Index

Abel, Niels Henrik (18021829), 86

absolute value function, 702
acceleration, 25963, 45963
addition
on Argand diagrams, 4867
complex numbers, 4767, 4867
imaginary numbers, 474
matrices, 26970
vectors, 31517
al-Karaji, Abu Bekr ibn Muhammad ibn al Husayn (c.953c.1029), 509
al-Khwarizmi, Muhammad ibn Musa, 35
algebra
origin of term, 35
see also calculus
algebraic division, 4356
algebraic long division, 1003
Ancient Greeks, 1
calculus, 183
angles
between lines and planes, 366
between two lines, 351
between two planes, 366
between two vectors, 3256
double, 1745
finding, 89
related, 247
anti-differentiation, 3734, 40511
see also integration
arccos functions, 32
arcsin functions, 32
arctan functions, 32, 159
area
above and below x-axis, 395401
between curves and y-axis, 3978
between two curves, 395401
parallelograms, 333
triangles, 10, 3334
under curves, 4414
Argand, Jean-Robert (17681822), 484
Argand diagrams, 48497, 501
addition on, 4867
multiplication by i on, 4878
subtraction on, 4867
argument, complex numbers, 48892
arithmetic sequences, 1313
nth term, 133
sum of first n terms, 1335
associativity, matrices, 274
asymptotes
horizontal, 70, 73, 204
oblique, 204, 2058
vertical, 19, 73, 204
at least problems, 57680
augmented matrices, 289
averages, 529
from grouped frequency tables, 5323
see also central tendency; mean; median; mode

Babylonians, 1, 35
Banach, Stefan (18921945), 337
Banach space, 337
bar Hiyya ha-Nasi, Abraham (10701136), 35
bases, 109
change of, formula, 11819
natural, 11718, 217
Bayes theorem, 57682
for two events, 576
Bernoulli, Jakob (16541705), 373, 403
Bernoulli, Johann (16671748), 373, 403
Bernoulli, Margaretha, 403
Bernoulli, Nicolaus (16231709), 403
binomial coefficients, 509
binomial distributions, 60919, 633
expectation, 61316
variance, 61316
binomial theorem, 1526, 509
proof, 51718
Bolzano, Bernard (17811848), 305
bow-tie diagrams, 25
box and whisker plots, 53941
Brahmagupta (598668), 35
calculators
constants, 556
development, 58
graphing, 190, 193
integration on, 38890
logarithms on, 11720
polynomials with, 1035
probability on, 6548
row operations, 298300
statistics on, 5558
calculus
differential, 183216
early studies, 373
see also differentiation; integration
Cartesian equations
of planes, 3556
of straight lines, 3423
Cartesian form, of complex numbers, 484
CAS (computer algebra systems), 58
catenaries, 39
Cavalieri, Bonaventura (15981647), 183
central limit theorem, 634
central tendency, 537
measures, 529, 543, 548, 549
see also averages
chain rule, 2214
change, rates of, 1834, 2549
change of base formula, 11819
Chia Hsien (fl. 1050), 130
China, Han Dynasty, 268
circles
problems, 16
sectors, 23
segments, 23

721

Index
class intervals, 531
modal, 532
class width, 531
co-domain, functions, 59
coefficients
binomial, 509
polynomials, 935
coincidence, lines, 347
column vector notation, 306
columns, 269
combinations, 1479, 5829
and probability, 58992
common difference, 131, 138
common ratio, 136
commutativity
matrices, 2723
scalar products, 322
vector products, 3289
completing the square, 427
complex numbers, 473508
addition, 4767, 4867
argument, 48892
Cartesian form, 484
conjugate, 478
definition, 476
division, 478
early studies, 473
equal, 47880
Euler form, 4923
exponential form, 4923
imaginary parts, 476
modulus, 48892
modulus-argument form, 48892
multiplication, 477
notation, 48893
polar coordinate form, 492
real parts, 476
roots of, 5006
square, 47980
unity, 5023
subtraction, 4767, 4867
zero, 478
see also imaginary numbers
complex roots, 52
polynomial equations, 4812
quadratic equations, 480
composite functions, 624
compound angle (addition) formulae, 1638, 169
computer algebra systems (CAS), 58
concavity, functions, 197
conditional probability, 5679
conjectures, forming and proving, 5226
conjugate complex numbers, 478
connected rates of change, 2549
constant of integration, 3747
general solution, 377
particular solution, 377
constants, calculator operations, 556
continuous data, 529
frequency tables, 5334
continuous probability density functions
applications, 63952
expectation, 63943
median, 6479
mode, 6467
variance, 6436
continuous probability distributions, 63371

722

Index
continuous random variables, 6349, 654
contradiction, proof by, 510
contrapositive, proof by, 510
convergent series, 138
cosecant functions, 20
differentiation, 220
cosine functions
differentiation, 21920
even powers of, integration, 41416
integration, 379
odd powers of, integration, 41619
cosine ratio, 7
cosine rule, 1214
cotangent functions, 20
differentiation, 220
cumulative frequency diagrams, 5414
early, 528
percentile estimation, 5434
quartile estimation, 5434
curves
area between two, 395401
area under, 4414
sketching, 2049
data
transformations, 556
types of, 529
see also continuous data; discrete data
de lHpital, Guillaume (16611704), 403
de Moivre, Abraham (16671754), 473, 633
de Moivres theorem, 497506
proof, 516
decimal notation, for fractions, 108
decimals, recurring, 141
definite integrals, 382
definite integration, 3825
degrees, and radians, 2
derivatives, 185
derived functions, graph sketching, 20915
determinants, 268, 27986
general results, 2834
diagrams
bow-tie, 25
box and whisker plots, 53941
dot plots, 548
frequency, 53747
tree, 56973, 60910
Venn, 563, 564, 567
see also Argand diagrams; cumulative frequency diagrams;
graphs; pie charts
differential calculus, 183216
notation, 187
differential equations, 4468
applications, 446
first order, 446
linear, 447
second order, 446
solutions
by direct integration, 44851
by separating variables, 4527
general, 447
particular, 448
types of, 4478
verification, 4578
differentiation
applications, 24667
by first principles, 1846

definition, 183
exponential functions, 2249
functions of functions, 2214
implicit, 2348
introduction, 183216
inverse trigonometric functions, 23841
logarithmic functions, 2249
methods, 21745
optimization problems, 24653
problems, 2434
product rule, 22931
quotient rule, 2314
rules, 1879
standard results, 2423
trigonometric functions, 21820
undoing, 3734
direct proofs, 510
direct reverse method, 40511
direction vectors, 338
discrete data, 529
frequency tables, 5303
discrete probability distributions, 595632
discrete random variables, 5969
discriminant, 40
dispersion, measures of, 54854
displacement, 25963, 45963
distributivity
matrices, 2745
scalar products, 322
vector products, 329
divergent series, 138
division
algebraic, 4356
algebraic long, 1003
complex numbers, 478
imaginary numbers, 4756
of polynomials, 8890
synthetic, 86, 889
domain, functions, 59
dot plots, 548
double angle formulae, 16972
applications, 1736
double angles, in trigonometric equations, 1745
e, 117, 217, 224
elements, 269
elimination
Gaussian, 268, 289
simultaneous equations, 293
equal complex numbers, 47880
equal vectors, 311
equality, matrices, 269
equations
exponential, 1204
of planes, 35363
of straight lines, 33845
trigonometric, 2731
see also Cartesian equations; differential equations; parametric equations; polynomial equations; quadratic equations; simultaneous equations; trigonometric equations; vector equations
Euler, Leonhard (170783), 217, 224
Euler form, complex numbers, 4923
events, 5612
independent, 56975
exact values, trigonometric ratios, 78
expectation, 6009
binomial distributions, 61316

continuous probability density functions, 63943

functions, 603
Poisson distributions, 6246
expected value, 600
explicit expressions, 131
exponential decay, 111
exponential equations, 1204
exponential expressions, for trigonometric
functions, 108
exponential form, complex numbers, 4923
exponential functions, 10911
differentiation, 2249
integration, 379
inverse, 112
see also logarithmic functions
exponential graphs, 10911, 1257
exponential growth, 110
exponents, 109
expressions
explicit, 131
implicit, 131
factor theorem, 913
factorial notation, 14652
factorization, quadratic equations, 3940
falling point of inflexion, 195, 198
Fermat, Pierre de (160165), 183
first order differential equations, 446
fluxions, 473
formulae
compound angle (addition), 1638, 169
half angle, 173
see also double angle formulae
Fourier, Jean Baptiste Joseph (17681830), 528
fractions, decimal notation for, 108
free vectors, 3079
French Revolution, 86
frequency diagrams, 53747
see also cumulative frequency diagrams
frequency distributions, 5345
see also binomial distributions; normal distributions;
Poisson distributions; probability distributions
frequency tables, 52937
discrete data, 5303
grouped, 5323
functional analysis, 337
functional notation, 187, 217
functions, 5885
absolute value, 702
co-domain, 59
composite, 624
concavity, 197
definitions, 59
domain, 59
expectation, 603
finding from graphs, 98100
images, 5960
manyone, 58
notation, 59
onemany, 58
oneone, 58
piecewise, 70
polynomial, 8790
range, 59
rational, 7982
sketching, 205, 20915
special, 6973

723

Index
transformations, 7682
see also continuous probability density functions;
exponential functions; inverse functions; logarithmic
functions; quadratic functions; reciprocal function;
trigonometric functions; wave functions
functions of functions, differentiation, 2214
Gaussian elimination, 268, 289
general solution, 377
geometric sequences, 1368
nth term, 136
sum of first n terms, 137
geometric series, 1368
applications, 142
convergent, 138
divergent, 138
sum of n terms, 140
geometrical notation, 187
Gerstner, Frantisek Josef (17561832), 305
global maxima, 196
global minima, 196
gradients, 1835, 197
finding, 190
of tangents, 1903
graph sketching, derived functions, 20915
graphing calculators, 190, 193
graphs
characteristics, 73, 204
drawing, 736
exponential, 10911, 1257
finding functions from, 98100
inverse functions, 679
logarithmic, 11214, 1257
tan x, 19
tangent functions, 19
see also diagrams; trigonometric graphs
gravitation, theory of, 108
Greeks see Ancient Greeks
grouped frequency tables, averages from, 5323
half angle formulae, 173
Han Dynasty, 268
Hipparchus (c. 190 BCc. 120 BC), 1
histograms, 5378
horizontal asymptotes, 70, 73, 204
identities
Pythagorean, 15963, 169
trigonometric, 15963
identity matrix, 273
images, functions, 5960
imaginary numbers, 4746
addition, 474
division, 4756
multiplication, 4745
powers of, 4745
subtraction, 474
see also complex numbers
implicit differentiation, 2348
implicit expressions, 131
independent events, 56975
indices see powers
indirect proofs, 510
induction see mathematical induction
inequalities, 3557
linear, 479
quadratic, 4951

724

Index
infinite series, sum of, 13842
infinite sum, 140
inflexion
falling point of, 195, 198
points of, 2014
rising point of, 195, 198
integers, sets of, 59
integral notation, 387, 634
integrals, 374
definite, 382
limits, 382, 3867
origin of term, 373
integration
algebraic division, 4356
anti-chain rule, 3802
as anti-differentiation, 3734, 40511
applications, 44672
area between two curves, 395401
areas above and below x-axis, 3915
by parts, 42833
by substitution, 4228
on calculators, 38890
cosine functions, 379
definite, 3825
direct reverse method, 40511
early studies, 403
exponential functions, 379
geometric significance of, 38591
initial conditions, 3778
introduction, 373402
and inverse trigonometric functions, 41114
methods, 40345
selection criteria, 421, 43841
polynomials, 379
products, 4067
quotients, 406, 40810
reciprocal function, 379
sine functions, 379
splitting the numerator, 4345
standard results, 37980, 4034
trigonometric functions, 379
powers of, 41420
see also constant of integration
intercept form, quadratic functions, 412
intercepts, 204
y-intercept, 73, 374
interquartile range, 548
intersecting lines, 34653, 3638
intersecting planes, 3638
inverse functions, 647
graphs, 679
inverse matrices, 27986
applications, 2945
general results, 2812
inverse trigonometric functions, 324
differentiation, 23841
and integration, 41114
irrational numbers, 224
Jia Xian (fl. 1050), 130
Kepler, Johannes (15711630), 108
kinematics, 4545
Kochina, Ira, 446
Kochina, Nina, 446
Lagrange, Joseph-Louis (17361813), 86
Laplace, Pierre-Simon (17491827), 6334

Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm (16461716), 183, 187, 373, 403, 473

limits, 185
concept of, 13940
integrals, 382, 3867
linear differential equations, 447
linear inequalities, 479
lines, 33772
angle between two, 351
coincident, 347
intersecting, 34653, 3638
parallel, 34653
skew, 34653
see also straight lines
local maxima, 196, 246
local minima, 196, 246
logarithmic functions, 112
differentiation, 2249
see also exponential functions; natural logarithmic functions
logarithmic graphs, 11214, 1257
logarithms
on calculators, 11720
interpreting, 113
invention, 108
Napierian, 117
rules, 11417
long division, algebraic, 1003
lower tail, 657
magnitude, vectors, 30910
Malthus, Thomas (17661834), 447
manyone functions, 58
mathematical induction, 50927
early studies, 509
introduction, 51016
method, 51015
proofs, 51621
matrices, 268304
addition, 26970
associativity, 274
augmented, 289
commutativity, 2723
definitions, 269
determinants, 27986
distributivity, 2745
early studies, 268
equality, 269
identity, 273
multiplication, 2712
non-singular, 279
operations, 26978
post-multiplication, 273
pre-multiplication, 273
simultaneous equation solving, 287302
singular, 279
subtraction, 26970
zero, 2734
see also inverse matrices
maxima
global, 196
local, 196, 246
maximum turning points, 195, 198
mean, 529, 5323, 652
finding, 6602
population, 549
sample, 549
median, 529, 532, 539, 549
continuous probability density functions, 6479

Menelaus of Alexandria (c.70140), 1

mid-interval values, 532
Mien, Juliusz (18421905), 337
minima
global, 196
local, 196, 246
minimum turning points, 195, 198
modal class intervals, 532
mode, 529, 532
continuous probability density functions, 6467
modulus, complex numbers, 48892
modulus-argument form, complex numbers, 48892
multiplication
by i on Argand diagrams, 4878
complex numbers, 477
imaginary numbers, 4745
matrices, 2712
vectors, 32135
see also scalar multiplication
Napier, John (15501617), 108, 117, 120
Napierian logarithms, 117
Napiers analogies, 108
Napiers bones, 108
natural base, 11718, 217
natural logarithmic functions, 11718, 217, 379
differentiation, 2268
natural numbers, set of, 59
negative vectors, 31112
nested schemes, 87
Newton, Sir Isaac (16431727), 108, 183, 187, 373, 473
Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art
(c.200100 BC), 268
non-singular matrices, 279
normal distributions, 6334, 65260
applications, 6625
and probability, 6548
standard, 660
normals, equations of, 1912
notation
complex numbers, 48893
decimal, 108
differential calculus, 187
factorial, 14652
functional, 187, 217
functions, 59
geometrical, 187
integral, 387, 634
sequences, 131
sets, 5623
sigma, 1436, 387, 516, 531, 634
vectors, 3067
nth term, 131
arithmetic sequences, 133
geometric sequences, 136
numbers
irrational, 224
sets of, 59
see also complex numbers; imaginary numbers
oblique asymptotes, 204, 2058
ogives see cumulative frequency diagrams
Omar Khayyam (10481131), 130
onemany functions, 58
oneone functions, 58
operations
matrices, 26978
see also row operations

725

Index
optimization problems, 24653
outcomes, 561
parabolas, 37
parallel lines, 34653
parallel vectors, 312, 322, 328
parallelogram law, 316
parallelograms, area, 333
parametric equations
of planes, 35660
of straight lines, 3402
particular solution, 3747
parts, integration by, 42833
Pascal, Blaise (162362), 130
Pascals triangle, 130, 14951, 152, 509
p.d.f.s see probability density functions (p.d.f.s)
pendulums, 447
percentiles, 539
estimation, 5434
periodicity, 1819
permutations, 1479, 5829
and probability, 58992
perpendicular vectors, 313, 322, 328
pie charts, 537
early, 528
piecewise function, 70
planes, 33772
angle between two, 366
Cartesian equations of, 3556
definition, 353
equations of, 35363
intersecting, 3638
parametric equations of, 35660
vector equations of, scalar product form, 3535, 35660
Playfair, William (17591823), 528
Plowa, Franciszka, 337
Plowa, Maria, 337
points see stationary points; turning points
points of inflexion, 2014
falling, 195, 198
rising, 195, 198
Poisson distributions, 595, 61928
expectation, 6246
variance, 6246
Poisson, Simon-Denis (17811840), 5956
polar coordinate form
complex numbers, 492
products, 4935
quotients, 4935
Polubarinova-Kochina, Pelageia Yakovlevna (18991999), 446
polynomial equations
complex roots, 4812
solving, 957
polynomial functions, 8790
polynomials, 86107
calculators with, 1035
coefficients, 935
degree of, 87
division of, 8890
integration, 379
values of, 878
population, 529
population dynamics, 447
population mean, 549
position vectors, 3079
positive integers, set of, 59

726

Index
powers, 87
of imaginary numbers, 4745
rules, 109
of trigonometric functions, 41420
probability, 56194
on calculators, 6548
and combinations, 58992
conditional, 5679
introduction, 5617
and normal distributions, 6548
and permutations, 58992
probability density functions (p.d.f.s), 598, 652
see also continuous probability density functions
probability distributions
continuous, 63371
discrete, 595632
product rule, 22931
products
integration, 4067
polar coordinate form, 4935
see also scalar products; vector products
proof by contradiction, 510
proof by contrapositive, 510
proofs
direct, 510
indirect, 510
mathematical induction, 51621
see also mathematical induction
Ptolemy (c.83161), 1
Pythagorean identities, 15963, 169
quadratic equations, 3557
complex roots, 480
early studies, 35
factorization, 3940
formula, 401
roots, 515
solving, 3941
quadratic functions, 417
completing the square, 427
intercept form, 412
overview, 359
standard form, 41
turning point form, 42
quadratic inequalities, 4951
quartiles, 539
estimation, 5434
quintic equation, 86
quotient rule, 2314
quotients
integration, 406, 40810
polar coordinate form, 4935
radians, 12
and degrees, 2
radicals, 86
random variables
continuous, 6349, 654
discrete, 5969
range, 548
functions, 59
interquartile, 548
semi-interquartile, 548
rates of change, connected, 2549
rational functions, 7982
rational numbers, set of, 59

ratios
common, 136
see also trigonometric ratios
real numbers, set of, 59
reciprocal function, 6970
integration, 379
sketching, 21112
recurring decimals, 141
related angles, 247
remainder theorem, 91
rising point of inflexion, 195, 198
Roberval, Gilles de (160275), 183
roots, 73
of complex numbers, 47980, 5006
quadratic equations, 515
see also complex roots
row operations
applications, 2958
on calculators, 298300
rows, 269
Ruffini, Paolo (17651822), 86
Ruffinis rule, 86
rules
chain, 2214
cosine, 1214
differentiation, 1879
logarithms, 11417
powers, 109
product, 22931
quotient, 2314
Ruffinis, 86
sine, 1012
sample mean, 549
samples, 529
scalar multiplication, 270
vectors, 31011
scalar products, 321
commutativity, 322
distributivity, 322
vectors in component form, 3234
scalars, 306
vector multiplication, 31011
secant functions, 20
differentiation, 220
powers of, integration, 41920
second order differential equations, 446
sectors, 23
segments, 23
semi-interquartile range, 548
separating variables, 4527
sequences, 13058
applications, 1423
definition, 130
notation, 131
see also arithmetic sequences; geometric sequences
series
applications, 1423
convergent, 138
divergent, 138
early studies, 403
infinite, 13842
see also geometric series
set notation, 5623
sets, of numbers, 59
SHM (simple harmonic motion), 447

sigma notation, 1436, 387, 516, 531, 634

simple harmonic motion (SHM), 447
simultaneous equations
elimination, 293
substitution, 2934
in three unknowns, 291302
in two unknowns, 28791
sine functions
differentiation, 21819
even powers of, integration, 41416
integration, 379
odd powers of, integration, 41619
sine ratio, 7
sine rule, 1012
singular matrices, 279
sketching, functions, 205, 20915
skew lines, 34653
solids of revolution
volume, 46370
about y-axis, 4668
special functions, 6973
splitting the numerator, 4345
spread, 548, 549, 550
square roots, complex numbers, 47980
standard deviation, 54951
finding, 6602
standard form, quadratic functions, 41
standard normal distributions, 660
standard results
differentiation, 2423
integration, 37980, 4034
stationary points, 193201, 204
finding, 1945
nature of, 195200
types of, 195, 198
statistical inference, 549
statistics, 52860
on calculators, 5558
definitions, 529
Steinhaus, Hugo (18871972), 337
straight lines
Cartesian equations of, 3423
equations of, 33845
gradients, 1835
parametric equations of, 3402
vector equations of, 33840
substitution
integration by, 4228
simultaneous equations, 2934
subtraction
on Argand diagrams, 4867
complex numbers, 4767, 4867
imaginary numbers, 474
matrices, 26970
vectors, 31819
sum to infinity, 140
synthetic division, 86, 889
tangent functions
differentiation, 220
graphs, 19
powers of, integration, 41920
tangent ratio, 7
tangents
equations of, 1901
gradients of, 1903
on graphing calculators, 193

727

Index
Tartaglia, Nicolo (1499/15001557), 130
terms, nth, 131, 133, 136
theorems
central limit, 634
factor, 913
remainder, 91
see also Bayes theorem; binomial theorem; de Moivres theorem
tied vectors, 3079
topological vector spaces, 337
transformations
data, 556
functions, 7682
tree diagrams, 56973, 60910
trials, 561
triangle law, 31516
triangles
area, 10, 3334
problem solving, 14
solving, 917
trigonometric equations, 2731
double angles in, 1745
trigonometric functions, 1724, 32, 159
differentiation, 21820
exponential expressions for, 108
integration, 379
powers of, integration, 41420
reciprocal, 20
see also cosecant functions; cosine functions; cotangent functions;
inverse trigonometric functions; secant functions; sine functions; tangent
functions
trigonometric graphs, 1724
composite, 213
trigonometric identities, 15963
trigonometric ratios, 79
exact values, 78
trigonometry, 134, 15982
origins, 1
turning point form, quadratic functions, 42
turning points, 73
maximum, 195, 198
minimum, 195, 198
see also maxima; minima
unit vector notation, 3067
unit vectors, 312
upper tail, 657
variables
rates of change, 2549
separating, 4527
see also random variables
variance, 5513, 6009, 652

728

binomial distributions, 61316

continuous probability density functions, 6436
Poisson distributions, 6246
vector equations
of planes, 3535
of straight lines, 33840
vector products, 321, 32830
applications, 3334
commutativity, 3289
distributivity, 329
vectors in component form, 3302
vector spaces, topological, 337
vectors, 33772
addition, 31517
angle between two, 3256
direction, 338
early studies, 305
equal, 311
free, 3079
geometric approach, 31521
magnitude, 30910
multiplication, 32135
negative, 31112
notation, 3067
parallel, 312, 322, 328
perpendicular, 313, 322, 328
position, 3079
scalar multiplication, 31011
scalar product of, 3234
subtraction, 31819
techniques, 30536
tied, 3079
unit, 312
vector product of, 3302
zero, 312
velocity, 25963, 45963
Venn diagrams, 563, 564, 567
vertical asymptotes, 19, 73, 204
volume
solids of revolution, 46370
about y-axis, 4668
wave functions, 17681
method, 17780
x-axis, areas above and below, 3915
y-intercept, 73, 374
Yang Hui (c.123898), 130
zero complex numbers, 478
zero matrix, 2734
zero vectors, 312