Professional Documents
Culture Documents
doi: 10.1111/aas.12024
Review Article
Department of Anaesthesia, Juliane Marie Centre, Copenhagen University Hospital Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
Venous access required both for blood sampling and for the
delivery of medicines and nutrition is an integral element in the
care of sick infants and children. Peripherally inserted central
catheters (PICCs) have been shown to be a valuable alternative to
traditional central venous devices in adults and neonates.
However, the evidence may not extrapolate directly to older
paediatric patients. In this study, we therefore review the indications, methods of insertion and complications of PICC lines for
children beyond the neonatal age to provide clinical recommendations based on a search of the current literature. Although the
literature is heterogeneous with few randomised studies, PICCs
emerge as a safe and valuable option for intermediate- to longterm central venous access in children both in and out of hospital. Insertion can often be performed in light or no sedation, with
Methods
A literature search was performed in PubMed using
the search terms peripherally inserted central catheter OR PICC AND children, last updated on 19
September 2012. Relevant original articles were
identified, including observational studies, clinical
trials and meta-analyses. Articles not written in
English were excluded, as were initially review articles, case reports, studies concerning adult or neonatal populations, and studies concerning other
types of IV access. The latter were only considered
where no more relevant studies were available.
1
bs_bs_banner
B. Westergaard et al.
Table 1
Comparison of PICCs with other IV access devices.
Necessitate GA
Serious insertion complications
Serious systemic complications
Mechanical problems*
Patency
Catheter cost
Patient compliance
Necessitate surgical removal
Insertion difficulty
PICC
PIV
CVC
TCVC or
implantable port
Sometimes
Very rare
Potential
Sometimes
Weeks
+++
++
No
Easy
Rare
No
No
Often
Days
+
+
No
Easy
Always
Potential
Potential
Sometimes
Weeks
++
+
No
Difficult
Always
Potential
Potential
Sometimes
Months
++++
+++
Yes
Difficult
Contraindications
PICCs in children
Table 2
Sedation strategy for peripherally inserted central catheter placement.
Age < 68 years
Age 68 years
General anaesthesia
Pre-medication, local
anaesthesia, nitrous oxide
Pre-medication
Local anaesthesia
PICC placement
PICCs can be placed by a variety of trained personnel, including anaesthesiologists, interventional
radiologists, paediatricians or specialised IV nurses.
Insertion can be performed in a variety of settings,
including bedside, in the operating theatre or in a
specialised angiography suite.1518 The veins of the
antecubital fossa can often be identified visually or
by palpation. Deeper veins can be visualised by
high-resolution ultrasound (US)19,20 or by fluoroscopic venography with contrast injected via a PIV
distal to the insertion site.18,2123 Assisted visualisation significantly improves insertion success,15,24 and
several studies have reported success rates of
90100% using these techniques.911,18,21,22 No direct
comparisons of fluoroscopy and US exist in the
paediatric population, and the choice of strategy
should reflect local organisation, resources and
the needs of individual patients. US is probably
preferable in most cases. It is easy to learn,
transportable and provides good visualisation of
veins and adjacent structures. Even so, probe compression of the vein may impede puncture and
advancement of the guide wire. Fluoroscopy provides superior visualisation of the veins in their
entirety including occlusions or collaterals. It is,
however, limited to the angiography suite and
requires an increased radiation exposure, IV contrast and an existing PIV.
Sedation
Fig. 1. Veins of the right arm. The veins of choice for peripherally
inserted central catheter insertion has been marked in bold.
cream applied over suitable veins and/or infiltration with lignocaine. Some children benefit from
midazolam pre-medication or inhalation of 50%
nitrous oxide during the procedure.
Vein selection
B. Westergaard et al.
Table 3
Choice of catheter size.
BAV
Infants
Age
16 years
Age
610 years
Children
> 10 years
23
34
45
MN
BA
BRV
Fig. 2. Ultrasound of the arm veins. BAV, basilic vein; BA, brachial artery; BRV, brachial vein; MN, median nerve.
easier and probably lowering the risk of postoperative complications.11 Furthermore, their outflow to the axillary vein is normally direct. The
cephalic vein sometimes ends in small collaterals in
the upper arm, making it difficult or even impossible to advance the catheter to a central location. On
the other hand, guide wire insertion into the basilic
vein can be difficult in preschool children because of
their elastic tissue and the deep localisation of the
vein. Although the brachial vein is usually easy to
puncture, it is situated close to the brachial plexus
and the brachial artery, and therefore should be
punctured cautiously. Because of anatomical variation, it may be advisable to evaluate cephalic, basilic
and brachial veins along their full length up to the
axillary junction by US before puncture.
Choice of catheter
Insertion procedure
PICCs in children
A
with fluoroscopy. This allows correction of noncentral catheter placement or inappropriate catheter
length. PICC placement without fluoroscopic guidance requires manipulation in up to 85% of insertions
in order to achieve correct central tip placement.23
Once the PICC is in place, the peel-away sheath can
be removed, and the catheter fixed in place (Fig. 3D
E). The use of a suture-free securing device (StatLock,
C.R. BARD, Inc., Covington, GA, USA) with a transparent dressing is preferred over tape or sutures. A
review by Frey and Schears cites randomised evidence showing a significant reduction in dislodgement and unplanned removals compared with taped
securement.29
Complications
The most common PICC-related complications
include mechanical problems (occlusions, accidental dislodgement, breakage or leakage of the catheter), infections (local or systemic), phlebitis and
venous thrombosis. The overall rates of complications in paediatric populations are generally low but
have been reported in a number of studies ranging
B. Westergaard et al.
Mechanical problems
Mechanical catheter complications are rarely lifethreatening but may result in the interruption of
treatment and the need for removal or replacement
of the PICC. Occlusions of the inner lumen are not
uncommon with rates of up to 10.6/1000 catheter
days.6,7,17,18,38 They may be thrombotic or nonthrombotic in origin; the latter is caused by precipi-
Infection
PICC associated infections are potentially lifethreatening and include local infections at the exit
site and systemic infections. The overall rate of
PICC-associated infections in children is reported as
ranging from 0.2 to 6.4/1000 catheter days and
seems to be higher in hospitalised compared with
ambulatory patients.6,7,912,30,39,40,42,43,46 In addition to
study heterogeneity, the large variation may also
reflect varying definitions of CRBSI. The US Center
for Disease Control and Prevention has published
guidelines for the diagnosis of CRBSI, mainly
involving matching peripheral blood cultures with
PICCs in children
Venous thrombosis
B. Westergaard et al.
Well-educated staff and the use of assisted visualisation improve insertion success and lower complication rates, US being the most promising modality
for the future. Meanwhile, new methods are emerging to salvage infected or occluded catheters. Even
so, further evaluation of PICCs in the care of infants
and children by properly controlled and randomised clinical studies in the paediatric population
is desirable.
Conflicts of interest: Proctor contract with Cook
(lecture fee) Sren Walther-Larsen.
Funding: No funding was obtained for this
publication.
Summary
References
Short- to intermediate-term IV access in children requiring IV therapy for 45 days up to several weeks (antibiotics, total parenteral nutrition, frequent blood sampling)
Long-term central venous access as an alternative to conventional long-term devices (TCVC or implantable port
systems) in patients with significant coagulopathy or contraindications to GA, such as significant comorbidity
Temporary central venous access for injection of toxic
medications in oncology patients until a long-term device
can be inserted (e.g., in children with cervical or mediastinal pathology)
1. Humphrey GB, Boon CM, van Linden van den Heuvell GF,
van de Wiel HB. The occurrence of high levels of acute
behavioral distress in children and adolescents undergoing
routine venipunctures. Pediatrics 1992; 90: 8791.
2. Durand M, Ramanathan R, Martinelli B, Tolentino M. Prospective evaluation of percutaneous central venous silastic
catheters in newborn infants with birth weights of 510 to
3920 grams. Pediatrics 1986; 78: 24550.
3. Klein JF, Shahrivar F. Use of percutaneous silastic central
venous catheters in neonates and the management of infectious complications. Am J Perinatol 1992; 9: 2614.
4. Schwengel DA, McGready J, Berenholtz SM, Kozlowski LJ,
Nichols DG, Yaster M. Peripherally inserted central catheters: a randomized, controlled, prospective trial in pediatric
surgical patients. Anesth Analg 2004; 99: 103843.
5. Stovroff MC, Totten M, Glick PL. PIC lines save money and
hasten discharge in the care of children with ruptured
appendicitis. J Pediatr Surg 1994; 29: 2457.
6. Barrier A, Williams DJ, Connelly M, Creech CB. Frequency
of peripherally inserted central catheter complications in
children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2011; 31: 51921.
7. Maraqa NF, Gomez MM, Rathore MH. Outpatient parenteral
antimicrobial therapy in osteoarticular infections in children. J Pediatr Orthop 2002; 22: 50610.
8. Hussain S, Gomez MM, Wludyka P, Chiu T, Rathore MH.
Survival times and complications of catheters used for outpatient parenteral antibiotic therapy in children. Clin Pediatr
(Phila) 2007; 46: 24751.
9. Hatakeyama N, Hori T, Yamamoto M, Mizue N, Inazawa N,
Igarashi K, Tsutsumi H, Suzuki N. An evaluation of peripherally inserted central venous catheters for children with
cancer requiring long-term venous access. Int J Hematol
2011; 94: 3727.
10. Matsuzaki A, Suminoe A, Koga Y, Hatano M, Hattori S, Hara
T. Long-term use of peripherally inserted central venous
catheters for cancer chemotherapy in children. Support Care
Cancer 2006; 14: 15360.
11. Shen G, Gao Y, Wang Y, Mao B, Wang X. Survey of the
long-term use of peripherally inserted central venous catheters in children with cancer: experience in a developing
country. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2009; 31: 48992.
12. Abedin S, Kapoor G. Peripherally inserted central venous
catheters are a good option for prolonged venous access in
children with cancer. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2008; 51: 2515.
13. Knue M, Doellman D, Rabin K, Jacobs BR. The efficacy and
safety of blood sampling through peripherally inserted central catheter devices in children. J Infus Nurs 2005; 28: 305.
PICCs in children
14. Yang RY, Moineddin R, Filipescu D, Parra D, Amaral J, John
P, Temple M, Connolly B. Increased complexity and complications associated with multiple peripherally inserted
central catheter insertions in children: the tip of the iceberg.
J Vasc Interv Radiol 2012; 23: 3517.
15. Gamulka B, Mendoza C, Connolly B. Evaluation of a unique,
nurse-inserted, peripherally inserted central catheter
program. Pediatrics 2005; 115: 16026.
16. Revel-Vilk S, Yacobovich J, Tamary H, Goldstein G, Nemet S,
Weintraub M, Paltiel O, Kenet G. Risk factors for central
venous catheter thrombotic complications in children and
adolescents with cancer. Cancer 2010; 116: 4197205.
17. Frey AM. Pediatric peripherally inserted central catheter
program report: a summary of 4536 catheter days. J Intraven
Nurs 1995; 18: 28091.
18. Chait PG, Ingram J, Phillips-Gordon C, Farrell H, Kuhn C.
Peripherally inserted central catheters in children. Radiology 1995; 197: 7758.
19. Donaldson JS, Morello FP, Junewick JJ, ODonovan JC, LimDunham J. Peripherally inserted central venous catheters:
US-guided vascular access in pediatric patients. Radiology
1995; 197: 5424.
20. Nichols I, Doellman D. Pediatric peripherally inserted
central catheter placement: application of ultrasound technology. J Infus Nurs 2007; 30: 3516.
21. Dubois J, Garel L, Tapiero B, Dube J, Laframboise S, David
M. Peripherally inserted central catheters in infants and children. Radiology 1997; 204: 6226.
22. Crowley JJ, Pereira JK, Harris LS, Becker CJ. Peripherally
inserted central catheters: experience in 523 children. Radiology 1997; 204: 61721.
23. Fricke BL, Racadio JM, Duckworth T, Donnelly LF, Tamer
RM, Johnson ND. Placement of peripherally inserted central
catheters without fluoroscopy in children: initial catheter tip
position. Radiology 2005; 234: 88792.
24. de Carvalho Onofre PS, da Luz Goncalves Pedreira M, Peterlini MA. Placement of peripherally inserted central catheters
in children guided by ultrasound: a prospective randomized, and controlled trial*. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2012; 13:
e2827.
25. Earhart A, Jorgensen C, Kaminski D. Assessing pediatric
patients for vascular access and sedation. J Infus Nurs 2007;
30: 22631.
26. Doellman D. Pharmacological versus nonpharmacological
techniques in reducing venipuncture psychological trauma
in pediatric patients. J Infus Nurs 2003; 26: 1039.
27. Thiagarajan RR, Ramamoorthy C, Gettmann T, Bratton SL.
Survey of the use of peripherally inserted central venous
catheters in children. Pediatrics 1997; 99: E4.
28. Maki DG, Kluger DM, Crnich CJ. The risk of bloodstream
infection in adults with different intravascular devices: a
systematic review of 200 published prospective studies.
Mayo Clin Proc 2006; 81: 115971.
29. Frey AM, Schears GJ. Why are we stuck on tape and suture?
A review of catheter securement devices. J Infus Nurs 2006;
29: 348.
30. Thiagarajan RR, Bratton SL, Gettmann T, Ramamoorthy C.
Efficacy of peripherally inserted central venous catheters
placed in noncentral veins. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1998;
152: 4369.
31. Racadio JM, Doellman DA, Johnson ND, Bean JA, Jacobs BR.
Pediatric peripherally inserted central catheters: complication rates related to catheter tip location. Pediatrics 2001; 107:
E28.
32. Albrecht K, Breitmeier D, Panning B, Troger HD, Nave H.
The carina as a landmark for central venous catheter placement in small children. Eur J Pediatr 2006; 165: 2646.
B. Westergaard et al.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
10
59. Evans RS, Sharp JH, Linford LH, Lloyd JF, Tripp JS, Jones JP,
Woller SC, Stevens SM, Elliott CG, Weaver LK. Risk of symptomatic DVT associated with peripherally inserted central
catheters. Chest 2010; 138: 80310.
60. Bui S, Babre F, Hauchecorne S, Christoflour N, Ceccato F,
Boisserie-Lacroix V, Clouzeau H, Fayon M. Intravenous
peripherally-inserted central catheters for antibiotic therapy
in children with cystic fibrosis. J Cyst Fibros 2009; 8: 32631.
61. Journeycake JM, Eshelman D, Buchanan GR. Postthrombotic syndrome is uncommon in childhood cancer
survivors. J Pediatr 2006; 148: 2757.
62. Skinner R, Koller K, McIntosh N, McCarthy A, Pizer B,
United Kingdom Childrens Cancer Study Group
(UKCCSG), Paediatric Oncology Nursing Forum (PONF)
Supportive Care Group. Prevention and management of
central venous catheter occlusion and thrombosis in children with cancer. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2008; 50: 82630.
63. Schobess R, During C, Bidlingmaier C, Heinecke A, Merkel
N, Nowak-Gottl U. Long-term safety and efficacy data on
childhood venous thrombosis treated with a low molecular
weight heparin: an open-label pilot study of once-daily
versus twice-daily enoxaparin administration. Haematologica 2006; 91: 17014.
64. Massicotte P, Julian JA, Gent M, Shields K, Marzinotto V,
Szechtman B, Andrew M, REVIVE Study Group. An openlabel randomized controlled trial of low molecular weight
heparin compared to heparin and coumadin for the treatment of venous thromboembolic events in children: the
REVIVE trial. Thromb Res 2003; 109: 8592.
65. Dix D, Andrew M, Marzinotto V, Charpentier K, Bridge S,
Monagle P, deVeber G, Leaker M, Chan AK, Massicotte MP.
The use of low molecular weight heparin in pediatric
patients: a prospective cohort study. J Pediatr 2000; 136: 439
45.
Address:
Sren Walther-Larsen
Department of Anaesthesia, 4013
The Juliane Marie Centre
Rigshospitalet
Blegdamsvej 9
DK-2100 Copenhagen
Denmark
e-mail: RH02090@rh.dk