experimentation, learning and risk-taking,
as well as to develop a workforce responsible for identifying the need for change
and implementing it. They also have the prime responsibility for developing
organisational vision and goals that give direction to their organisation and the
foundation for change.
The key organisational activities in the emergent approach to change are:
(a)

Information Gathering
Monitoring and collecting information about the internal environment and
external environment of the organisation.

(b)

Communication
The analysis and sharing of information to all parties involved in the
change.

(c)

Learning
The ability to draw knowledge from ones experience, to develop new skills
and to identify appropriate responses to the changing environment.

However, just as the planned approach to change can be criticised as limited and
flawed, similar criticisms can be made of the emergent approach. A major
criticism of the emergent approach is its over-emphasis on its view that all
organisations operate in dynamic and unpredictable environments to which they
have to adapt continuously. This view of constant adaptation ignores the fact that
many changes in organisations can instead be planned. For example,
organisations can plan to change the reward systems to motivate employees to
perform at a higher level.

SELF-CHECK 3.2
1.

Describe the emergent approach to change.

2.

Discuss the major drawback of the planned approach and the

emergent approach to change.

ACTIVITY 3.2
Provide an example of change in your organisation that is based on the
emergent approach.

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The planned and the emergent approaches are different in terms of their
characteristics and suitability in different environments. The following section
describes the differences between these two major approaches to change.

3.3

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE PLANNED

AND THE EMERGENT APPROACHES TO
CHANGE

Figure 3.1 shows that the planned approach is suitable for a stable environment,
whereas the emergent approach is suitable for a turbulent, dynamic environment.

Figure 3.1: Approaches to change in relation to the environment

Source: Burnes (2004)

The differences between the planned and the emergent approaches to organisational
change are summarised in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: The Planned Approach versus the Emergent Approach to Change
The Planned Approach

The Emergent Approach

x Change is planned by organisations.

x Change is an emerging process of

organisational adaptation and
transformation; hence, change can be
unplanned.

x Applicable to incremental and isolated

changes.

x Involves a multitude of mainly smallto medium-scale incremental changes.

Over time, these can lead to a major
reconfiguration and transformation of
an organisation.

x Suitable for stable environment.

x Suitable for dynamic environment.

x Changes are implemented top-down.

Identifying and managing change is the
responsibility of the management.

x Changes are driven from bottom-up.

Identifying and managing change is the
responsibility of everyone in the
organisation.

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x Aims to solve problems and increase

organisational effectiveness.

x Aims to adapt the organisation to

match and achieve an optimum fit with
the changing external environment.

x A method of changing organisational

practices.

x A way of continuous learning.

x Focus of change tends to be at the

individual and group level.

x Focus of change tends to be at the

subsystem or organisational level.

x Emphasis on the collaborative nature of

the change effort; ignores
organisational power, politics and
conflict in the change process.

x Power struggle, politics and conflicts

are part of organisational change.
Power and politics play an important
role in the change process.

x Change is an analytical-rational
process. Changes can be made based
on data collection and analysis.

x Change is a political-social process.

Changes made is a result of political
and social influence to protect ones
own interests.

Assumptions:

Assumptions:

x Organisations operate in a stable and

relatively predictable environment.

x Organisations operate in a turbulent,

dynamic and unpredictable
environment.

x Change is a phenomenon that can be

pre-planned and has a finite endpoint.

x Open systems perspective of change;

change is a continuous, open-ended
and unpredictable process.

x Problem issues are easily identified and

resolved.

x Turbulent times require different

responses in varied circumstances;
organisational problems vary and may
not be readily identified.

x Consensus can be reached among all

parties involved in change, and all
parties involved have a common
interest in the change project.

x Change is a political process; different

groups in an organisation struggle to
protect their own interests.

x One best way approach to change for

all situations.

x Changes are contingent upon

situational variables; different change
strategies are needed to achieve a fit
with the changing environment.

Both the planned and emergent approaches do not cover all change situations.
Even though both may be applicable to incremental changes, they are less
relevant to larger-scale and more radical transformational changes that many

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organisations are experiencing these days. Neither approach seems suitable for
situations where the primary focus is rapid and radical structural change. To
overcome this limitation, a framework for change can be constructed to identify a
wider range of change situations and a matching range of approaches to change.

SELF-CHECK 3.3
What is the major difference between the planned approach and the
emergent approach to organisational change? Discuss.

3.4

A FRAMEWORK FOR CHANGE

If we take into account the speed of change, the degree of transformation and the
types of environment that organisations face, we can construct a framework
which allows for different change situations to be matched with appropriate
approaches to managing organisational change. Figure 1.3 shows the framework
for change developed by Burnes (2004).

Figure 3.2: A framework for change

Source: Burnes (2004)

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On the top half of Figure 3.2, Quadrants 1 and 2 represent situations where
organisations operating in a turbulent environment need to make large-scale,
organisation-wide changes. On the bottom half of the figure, Quadrants 3 and 4
represent situations where organisations operating in a stable environment need
to make small-scale, piecemeal, and localised changes. On the left side of the
figure, Quadrants 1 and 4 represent situations where the primary focus of change
is the human side of the organisation cultural and attitudinal or behavioural
change. On the right side of the figure, Quadrants 2 and 3 represent situations
where the primary focus of change is the technical side of the organisation
structures, processes, tasks and procedures.
(a)

Quadrant 1
(i)

Identifies situations where the culture of an organisation operating in

a turbulent environment is no longer appropriate.

(ii)

For such a large-scale change initiate, where the major focus is

cultural change at the organisational level, the emergent approach
(incremental change leading to transformation over an extended
period of time) is likely to be the most appropriate.

(iii) The overall cultural transformation is likely to be a slow process.

(b)

Quadrant 2
(i)

Refers to situations where the focus is on achieving major changes in

the organisation wide structures and processes.

(ii)

Such structural changes may be required due to a number of reasons.

(iii) It may be that an organisation finds itself in serious trouble and needs
to respond quickly to realign itself with its environment. Or, an
organisation may perceive that it will face a crisis in the near future
unless it restructures itself to achieve a better fit with its external
environment.
(iv) In such cases, it is not advisable to change the structure at a slow pace;
a major and rapid reorganisation is necessary.
(v)

Hence, a bold stroke approach (refers to a rapid overall change

approach) is deemed suitable in such situations.

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Quadrant 3
(i)

Presents situations where organisations are operating in a relatively

stable environment and their aim is to make changes to the technical
side of the organisation.

(ii)

Such technical changes involve tasks and procedural changes, and

they tend to be small-scale and piecemeal, at the individual and group
level.

(iii) The methods of managing these technical changes will depend on the
culture of the organisation.
(iv) In a bureaucratic organisation, a Tayloristic approach may be adopted.
Under this change approach, managers will identify the best way of
doing things and impose it.
(v)

In a more participatory culture, such as a Japanese company, a Kaizen

approach (continuous improvement approach) may be appropriate.

(vi) Kaizen is a Japanese technique for achieving small-scale improvements

through teamwork. Here, a more collaborative initiative involving team
effort will be taken to implement changes at incremental steps.
(vii) Either approach Tayloristic or Kaizen should be able to achieve
changes in a relatively speedy manner.
(d)

Quadrant 4
(i)

Covers those situations where relatively small-scale initiatives are

undertaken to improve performance through attitudinal and
behavioural changes at the individual and group level.

(ii)

Attitudinal and behavioural changes tend to be slow, and the

organisations in this situation are operating in a relatively stable
environment.

(iii) Hence, the planned approach, with its emphasis on collaboration and
participation, is appropriate to deal with slow changes in predictable
environments.
The framework for change provides an overview of the range of change
situations that organisations face and the respective approach best suited in each
change situation. This framework takes on a situational perspective and adopts a
contingency-type approach to change. The argument for the contingency
approach to change management is that different approaches to change will

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work in different circumstances. What is appropriate for one organisation may

not be appropriate for another in a different situation. Hence, we need a model of
change that calls for a match between the change approach and the situation. It is
an effective change strategy when a match is achieved.

SELF-CHECK 3.4
Explain the significance of the framework for change.

ACTIVITY 3.4
Identify the type of environment faced by your organisation. Is it a stable or
a turbulent environment? Then, decide the appropriate change approach
that can be used in the organisation based on the framework for change.

Under the planned approach, change is consciously embarked upon and is

initiated by the management of the organisation. The planned approach
involves a series of steps or activities for carrying out effective changes in
organisations.

A major criticism of the planned approach is its notion that all organisations
operate in stable environments and, hence, its unsuitability in a world of
rapid and unpredictable changes.

The emergent approach is specifically founded on the assumption that

organisations operate in a dynamic environment where they have to change
themselves continuously in order to survive.

The major criticism of the emergent approach is its over-emphasis on its view
that all organisations operate in dynamic and unpredictable environments to
which they have to adapt continuously.

Both the planned and emergent approaches are not suitable for situations
where the primary focus is rapid and radical structural change.

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The framework for change identifies the range of change situations and a
matching range of approaches to change. This framework takes on a
situational perspective and adopts a contingency-type approach to change.

The argument for the contingency approach to change management is that

different approaches to change will work in different circumstances. What is
appropriate for one organisation may not be appropriate for another in a
different situation.

Bold stroke approach

Planned approach

Emergent approach

Stable environment

Framework for change

Tayloristic approach

Kaizen approach

Turbulent environment

Burnes, B. (2004). Managing change (4th ed.). Harlow, England: Prentice Hall
Financial Times.
Waddell, D. M., Cummings, T. G., & Worley, C. G. (2004). Organisation
development and change (2nd ed.). Southbank Victoria, Australia: Thomson.