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(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai 600 025)
(NBA Accredited and ISO 9001:2008 Certified Institution)
Name
:.
Reg. No.
:.
Semester
:.
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AUC R2008
AE2305
LTPC
0032
OBJECTIVE
To experimentally study the unsymmetrical bending of beams, find the location of shear
centre, obtain the stresses in circular discs and beams using photoelastic techniques,
calibration of photo elastic materials and study on vibration of beams.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Unsymmetrical bending of Z-section beams
2. Shear centre location for open channel sections
3. Shear centre location for closed D-sections
4. Constant strength beam
5. Flexibility matrix for cantilever beam
6. Beam with combined loading
7. Calibration of Photo- elastic materials
8. Stresses in circular discs and beams using photo elastic techniques
9. Determination of natural frequencies of cantilever beams
10. Wagner beam Tension field beam
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
LIST OF EQUIPMENT
(for a batch of 30 students)
Sl. No.
Qty
Experiments Number
1, 2, 3,4, 5
Dial gauges
12
1,2,3
One set
4,5,6
7,8
Amplifier
Exciter
10
Pick up
11
Oscilloscope
12
Wagner beam
10
13
Hydraulic Jack
10
CONTENTS
Sl. No.
Date
Page
Marks
Sign
Average
Marks
Signature of Staff in Charge
AUC R2008
List of Experiments
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Shear center
Extension Piece
WH
Wa
2Wa = WV
Wa
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Exercise No.: 01
AIM:
To determine the principal axes of an unsymmetrical section.
THEORY:
The experimental determination of the principal axes of a given section is based on the
fact that when the load passes through the shear centre and is in the direction of one of the
principal axes of the section, the entire section under the load deflects in the direction of the
load only.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
A thin uniform cantilever Z section as shown in figure. At the free end extension
pieces are attached on either side of the web to facilitate vertical loading.
Two dial gauges (to be mounted vertically and horizontally as in figure). This enables
the determination of displacements u and v.
Two hooks are attached to the extension pieces to apply the vertical load WV.
A string and pulley arrangement to apply the horizontal load WH.
A steel support structure to mount the channel section as cantilever.
FORMULA USED:
1. Theoretical calculation
2 =
2
( )
Where,
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TABULATION:
WV
Sl. No.
Horizontal Load
WH
Height, h
Breadth, b
Thickness, t
Remarks
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
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2. Experimental calculation
= tan1 ( )
Where,
Vertical load of weight
Horizontal load of weight
PROCEDURE:
1. Mount two dial gauges on the tip section to measure the horizontal and vertical
deflections of a point on it.
2. Apply the vertical load WV (about 2.4 kg, including two hooks of each 200 gm).
3. Read u and v the horizontal and vertical deflections respectively, at the chosen point.
4. Increase the load WH in steps of about 300 gm (for the first case 100 gm + 200 gm
hook) from zero to a maximum of about 3 kg noting down in each case the values of u
and v. Repeat the procedure and check for consistency in measurements.
through the origin at 45. (Note: The X and Y scales must be chosen to be same for the
graph).
6. Calculate the inclination of one of the principal axes to the web as = tan1 ( )
RESULT:
Thus the principal axis of an unsymmetrical section has been determined.
Dial gauge
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Dial gauge
Wa + Wb = WV
Wa
Wb
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Exercise No.: 02
[6 + ( )]
Where,
h height of the flange
b width of the flange
2. Experimental calculation
From the graph e versus (d1-d2)
PROCEDURE:
1. Mount two dial gauges on the flange at a known distance apart at the free and of the
beam. Set the dial gauge readings to zero.
2. Place a total of, say two kilograms load at A (loading hook and nine load pieces will
make up this value). Note the dial gauge readings (nominally, hooks also weigh a 200
gm each).
Gurunath K AE 2305 Aircraft Structures Laboratory II | 7
AUC R2008
TABULATION:
Length, L =
Height, h
WV
= (Wa+ Wb)
Breadth, b
Thickness, t
Wa
Wb
(d1-d2)
d1
d2
( )
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
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3. Now remove one load piece from the hook at A and place another hook at B. This
means that the total vertical load on this section remains 2 kg. Record the dial gauge
readings.
4. Transfer carefully all the load pieces and finally the hook one by one to the other hook
noting each time the dial gauge readings. This procedure ensures that while the
magnitude of the resultant vertical force remains the same its line of action shifts by a
known amount along AB every time a load piece is shifted. Calculate the distance e
of the line of action from the web thus:
=(
( )
2
5. For every load case calculate the algebraic difference between the dial gauge readings
as the measure of the angle of twist suffered by the section.
6. Plot against e and obtain the meeting point of curve (a straight line in this case) with
the e-axis (i.e., the twist of the section is zero for this location of the resultant vertical
load). This determines the shear centre.
Theoretical location of the shear centre
[6+( )]
Though a nominal value of 2 kg for the total load is suggested it can be less. In that event the
number of readings taken will reduce proportionately.
GRAPH:
Plot e versus (d1-d2) curve and determine where this meets the e axis and locate the
shear centre.
PRECAUTIONS:
I.
II.
For the section supplied there are limits on the maximum value of loads to obtain
acceptable experimental results. Beyond these the section could undergo excessive
permanent deformation and damage the beam forever. Do not therefore exceed the
suggested values for the loads.
The dial gauges must be mounted firmly. Every time before taking the readings tap the
set up (not the gauges) gently several times until the reading pointers on the gauges
settle down and do not shift any further. This shift happens due to both backlash and
slippages at the points of contact between the dial gauges and the sheet surfaces and
can induce errors if not taken care of. Repeat the experiments with identical settings
several times to ensure consistency in the readings.
RESULT:
The shear centre obtained experimentally is compared with the theoretical value.
Dial gauge
Wa
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Dial gauge
Wb
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Exercise No.: 03
=(
( )
2
5. For every load case calculate the algebraic difference between the dial gauge readings
as the measure of the angle of twist suffered by the section.
Gurunath K AE 2305 Aircraft Structures Laboratory II | 11
AUC R2008
TABULATION:
Length, L
WV
= (Wa+ Wb)
Height, h
Thickness, t
Sl. No.
Wa
Wb
(d1 - d2)
d1
d2
=
( )
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
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6. Plot against e and obtain the meeting point of curve (a straight line in this case) with
the e-axis (i.e., the twist of the section is zero for this location of the resultant vertical
load). This determines the shear centre.
*
Though a nominal value of 2 kg for the total load is suggested it can be less. In that event the
number of readings taken will reduce proportionately.
GRAPH:
Plot e vs (d1-d2) curve and determine where this meets the e axis and locate the shear
centre.
PRECAUTIONS:
I.
II.
For the section supplied there are limits on the maximum value of loads to obtain
acceptable experimental results. Beyond these the section could undergo excessive
permanent deformation and damage the beam forever. Do not therefore exceed the
suggested values for the loads.
The dial gauges must be mounted firmly. Every time before taking the readings tap the
set up (not the gauges) gently several times until the reading pointers on the gauges
settle down and do not shift any further. This shift happens due to both backlash and
slippages at the points of contact between the dial gauges and the sheet surfaces and
can induce errors if not taken care of. Repeat the experiments with identical settings
several times to ensure consistency in the readings.
RESULT:
The shear centre obtained experimentally is compared with the theoretical value.
AUC R2008
AUC R2008
Exercise No.: 04
3
12
2
6
Let the width of the beam be constant and the depth varies. Then
=
2 =
6 6
= 2=
=
02
02
.. Eqn (1)
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
A constant strength beam in which the depth varies as in Eqn (1) and made of
aluminium. Strain gauges, strain indicator and weights with hook.
PROCEDURE:
The constant strength beam is fixed as a cantilever strain gauges are fixed near the root,
at 4 and 2. The strain gauges are fixed both on the top and bottom surfaces at each location
to increase the circuit sensitivity of the strain gauge circuit. Hence half bridge used in the strain
indicator to measure the strain at each location (strain = strain meter reading x 2). The beam
loaded gradually in steps of 2 kg up to 10 kg by placing the weights slowly in the hook near
the tip of the cantilever (loading hook weight 0.25 kg is to be added). The strain gauge readings
are noted for every 2 kg at locations A, B, C and tabulated as given below.
3
=
=
E =
350 ohm
2
70 GPa
Gurunath K AE 2305 Aircraft Structures Laboratory II | 15
AUC R2008
TABULATION:
Sl. No.
Weight
(Kg)
=
(MPa)
=
(MPa)
=
(MPa)
01
02
03
04
05
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THEORETICAL CALCULATION
At point A:
Distance of point A from loading point
Moment of inertia
Moment
At point B:
Distance of point B from loading point
Moment of inertia
Moment
At point C:
Distance of point C from loading point
Moment of inertia
Moment
RESULT:
The experimental values of the stress are compared with the theoretical values.
AUC R2008
AUC R2008
Exercise No.: 05
Combined Loading
Date:
AIM:
To determine the principal stresses and principal planes of a hollow circular shaft due
to combined loading.
THEORY:
The most common combined load system encountered in structural design is probably
that are due to bending and torsion. In an aircraft wing the lift acting at the centre of pressure
produces a torque about the elastic axis and varying bending moment along the wing span. To
understand their combined effect a similar specimen, namely a hollow cylinder is subjected to
a bending and torsion.
(4 4 )
64
Where,
T
R
J
(4 4 )
32
1,2 =
+
2
) + ( )
1,2 = ( ) + ()2
2
2
1,2 =
16
(4 4 )
[ 2 + 2 ]
(1)
(2)
(3)
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TABULATIONS:
Youngs modulus of the tube
Gauge factor
Distance from the centre of the tube to the centre of the hook
Sl. No.
Weight
(Kg)
01
02
03
04
05
tan 2 =
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(4)
Where,
Principal angle
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Hollow circular shaft fixed as a cantilever, weight hanger with slotted weights, strain
gauges, connecting wires, strain indicator and micrometre.
PROCEDURE:
Two strain gauges are fixed near the root of the tube fixed as a cantilever, one on the
top fibre and the other at the bottom to measure the bending strain. Another strain gauge is
fixed at the same location on the neutral axis at 45 to measure the shear strain. Similarly three
more strain gauges are fixed at the middle of the length to verify the result at various locations
of the tube. The strain gauges on the top and bottom of the tube are connected to half bridge
circuit in the strain indicator to increase the circuit sensitivity, since the tension and
compression get added up. The strain gauge at 45 is connected to the quarter bridge of the
strain indicator to measure the shear strain. The outside diameter of the tube is measured using
vernier callipers. Weights are added to the hook attached to the lever in steps of 2 kg and the
strain gauge readings are noted from the strain indicator for each load. From the strains the
bending stress, shear stress are calculated and hence principal stresses and principal angle are
calculated. These values are compared with theoretical values.
NOTE:
For half bridge the strain readings are multiplied by 2 and for Quarter Bridge by 4 to
get the actual strains.
RESULT:
Bending stress at the root (A)
Experimental:
Principal stresses at the root
Theoretical:
Principal stresses at the root
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Wagner Beam
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Exercise No.: 06
AIM:
To investigate and study the behaviour of a semi-tension field beam.
THEORY:
The development of a structure in which buckling of the web is permitted with the shear
loads being carried by diagonal tension stresses in the web is a striking example of the departure
of the design of aerospace structures from the standard structural design methods in other fields
of structures, such as beam design for bridges and buildings. The first study and research on
this new type of structural design involving diagonal semi-tension field action in beam webs
done by Wagner and hence Wagner beam.
As thin sheets are weak in compressions, the webs of the Wagner beam will buckle at
a low value of the applied vertical load. The phenomena of buckling may be observed by
nothing the wrinkles that appear on the thin sheet. As the applied load is further increased, the
stress in the compression direction does not increase, however the stress increase in the tension
direction. This method of carrying the shear load permits the design of relatively thin webs
because of high allowable stresses in tension.
According to the theory developed by Wagner, the diagonal tensile stress t in the thin
web is given by the expression
2
sin 2
...............
Eqn (1)
Where,
W
d
t
Shear load
Distance between the CG of the flanges
Thickness of the web
Angle at which wrinkling occurs
4
tan =
)
2
1+( )
1+(
...............
Eqn (2)
Where,
b
AF
AS
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TABULATION:
t
AF
AS
Sl. No.
Weight
(Kg)
t = 4E t
F = 4E F
S = 4E S
01
02
03
04
05
2 tan
tan
AUC R2008
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
A stiffened thin-webbed cantilever beam held in a suitable frame, strain gauges, strain
indicator, hydraulic jack, load cell and load indicator.
PROCEDURE:
The wrinkling angle is calculated using the Eqn (1) and a strain gauge is fixed at this
angle in the web. Strain gauges are also fixed on the flanges and a stiffener to measure their
respective stresses. The load is applied gradually in steps of 100 kg using the hydraulic jack.
For each load the load indicator reading, strain indicator reading corresponding to each strain
gauge is noted. Precaution is taken so that the beam does not undergo any permanent
deformation. Hence the beam is not loaded up to wrinkling load. The readings are tabulated as
given below
The strain gauges are connected in Quarter Bridge and hence the strain indicator
readings are to be multiplied by 4 to obtain the actual strain.
RESULT:
t, F and S values are calculated theoretically using Eqns (1),(3) and (4) and
compared with the experimental values given in the table.
AUC R2008
Fig. 7.1 shows of a cantilever beam with rectangular cross section, which can be
subjected to bending vibration by giving a small initial displacement at the free end; and
Fig. 7.2 depicts of cantilever beam under the free vibration.
AUC R2008
Exercise No.: 07
Determination of Natural Frequencies of Cantilever Beams
Date:
AIM:
To obtain natural frequencies of a cantilever beam up to the second mode,
experimentally; and to observe the response of the system subjected to a small initial
disturbance and virtualization of the experiment. This virtual experiment is based on a theme
that the actual experimental measured vibration data are used.
THEORY:
Free vibration takes place when a system oscillates under the action of forces inherent
in the system itself due to initial disturbance, and when the externally applied forces are absent.
The system under free vibration will vibrate at one or more of its natural frequencies, which
are properties of the dynamical system, established by its mass and stiffness distribution.
In case of continuous system the properties of the system are the function of spatial
coordinates. The system has infinite number of degrees of freedom and infinite number of
natural frequencies.
In actual practice there is always some damping (e.g., the internal molecular friction,
viscous damping, aerodynamical damping, etc.) present in the system which causes the gradual
dissipation of vibration energy, and it results gradual decay of amplitude of the free vibration.
Damping has very little effect on natural frequency of the system, and hence, the calculations
for natural frequencies are generally made on the basis of no damping. Damping is of great
importance in limiting the amplitude of oscillation at resonance.
The relative displacement configuration of the vibrating system for a particular natural
frequency is known as the Eigen function in continuous system. The mode shape corresponding
to lowest natural frequency (i.e. the fundamental natural frequency) is called as the fundamental
(or the first) mode. The displacements at some points may be zero. These points are known as
nodes. Generally nth mode has (n-1) nodes (excluding end points). The mode shape changes
for different boundary conditions of a beam.
MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS:
For a cantilever beam subjected to free vibration, and the system is considered as
continuous system in which the beam mass is considered as distributed along with the stiffness
of the shaft, the equation of motion can be written as (Meirovitch, 1967),
2
2 ()
{()
} = 2 ()()
2
2
(1)
Where, E is the modulus of rigidity of beam material, I is the moment of inertia of the
beam cross-section, Y(x) is displacement in y direction at distance x from fixed end, is the
circular natural frequency, m is the mass per unit length, m = A(x), is the material density,
x is the distance measured from the fixed end.
Gurunath K AE 2305 Aircraft Structures Laboratory II | 27
AUC R2008
Fig. 7.3. The first three undamped natural frequencies and mode shape of cantilever beam
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= 0,
() = 0,
()
=0
= ,
2 ()
= 0,
2
3 ()
=0
3
For a uniform beam under free vibration from equation (1), we get
4 ()
4 () = 0
4
where,
4 =
A closed form of the circular natural frequency , from above equation of motion
and boundary conditions can be written as,
= 2 4
where,
= 1.875, 4.694, 7.885
RESULT:
First Natural Frequency
= 2
AUC R2008
AUC R2008
Exercise No.: 08
Stresses in Circular Discs using Photo elastic Techniques
Date:
AIM:
To obtain the stresses in circular discs and beams using photo elastic techniques.
THEORY:
A common calibration specimen is the circular disk of diameter D and thickness
loaded in diametral compression (Fig. 8.1).
The horizontal and vertical normal stresses along the x axis are principal stresses
because the shear stress vanishes due to symmetry about the x axis. Also, is positive,
while is negative. We therefore take 1 = and 2 = so as to render 1 2 0. From
theory of elasticity, the solutions for the normal stresses along the horizontal diameter are (after
Dally and Riley 1991).
2
2 1 2
1 =
(
)
1 + 2
1 2
2
6 (1 ) (1 + 3 )
2 =
(1 + 2 )2
where
=
2
=
These stresses are plotted in Fig. 8.2. Along the horizontal diameter, the maximum
difference 1 2 occurs at the centre, that is, at = 0. At this point,
1 2 =
Combining this result with the basic photo elastic relation gives
8
= 1 2 =
or
=
Notice that the specimen thickness does not appear in this equation. The reason is
that the relative retardation is proportional to , but for a given force P, the stresses are
inversely proportional to . The net effect is a result for that is independent of .
AUC R2008
Fig. 8.4. Enhanced image using only the green component of the light used in Fig. 8.3.
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8
8
1330
=
= 761.94
(0.635) 7
A more accurate way of determining using this specimen is to record several readings
of increasing load P as the fringe value N at the centre takes on integer or half-integer values.
The saddle shape of the central fringe allows rather precise determination of N for this purpose.
Then P is plotted as a function of N, and the best straight-line fit of the data is used to determine
the ratio P / N to be used in fringe constant equation.
The disk in diametral compression is a favourite specimen for calibration because it is
simple to fabricate (at least with a template); it is easy to load; it is not likely to fracture; it
produces a fringe pattern that, in the region of interest, is insensitive to edge imperfections; and
it is simple to analyse. It also tests the limit of fringe density that can be recorded
photographically, by producing very large fringe orders in the vicinity of the contact regions.
The image in Fig. 8.3 was obtained with a mercury-vapour light source, which is rich
in green light, but which also contains other colours as well. A Tiffen #58 Green filter was
placed on the 35 mm camera to reduce the transmission of the other colours. Kodak Gold ASA
200 colour film was used to record the image at f/8 with an exposure of 0.7 s. This arrangement
results in distinct fringes up to about N = 15, which is adequate for most work in photo
elasticity.
A somewhat enhanced image is shown in Fig. 8.4. This image was produced from the
same negative as that used to produce Fig. 8.3. However, only the green component of the
red-green-blue (RGB) digital scan was retained, and this component was then enhanced by
increasing the contrast.
Fringe orders up to about N = 20 can be discerned in this figure. The low-order values of N are
marked along the horizontal diameter. Note that the centre of the specimen is the location of a
true saddle point in the function 1 2 : to the left and right of this point, the function
decreases, and above and below this point, the function increases. Such saddle points are
common in photo elastic patterns.
RESULT:
The value of the stresses in Circular disc are computed using Photo elastic technique.
The stress distribution in a disk in diametral compression is unique in that the fringe number N
is equal to zero everywhere along the unloaded boundary.