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Resistance
[L-1T-1]
P = k fa Bmb dc g
[P] = [I1L-1 ]
[f] = [T-1 ]
[Bm] = [M1T-2I-1 ]
[d] = [L]
[] = [M1 L3 T-3I-2]
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where
is the torque vector and is the magnitude of the torque,
r is the displacement vector (a vector from the point from which torque is
measured to the point where force is applied),
F is the force vector,
denotes the cross product,
is the angle between the force vector and the lever arm vector.
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jan14, july13,
The low-value resistors are represented by thick-line symbols, and the wires
connecting them to the voltage source (carrying high current) are likewise drawn
thickly in the schematic. This oddly-configured bridge is perhaps best understood
by beginning with a standard Wheatstone bridge set up for measuring low
resistance, and evolving it step-by-step into its final form in an effort to overcome
certain problems encountered in the standard Wheatstone configuration.
Department of EEE, SJBIT
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When the null detector indicates zero voltage, we know that the bridge is balanced
and that the ratios Ra/Rx and RM/RN are mathematically equal to each other.
Knowing the values of Ra, RM, and RN therefore provides us with the necessary
data to solve for Rx . . . almost.
We have a problem, in that the connections and connecting wires between Ra and
Rx possess resistance as well, and this stray resistance may be substantial
compared to the low resistances of Ra and Rx. These stray resistances will drop
substantial voltage, given the high current through them, and thus will affect the
null detector's indication and thus the balance of the bridge:
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Since we don't want to measure these stray wire and connection resistances, but
only measure Rx, we must find some way to connect the null detector so that it
won't be influenced by voltage dropped across them. If we connect the null
detector and RM/RN ratio arms directly across the ends of Ra and Rx, this gets us
closer to a practical solution:
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Now the top two Ewire voltage drops are of no effect to the null detector, and do
not influence the accuracy of Rx's resistance measurement. However, the two
remaining Ewire voltage drops will cause problems, as the wire connecting the
lower end of Ra with the top end of Rx is now shunting across those two voltage
drops, and will conduct substantial current, introducing stray voltage drops along
its own length as well.
Knowing that the left side of the null detector must connect to the two near ends of
Ra and Rx in order to avoid introducing those Ewire voltage drops into the null
detector's loop, and that any direct wire connecting those ends of Ra and Rx will
itself carry substantial current and create more stray voltage drops, the only way
out of this predicament is to make the connecting path between the lower end of
Ra and the upper end of Rx substantially resistive:
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We can manage the stray voltage drops between Ra and Rx by sizing the two new
resistors so that their ratio from upper to lower is the same ratio as the two ratio
arms on the other side of the null detector. This is why these resistors were labeled
Rm and Rn in the original Kelvin Double bridge schematic: to signify their
proportionality with RM and RN:
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With ratio Rm/Rn set equal to ratio RM/RN, rheostat arm resistor Ra is adjusted
until the null detector indicates balance, and then we can say that Ra/Rx is equal to
RM/RN, or simply find Rx by the following equation:
The actual balance equation of the Kelvin Double bridge is as follows (Rwire is the
resistance of the thick, connecting wire between the low-resistance standard
Ra and the test resistance Rx):
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The arms consisting the resistances R] and R2 are called ratio arms. The arm
consisting the standard known resistance R3 is called standard arm. The
resistance R4 is the unknown resistance to be measured. The battery is
connected between A and C while galvanometer is connected between Band
D.
6. Explain the neat sketch how megger is used for the measurement of very
high resistance. Jan13,
The important construction features of Megger consist of following parts:
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Unit-2
1. Explain the sources and detectors used in AC bridges.
Jan14, june12
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2. Derive the balance eqn for Anderson bridge jan14, july13, jan13, june12
AC bridges are often used to measure the value of unknown impedance
(self/mutual inductance of inductors or capacitance of capacitors
accurately). A large number of AC bridges are available and Anderson's
Bridge is an AC bridge used to measure self inductance of the coil. It is a
modification of Wheatstones Bridge. It enables us to measure the
inductance of a coil using
capacitor and resistors and
does not require repeated
balancing of the bridge. The
connections are shown in
Fig: 1.
The bridge is balanced by a
steady current by replacing the
headphone H by moving coil
galvanometer and A.C source
by a battery. This is done by
adjusting the variable resistance,
r. After a steady balance has
Department of EEE, SJBIT
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(1)
This shows that potential drop along ABC is equal to that along ADC.
Consider the mesh ABEA, there is no e.m.f.
(2)
Consider the mesh AEDA,
(3)
i.e. potential difference from A to E is equal to that from A to D.
From
(3)
we
get,
3.
(4)
Now substitute the value of I3 from (1) in (4)
(5)
Dividing (5) by (2)
4.
Department of EEE, SJBIT
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(6)
Multiply and divide by R in the L.H.S of (6) and rearrange,
5.
(7)
Equating real parts on both sides of (7)
(8)
Equation (8) represents the condition for balancing of the bridge.
Equating imaginary parts on both sides of (7)
(9)
Substituting :
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In this diagram:
C1 = capacitor whose capacitance is to be determined,
R1 = a series resistance representing the loss in the capacitor C1,
C2 = a standard capacitor,
R3 = a non-inductive resistance,
C4 = a variable capacitor,
R4 = a variable non-inductive resistance in parallel with the variable
capacitor C4.
7. Obtain the balance eqn for maxwells inductance , capacitance bridge used
for measurement of unknown inductance. Dec11.
A Maxwell bridge (in long form, a Maxwell-Wien bridge) is a type
of Wheatstone bridge used to measure an unknown inductance (usually of low Q
value) in terms of calibrated resistance and capacitance. It is areal product bridge.
It uses the principle that the positive phase angle of an inductive impedance can be
compensated by the negative phase angle of a capacitive impedance when put in
the opposite arm and the circuit is at resonance; i.e., no potential difference across
the detector and hence no current flowing through it. The unknown inductance then
becomes known in terms of this capacitance.
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and
and
Unit-3
1. Explain clearly how shunts and multipliers are used to extend the range
of instruments. JAN14, dec11
The theory follows from Ohm's, and Kirchoff''s laws. In the case of the multiplier,
the same current flows through the meter and the multiplier resistance. The meter
resistance can sometimes be ignored, because it is very small compared to the
multiplier.
In the case of the shunt, the same voltage is applied across the shunt and the meter
resistance. The meter resistance can not be ignored.
This theory does not work with digital panel meters because the input resistance
is extremely high and is unknown. In addition, they are intrinsically voltmeters not ammeters or microammeters like a mechanical meter with a d'Arsonval
movement. To calculate the shunt for a digital meter - just use Ohm's law to see
what resistor (R) will give you the required V (2Volts or 200mV - depending)
for the current (I) to be measured.
Digital meters and valve voltmeters use a potentiometer voltage divider - see
potentiometer software next..
Formulae
For Shunt:
I Rshunt=Rm FSD
whence:
Rshunt= IRm FSD
Department of EEE, SJBIT
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Jan14
Advantages:
Single range ammeters and voltmeters can measure a wide range of currents
and voltages, if used in conjunction with suitable Current Transformers
(CTs) and Potential Transformers (PTs)
The measuring instruments like ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeters etc are
incorporated in the secondary circuit and hence they are totally segregated
from the high voltage, thereby ensuring safety for the operator and observer
The meter need not be insulated for high voltages which would be the case if
they are directly included in a high voltage circuit
Using current transformer with suitable split and hinged core, it easy to
measure heavy currents in the busbarwithout having to break the conductor
carrying current. The core of the Current Transformer (CT) is opened at the
hinge, the current carrying conductor is introduced in the center of the core
through a opening made and the core is tightly closed again. The conductor
itself acts as a single turn primary winding of the current transformer
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a watt meter is used to measure the electric power of a circuit, or sometime it also measures the
rate of energy transferred from one circuit to another circuit. When a moving coil
(that is free to rotate) is kept under the influence of a current carrying conductor,
then automatically a mechanical force will be applied to the moving coil, and this
force will make a little deflection of the moving coil. If a pointer is connected with
the moving coil, which will move of a scale, then the deflection can be easily
measured by connecting the moving coil with that pointer. This is the principle of
operation of all dynamo meter type instruments, and this principle is equally
applicable for dynamo meter type watt meter also.
This type of watt meter consists of two types of coil, more specifically current coil
and voltage coil. There are two current coils which are kept at constant position
and the measurable current will flow through those current coils. A voltage coil is
placed inside those two current coils, and this voltage coil is totally free to rotate.
The current coils are arranged such a way, that they are connected with the circuit
in series. And the voltage coil is connected in parallel with the circuit. As simple as
other voltmeter and ammeter connection. In fact, a watt meter is a package of an
ammeter and a voltmeter, because the product of voltage and current is the power,
which is the measurable quantity of a watt meter.
When current flows through the current coils, then automatically a magnetic field
is developed around those coils. Under the influence of the electromagnetic field,
voltage coil also carries some amount of current as it is connected with the circuit
in parallel. In this way, the deflection of the pointer will proportional to both
current and voltage of the circuit. In this way, Watt = Current Voltage equation is
satisfied and the deflection shows the value of power inside the circuit. A dynamo
Department of EEE, SJBIT
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2. Explain with the help of neat sketch the construction of induction type
energy meter. Jan14, jan13,june12, dec11.
The principle of working and construction of induction type meter is very simple and easy to
understand that's why these are widely used in measuring energy in domestic as
well as industrial world. In all induction meters we have two fluxes which are
produced by two different alternating currents on a metallic disc. Due to alternating
fluxes there is an induced emf, the emf produced at one point (as shown in the
figure given below) interacts with the alternating current of the other side resulting
in the production of torque.
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eddy
currents
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In a star (wye) connected topology, with rotation sequence L1 - L2 - L3, the timevarying instantaneous voltages can be calculated for each phase A,C,B respectively
by:
where:
is the peak voltage,
is the phase angle in radians
is the time in seconds
is the frequency in cycles per second and
voltages L1-N, L2-N and L3-N are referenced to the star connection point.
5. Explain the working and operation of LPF wattmeter. June12
with the wattmeter now placed in series and the transmitter off, measure the
forward RF power. Here's how:
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Unit-5
1. Write a note on true RMS reading voltmeter. Jan14, jan13
A modern digital electronic wattmeter/energy meter samples the voltage
and current thousands of times a second. For each sample, the voltage is
multiplied by the current at the same instant; the average over at least one
cycle is the real power. The real power divided by the apparent voltamperes (VA) is the power factor. A computer circuit uses the sampled
values to calculate RMS voltage, RMS current, VA, power (watts),
power factor, and kilowatt-hours. The readings may be displayed on the
device, retained to provide a log and calculate averages, or transmitted to
other equipment for further use. Wattmeters vary considerably in
correctly calculating energy consumption, especially when real power is
much lower than VA (highlyreactiveloads, e.g. electric motors). Simple
meters may be calibrated to meet specified accuracy only
for sinusoidalwaveforms.
Waveforms
for switched-mode
power
supplies as used for much electronic equipment may be very far from
sinusoidal, leading to unknown and possibly large errors at any power.
This may not be specified in the meter's manual.
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AC power flow has the three components: real power (also known as active
power) (P), measured in watts (W); apparent power (S), measured in voltamperes (VA); and reactive power (Q), measured in reactive volt-amperes(var).[6]
The power factor is defined as:
If is the phase angle between the current and voltage, then the power
factor is equal to the cosine of the angle,
, and:
Since the units are consistent, the power factor is by definition
a dimensionless number between 1 and 1. When power factor is equal
to 0, the energy flow is entirely reactive, and stored energy in the load
returns to the source on each cycle. When the power factor is 1, all the
energy supplied by the source is consumed by the load. Power factors
are usually stated as "leading" or "lagging" to show the sign of the phase
angle. Capacitive loads are leading (current leads voltage), and inductive
loads are lagging (current lags voltage).
5. Explain the two types of phase sequence indicators. June12
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Rotating
type
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These eddy emf produces eddy current on the aluminium disc, eddy
currents interact with the rotating magnetic field due this a torque is
produced which causes the light aluminium disc to move. If the disc
moves in the clockwise direction then chosen sequence is RYB and if the
direction of rotation is in anticlockwise the sequence is reversed.
Static Type Phase Sequence Indicators
Given below is the arrangement of static type indicator:
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the basic oscilloscope, as shown in the illustration, is typically divided into four
sections: the display, vertical controls, horizontal controls and trigger controls. The
display is usually a CRT or LCD panel which is laid out with both horizontal and
vertical reference lines referred to as the graticule. In addition to the screen, most
display sections are equipped with three basic controls: a focus knob, an intensity
knob and a beam finder button.
The vertical section controls the amplitude of the displayed signal. This section
carries a Volts-per-Division (Volts/Div) selector knob, an AC/DC/Ground selector
switch and the vertical (primary) input for the instrument. Additionally, this section
is typically equipped with the vertical beam position knob.
The horizontal section controls the time base or "sweep" of the instrument. The
primary control is the Seconds-per-Division (Sec/Div) selector switch. Also
included is a horizontal input for plotting dual X-Y axis signals. The horizontal
beam position knob is generally located in this section.
The trigger section controls the start event of the sweep. The trigger can be set to
automatically restart after each sweep or it can be configured to respond to an
internal or external event. The principal controls of this section will be the source
and coupling selector switches. An external trigger input (EXT Input) and level
adjustment will also be included.
In addition to the basic instrument, most oscilloscopes are supplied with a probe as
shown. The probe will connect to any input on the instrument and typically has a
resistor of ten times the oscilloscope's input impedance. This results in a .1 (-10X)
attenuation factor, but helps to isolate the capacitive load presented by the probe
Department of EEE, SJBIT
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Jan13
Transducer Classification
Some of the common methods of classifying transducers are given below.
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Unit-7& 8
1. Explain the photoconductive and photovoltaic cell.
june12.
Jan14, july13,
The height of the potential barrier is an open circuited dark (non-illuminated) P-N
junction adjusts itself such that resultant current is zero. Under this condition, the
electric field at the junction is in such a diretion so as to repel the majority carriers.
When light is incident on diode surface, minority carriers get injected & hence the
minority current increases. But since the diode is open circuited, the resultant
current must remain zero. Therefore majority current should increase by the same
amount as the minority carrier current. This increase in majority current is possible
if the retarding electric field at the junction is reduced resulting in the lowering of
the barrier height. Therefore across the diode terminals there appears voltage
which is equal the decrease in the barrier potential. This constitutes the
photovoltaic e.m.f. & is of the order of 0.1 volts for the Ge cell & 0.5 volt for Si
cell.
DERIVATION OF EXPRESSION:
We have seen that the photovoltaic e.m.f. Vp appears across the diode when the net
current I in the diode is zero.
Substituting I= 0. In the voltampere characteristics of a photo diode given by
Department of EEE, SJBIT
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I = Is + I0 ( 1- eVe/ kT )
Is + I0 ( 1- eVe/ kT ) = 0
1+ ( Is/I0) = e Vpe/ kT
log ( 1+ ( Is/I0) ) = Vpe/kT .
Therefore photo-voltaic e.m.f.
Vp =(kT/e) log ( 1+ ( Is/I0) )
But Is/I0 >> 1, except for extremely small light intensities.
Vp = (kT/e) log ( 1+ ( Is/I0) )
This equation shows that the photovoltaic e.m.f Vp increases algorithmically with
Is and hence with illumination it has been shown diagrammatically.
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS:
When a pair of electrodes is immersed in an electrolyte & light is allowed to
incident on one of them, a potential difference is created between the electrodes
this phenomenon is called photovoltaic effect. Devices based on this effect are
known as photovoltaic cells. In a photovoltaic cells light energy is used to create a
potential difference the potential difference so developed is directly proportional
to the frequency & intensity of incident light.
CONSTRUCTION & WORKING:
A basic photovoltaic cells consist of peace of semi conducting materials bonded to
a metal plate. Materials like selenium & silicon are mostly used for preparing
photovoltaic cells.
When light is made to fall on semi conducting material, valence electron holes are
liberated from its crystal structures the electrons so liberated move towards the
metal plate where as holes flow in opposite directions thus a potential difference is
created between the semi conducting materials and the metal plate. Consequently a
conventional current flows in the external circuit through a load resistor R .
In actual form of photovoltaic cells a thin metallic film of silver,gold or platinum is
deposited on a semi conducting layer like cuprous oxide (Cu2O) or iron selenide.
The whole arrangement is than attached to a metal based plate (copper) as shown
in the figure.
When external light is allowed to fall on metallic film F, it penetrates easily and at
the barrier layer between the metallic film and the semiconductor, photo-electric
emission occurs. The photoelectrons so emitted from the layer, move towards the
metallic film. Consequently the metallic film F becomes negatively charged and
the copper based plate positively charged. Hence a potential difference is
developed between two and a current flows in the external circuit.The strength is
Department of EEE, SJBIT
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2.
3.
Operation of relays.
SOLAR CELLS:
A solar cells or solar battery is basically a PN junction diode which converts solar
energy into electrical energy. It is also called a solar energy converter and is simply
a photo diode operated zero bias voltage.
CONSTRUCTION:
A solar cell consists of a PN junction diode generally made of Ge or Si. It may
also be constructed with many other semi conducting materials like GaAs, indium
arsenide and cadmium arsenide. The PN diode so formed is packed in a can with
glass windows on top so that light may fall upon P & N type materials. The
thickness of P region of is kept very small so that electrons generated in this region
can deffuse to the junction before the recombination takes place. Thickness of N
region is also kept small to allow holes generated near the surface to diffuse to the
junctions before they recombine. A heavy doping of P and N regions is
recommended to obtain a large photo voltage. A nickel plated ring is provided
around the P layer which acts as the positive output terminal. A metal contact at
the bottom serves as the negative output terminal.
WORKING:
The working of solar cells may be understood with reference of figure When light
is allowed to fall on a P-N junction diode, photons collide with valence electrons
and impart them sufficient energy enabling them to leave there parent atoms. Thus
electrons hole pairs are generated in both the P and the N sides of the junctions .
These electrons and holes reach the depletion region W by diffusion and are then
separated by a strong barrier field existing between there. However the minority
carriers, electrons in the p-side , slide down the barrier potential to reach the Inside
and the holes in the N-side move to P-side. Their flow constitutes the minority
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Television sets
Computer monitors
Head-mounted display
Broadcast reference monitor
Medical monitors
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Jan13.
The main principle of working of weston type frequency meter is that "when an
electric current flows through the two coils which are perpendicular to each other,
due to these currents some magnetic fields will produce and thus the magnetic
needle will deflects towards the stronger magnetic field showing the measurement
of frequency on the meter".
Construction of weston frequency is as compared to ferrodynamic type of
frequency meter. In order to construct a circuit diagram we need two coils, three
inductors and two resistors. Given below is the circuit diagram for the weston type
Department of EEE, SJBIT
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Axis of both coils are marked as shown. Scale of the meter is calibrated such that
at standard frequency the pointer will take position at 45. Coil 1 contains a series
resistor marked R1 and reactance coil marked as L1, while the coil 2 has a series
reactance coil marked as L2 and parallel resistor marked as R2. The indcuctor
which is marked as L0 is connected in series with the supplyvoltage in order to
reduce the higher harmonic means here this inductor is working as a filter circuit.
Let us look at the working of this meter.
Now when we apply voltage at standard frequency then the pointer will take
normal position, if there increase the frequency of the applied voltage then we will
see that the pointer will moves towards left marked as higher side as shown in the
circuit diagram. Again we reduce the frequency the pointer will start moving
towards the right side, if lower the frequency below the normal frequency then it
cross the normal position to move towards left side marked lower side as shown in
the figure.
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