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109.

Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

Syllabus

Texts and References:


1. Streetman & Banerjee : Solid State Electronic Devices, 6/e, PHI
2. S.M.Sze: Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 3/e, Wiley Eastern
3. V. Suresh Babu: Solid State Devices & Technology, Sanguine, Bangalore, 2005.

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109. Semiconductor Devices

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PN Junctions:
p-n junction is formed by p-type and n-type semiconductors.
Diode is an electronic device constructed by p-n junction, which conducts one direction
of current flow and do not conduct in other direction.
Different methods for fabrication of p-n junction are:
1. Grown junction: Forming junction by an abrupt change of dopant from n-type to ptype or vice-versa. This type junction is called grown junction.
2. Alloyed junction: Metal contained p or n type dopants alloyed with semiconductor
with other type dopants forms alloyed junction.
3. Diffused junction: Impurities are diffused into semiconductors in a gaseous form.
These junctions are widely used in ICs.
4. Ion implanted junction: A high velocity beam of ion impurities is accelerated towards
the surface of semiconductor forms these type of junction.
There are two types of p-n junctions:
1. Abrupt p-n junction: In this the doping concentration on p-side and n-side remain
constant and uniform. The amount of doping concentration may or may not equal.
This type of junction is also called step-graded junction.
2. Graded p-n junction: In this the doping concentration of one
Question:
side is linearly increase with increase in distance x and vicePart A
versa. This type of junction is also called linearly graded
What is meant by graded p-n
junction.
junction?

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109. Semiconductor Devices

PN junction under thermal equilibrium:


How p-n junction formed?
Consider a p-type material of doping concentration Na and ntype material of doping concentration Nd brought together to
form a contact at room temperature, where Na > Nd.
The carrier concentration, diffusion and drift of carriers and
formation of p-n junction are as shown below:

Module 2

Question:
Part B
What is meant by depletion
region of a p-n junction?
How is it formed?

Due to the gradient of carrier concentration in both sides, holes diffuse from p-side to nside and electron diffuse from n-side to p-side.
The diffused carriers recombine and results uncompensated acceptor ions left behind in
the p-side and donor ions left behind n-side as shown in figure b. Then forms
uncompensated negative ions on p-side and positive ions on n-side.
The region of immobile ions between p-type and n-type material is called depletion
region or space charge region.
Due to the presence of ionic charge between p-n junction results a potential difference
between the junction and also develops an electric field.

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109. Semiconductor Devices

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This electric field causes drift minority carriers across the junction and also reduces the
diffusion of the carrier due to its gradient.
The properties of the depletion layer are:
1. This region is depleted of mobile charges electrons and
Question:
holes.
Part B
2. The p-side of depletion layer is negatively charged and nList the properties of
side is positively charged.
depletion region of a p-n
3. Number ions on p-side are equal to the number of ions on n- junction.
side. Thus the electrical charge of depletion region is neutral.
4. There is a potential difference exists between two edges of depletion layer, because of
the opposite charges of immobile ions.
5. The width of the depletion layer decrease with increase in doping concentration.
6. If doping concentration are equal in p and n sides, the width of the depletion region
are equal on both sides.
7. If one side is lightly doped and other side is heavily doped, the lightly doped side will
have more width and heavily doped side will have less width.
The direction of current flow in p-n junction under equilibrium is shown below.

Under thermal equilibrium the net current across the junction must be zero. Thus the
electron and hole current are zero and hence the net current across the junction is zero.

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109. Semiconductor Devices

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Equilibrium energy band diagram of p-n junction:


Consider the following principles to draw the energy band diagram under thermal
equilibrium:
1. There is no gradient for Fermi-level EF,
dE F
i.e.
=0
dx
2. Depletion layer is depleted of mobile charge carriers and the region outside the layer
is neutral.
3. The electric field in the neutral region is zero and Fermi-levels in the neutral regions
depend on doping concentration.
4. The energy bands bends upward in the direction of the electric field or the direction
of energy barrier is opposite to the direction of potential barrier.
The steps to draw the energy band diagram:
1. Draw the equilibrium Fermi-level EF.
Question:
2. Mark the depletion layer.
Part B
3. Draw the valance band edge on the p-side EVp and
Draw the equilibrium energy
conduction band edge on the n-side ECn relative to EF.
band diagram of a p-n
4. Draw the other edges of the bands ECp and EVn, keeping junction.
constant band gap on both sides.
5. Connect ECp to ECn and EVp to EVn which completes energy band diagram.
Isolated p-n materials and p-n junction under thermal equilibrium are shown below:

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109. Semiconductor Devices

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Derivative information from energy band diagram


There is an energy barrier for the movement of electron from conduction band on n-side
to conduction band on p-side and is ECp - ECn. Like that the energy barrier for the
movement of hole from the p-side valance band to n-side valance band is EVp EVn.
The gradient of all energies are same, then

= =

The potential across the junction is called built-in potential or contact potential or barrier
potential or diffusion potential V0.
It is called built-in potential, because it is built-in the
Question:
semiconductor and not an external one.
Part A
This potential develops due to the physical contact of
Define built-in potential.
semiconductor, so it is called contact potential.
Why it is called diffusion
This potential acts as a barrier for majority carriers, hence named potential?
as barrier potential. This potential is due to the diffusion of
majority carriers, so it is also called as diffusion potential.
The built-in potential across the junction is given by

0 =
---(1)
Question:

Part A

Define Fermi-potentials.
=
+
How it is related to built-in

potential in p-n junction?


= ---(2)

where and are called Fermi-potentials on the p-side and n-side respectively.

The Fermi-potentials increase with increase in doping, therefore the built-in potential also
increases with increase in doping.
Equilibrium energy band confirms that an electric field exists in the depletion layer which
is directed from n-side to p-side.

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109. Semiconductor Devices

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Question:
Part B
Plot the distribution of
potential, electric field and
charge density across the
abrupt p-n junction.
Distribution of carrier, contact potential, electric field and charge density distribution in p-n
junction

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109. Semiconductor Devices

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Relation between doping concentration and depletion layer width


For space charge neutrality, the total charges on both sides are equal, so the net charge is
zero.
i.e. = ---(1)
where and are total charge in n-side and p-side respectively.
Then

= 0
= 0
where A is area of cross section.
Using (1),

0 = 0

---(2)

---(3)

And

0 = 0 + 0

+ 0

= 0 1 +

= 0

0 = 0

---(4)

Similarly

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---(5)

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109. Semiconductor Devices

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Problem:
For Si p-n junction at 300K, Na= 1018 cm-3 on p-side and Nd = 1014 cm-3 on n-side. Find the ratio
of depletion layer.
Solution:


=
=


=

Built-in potential/Contact potential:


Under thermal equilibrium
= = 0

Consider hole current

= + = 0 ---(1)

We know that there is a diffusion and drift of carrier and is


function of distance. Then

Question:
Part B
Derive the expression for
built-in potential of an abrupt
p-n junction.

= 0 ()
0 ()
=

Using (1)

+ = 0
0 ()
0
=0

0 ()
0 =

0 ()

Applying Einsteins relation,

0 ()

---(2)

By definition

=
Using (2)

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1 0 ()
=

0
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109. Semiconductor Devices

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1
0 ()
0

Integrating both sides

0 () ---(3)

0
The LHS of (3) is the integration of potential distribution and RHS is integration of hole
distribution.
Apply limit to (3)
0
0

=
0

1
0 ()
0

=
[ (0 )] 00

0 0 =
ln 0 ln 0
0 0 =
ln 0 ln 0
0
=
ln
0
0
0

Then built-in potential

0 = 0 0

---(4)

We have

Substituting this to (4)

=
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---(5)

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109. Semiconductor Devices

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Using (4)

ln

0
0
0
ln
=
0

0 =

Taking exponent on both sides

---(6)

From (5), if doping concentration increases, built-in potential increases at a given


intrinsic concentration and temperature. Also, if temperature increases, intrinsic carrier
concentration increases exponentially, so built-in potential decreases.
Problem:
Question:
Part B

Calculate the contact potential V0 of a Si abrupt junction with Na = 1017 cm-3 and
Nd = 1015 cm-3 at 300K and 450K. (April 2014)
Solution:
At 300K

= 0.026

= 1.5 1010 3 (for Si)

0 =

ln

= 0.026 ln

1017 1015
1.5 1010 2

= 0.697

At 450K

450
= 0.026
= 0.039

300
Empirical formulae to find ni(T) are:
For Si:
= . ( )( ) cm-3
For Ge:
= . ( )( ) cm-3

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109. Semiconductor Devices

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= 3.88 1016 ( 3 2 ) (7000 ) cm-3


= 3.88 1016 (4503 2 ) (7000 450)
= 6.5 1013 cm-3

0 =

ln

= 0.039 ln

1017 1015
2

(6.5 1013 )

= 0.393
Problem:
An abrupt p-n junction made up of Si has Na = 1018cm-3 on the p-side and Nd = 1015cm-3 on the nside at 300K.
a) Find position of Fermi-levels on p-side and n-sides
b) Draw the equilibrium energy band diagram and determine the Vo, from the diagram.
c) Compare V0 obtained from energy band diagram with the calculated value using expression
for V0
Solution:
a) Fermi-level on p-side
We have
0 = ( )

0
= ( )

= 0.026 ln

1018
= 0.026 ln
= 0.468
1.5 1010
= ln

Similarly

= 0.026 ln

1015
= 0.026 ln
= 0.289
1.5 1010
= ln


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109. Semiconductor Devices

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b) Equilibrium energy band diagram:

Built-in potential

0 =


0.468 0.289
+
=
+

0 = 0.757
= 0.757

c) Built-in potential by expression


ln

2
1018 1015

0 =
= 0.026 ln

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10 2

(1.5 10 )

= 0.757

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109. Semiconductor Devices

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Electric field:
The electric field distribution of depletion layer can be obtained
by Poissons equation. It states that

()

---(1)

i.e. the gradient in electric field is ratio of charge density and


permittivity

Question:
Part B
Derive the expression for
maximum electric field
across an abrupt p-n junction.

= 0

Then for semiconductor

() + +
=

Apply Poissons equation on p-side of the depletion layer,

()

---(1)

For 0 < < 0


Integrating both sides

= + ---(2)

To find the constant C, apply the condition,


at = 0 ,

=0

Then (2) becomes

(0 ) + = 0

=
0

Substituting value of C to (2)

+
0

= ( + ), for < < 0 ---(3)


=

Apply Poissons equation on n-side

()
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---(4)
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109. Semiconductor Devices

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For 0< < 0


Integrating both sides

= + ---(5)
=

To find the constant C, apply the condition,


at = 0 ,
Then (5) becomes

=0

+ =0
0

=
0

Substituting value of C to (5)

+
0

= ( ), for 0 < < ---(6)


=

In depletion region, electric field is maximum at x = 0. Apply this condition to (3) and
(6),
From (3)

From (6)

0 + 0 =
0

=
0 0 =
0

Maximum electric field intensity is denoted as

Substituting (7) into (3) and (6)


From (3)

=
0
+1

0
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---(7)

Question:
Part A
Express electric field as a
function of distance in the
depletion region of an abrupt p-n
junction.
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109. Semiconductor Devices

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0 1 +

= +

---(8)

for < < 0


From (6)

=
0
+1

=
0 1

for 0 < <


---(9)
The equations (8) and (9) shows that the electric field inside the depletion layer is linearly
related to distance x and its shape is like triangle with maximum value at x=0.

Potential distribution:
Assume potential at p-side or = 0 is zero.
By definition, potential on the p-side of the depletion layer

= for 0 < < 0 ---(1)


We have

= 0 1 +

Question:
Part B
Express the potential in a p-n
junction as a function of
distance.

Substituting to (1)

0 1 +

= 0 +

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2
2 0

0
+ ---(2)

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109. Semiconductor Devices

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To find constant C, apply the condition =

0 , = 0

Then (2) becomes

0 2
0 = 0 0 +
+
20
0
= 0 0 +
2
20 + 0
= 0
2
= 0

Substituting the value of C to (2)

= 0 + 2
=

+
+

for < < 0 ---(3)

Similarly on the n-side of the depletion layer, for 0< < 0

= ---(4)
We have

= 0 1

Substituting to (4)

= 0 2

+ ---(5)

To find the value of C:


The potential across depletion layer is continuous and at x = 0, Vp = Vn.
Apply this condition to (3) and (5).
Then

= 0 0 0 +
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109. Semiconductor Devices

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0
= 0 0 + 0 +
2
0
= 0
2

Substituting this to (5)

0
2
= 0
0
20
2

=
+

for 0 < < ---(6)


The equations (3) and (6) shows that the potential distribution inside the depletion layer is
non-linearly related.
We can find the potential drop (contact potential) of the depletion layer by

0 = =
Using (6)

0 2

0
0 = 0 0
+
20
2
0
0
= 0 0
+
2
2
0
20 0
= 0
+
2
2
0
0
= 0
+
2
2
0
=
0 + 0
2

=
---(7)

This gives the relation between potential and width of the depletion layer.

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109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

Width of the depletion layer in-terms of contact potential:


By definition, contact potential is given by

0 =

---(1)

It is the area of the triangle formed by electric field


intensity in the depletion layer.
We have

0 =

Question:
Part B
Derive expression for depletion
layer width of a p-n junction.

0 ---(2)

Also

0
Substituting to (2)

0 =

=
0

( )
2

0 0 ---(3)

Also

0 = 0

Substituting to (3)

0
0
2
+

=
0 2
2 +

0 =

Then

0 2 =

20 +

---(4)

This gives the relation of depletion width in-terms of contact potential.

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109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

Problem:
An abrupt Si p-n junction has Na = 1017cm-3 on p-side and Nd = 1015cm-3 on the n-side. The area
of cross section of the diode is 10-4cm-2. The relative permittivity of Si is 11.8. Determine the
followings at 300K:
a) Built-in potential
b) Depletion layer width W0, xn0 and xp0.
c) The maximum electric field.
d) The charge on one side of depletion layer.
e) Plot the electric field and charge density to scale.
Solution:
Given that
Na = 1017cm-3
Nd = 1015cm-3
A = 10-4cm-2

= .
a) Built-in potential

0 =


ln

At 300K

= 0.026

= 1.5 1010 cm-3


Then

1017 1015
0 = 0.026 ln
= 0.697
(1.5 1010 )2
b) Depletion layer width W0, xn0 and xp0

0 =

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20 1
1
+

2 0 1
1
+

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109. Semiconductor Devices

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2 8.854 1014 11.8 0.697


1.6 1019

10

2 8.854 1014 11.8 0.697


1.6 10

19

15 +

1
1017

1.01 1015

= 9.588 105
0 = 0

= 9.588 10

0 = 0

1015

10

17

+ 10

15

= 9.493 107

= 9.588 105

1017
= 9.493 105
17
15
10 + 10

c) The maximum electric field.


Given Na > Nd

0 =
0

1.6 1019 1017


3
7
=

9.493

10
=
14.54

10
/
14
8.854 10

11.8

d) The charge on one side of depletion layer.

= 0
19

1017 9.493 107 104 = 15.189 10


19
17
2
Charge on p-side = = 1.6 10
10 = 1.6 10 /3
19
15
4
Charge on p-side = + = 1.6 10
10 = 1.6 10 /3
= 1.6 10

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109. Semiconductor Devices

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e)

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109. Semiconductor Devices

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Biasing of p-n junction:


The p-n junction diode can make conduction or cannot make conduction by applying an
external potential Va across it. This process called biasing.
There are two types of basing:
1. Forward biasing: When the applied potential Va on the
Question:
p-side is more +ve potential than n-side, the biasing is
Part A
called forward biasing. This voltage is denoted as VF.
Plot the potential distribution
This potential reduces the built-in potential V0. i.e. across an abrupt p-n junction
V0 - VF.
under a) equilibrium b) forward
2. Reverse biasing: When the applied potential Va on the bias c) reverse bias.
p-side is more ve potential than n-side, the biasing is
called reverse biasing. This voltage is denoted as -VR. This potential increases the
built-in potential, i.e. V0 + VR.
The potential distribution of p-n junction under equilibrium, forward bias and reverse
bias are shown below:

Effect of biasing on depletion width:


In general, the application of Va, the change in built-in potential can represent as
0 0
Where is positive for forward biasing and ve for reverse biasing.
Depletion width
0
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109. Semiconductor Devices

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20 1
1
+

2(0 ) 1
1
+

0
0

+
+
0

+
+

Maximum electric field

All the above equations show that, under forward bias: the depletion width and
maximum electric field decreases and under reverse bias: the depletion width and
maximum electric field increases.

Energy band diagram of p-n junction under forward bias and reverse bias:
To plot energy band diagram of p-n junction under biasing, do the following steps:
Forward bias:
Step 1: Fix energies on p-side same as equilibrium condition.
Step 2: Leave the space for depletion layer (less than space for equilibrium condition).
Step 3: With forward bias, energy barrier reduces by qVF. Therefore plot ECn, EVn and EFn
move up by qVF relative to equilibrium.
Step 4: Complete energy band diagram on n-side and connect conduction band and valance
band.
Reverse bias:
Step 1: Fix energies on p-side same as equilibrium condition.
Step 2: Leave the space for depletion layer (more than space for equilibrium condition).
Step 3: With reverse bias, energy barrier increases by qVR. Therefore plot ECn, EVn and EFn
move down by qVR relative to equilibrium.
Step 4: Complete energy band diagram on n-side and connect conduction band and valance
band.
Question:
Part A
Plot the energy band diagram of
a p-n junction under a) forward
bias b) reverse bias.
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109. Semiconductor Devices

Current flow through p-n junction diode:


Under thermal equilibrium, few holes from p-side
diffuse to n-side and few holes from n-side drift to
p-side. So the current due to hole is in opposite
direction and cancels each other. Meanwhile few
electrons from n-side diffuse to p-side and few
electrons from p-side drift to n-side. Then the current

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Module 2

Question:
Part A
Explain the different current
components in p-n junctions,
their directions and variation
with biasing.

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109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

due to electrons also opposite direction and cancels each other. Then net current is
zero.
Under forward bias, the energy barrier reduces by qVF. Then more holes diffuse from
p-side to n-side and few holes drift from n-side to p-side. So net current due to holes
is not zero and proportional to diffusion of holes. Similarly more electrons from nside diffuse to p-side and few electrons from p-side drift to n-side, then there is a
current and is due to diffusion of electrons. The net current in p-n junction is due to
diffusion of electrons and holes, and it is a function of applied forward biasing
voltage VF and this current is also called forward current.
Under reverse bias, the energy barrier increases by qVR. Then diffusion of holes from
p-side to n-side and electrons from n-side to p-side will decrease. But the drift of
electrons from p-side to n-side and holes from n-side to p-side is there. Then the net
current is due to the drift of the thermally generated minority carriers electrons and
holes. This current is also called reverse saturation current or leakage current. This
current is constant at a given temperature, because it depends only on the minority
carrier concentration. If temperature or applied optical energy increases, the reverse
saturation current increases, because of the increment in intrinsic carrier
concentration.

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109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

The direction of particle flow and current flow in p-n junction under equilibrium,
forward bias and reverse bias is shown below:

The ideal diode equation:


The ideal current equation gives the relationship between applied voltage Va and
current flow in diode in terms of the diode parameters.
To derive the equation, consider the following approximations:
1. Diode is long, therefore length of p and n sides are large comparing to diffusion
length of minority carriers.
2. The depletion region is completely depleted by mobile carriers and the region
outside the depletion layer is perfectly neutral.
3. The p-n junction is abrupt, so that the carrier concentrations are constant on p and
n sides.
4. The contacts at two ends are perfect ohmic contacts and minority carrier density
at the contact equals the equilibrium value.
5. The excess carrier injection to either side is low under forward bias, so it is less
than equilibrium majority carrier concentrations.
6. The temperature and doping are enough to ionize impurities.
7. There is no generation or recombination within the depletion region, so that the
hole and electron current in this region is constant.
8. The diode is in steady state condition.
Consider the origin of distance on the n-side is of edge
Question:
of the depletion layer on the n-side and p-side is of
Part B
edge of the depletion layer on the p-side. The distance
Derive the ideal diode equation
is notated as xp on p-side and xn on n-side.
for a long base diode.

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109. Semiconductor Devices

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The current in a p-n junction is the sum of electron current and hole current. These
currents are constant in the depletion region. Then the total current of the diode is
evaluated at any point in the depletion region.

= +
= ( = 0) + ( = 0) ---(1)

The minority carrier distribution in a forward biased p-n junction is shown below:

Where is excess minority carrier at = 0 and is excess minority carrier

at = 0.
We have

---(2)

When the bias voltage Va is applied V0 changes to V0 - Va and the hole concentration
0 at the edge xp = 0 become ( = 0) and 0 at the edge xn = 0 become
( = 0).
Then

( =)
(

( )
=

=)

Hole concentration is constant on p-side, then

---(3)

= 0 = 0

Then (3) becomes

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( )
=

=)

---(4)

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Dividing (2) by (4)

= ( )


( = )
( = )


( = ) =

---(5)

Total hole concentration at xn = 0 is the sum of the equilibrium minority


concentration and excess minority carrier concentration.

= = +
= =
Substituting (5)

=
= ( ) ---(6)
Similarly for excess electron concentration at xp = 0 is given by

= (

) ---(7)

Equations (6) and (7) shows that the injected excess minority carrier concentrations
increase exponentially with increase in forward bias. Its magnitude also depends on
the equilibrium minority carrier concentration.
By continuity equation for holes on the n-side under steady-state,

2
2

2
2

(Continuity equation)

2 (by steady state)

Applying this

( ) =

( )

---(8)

The solution is

---(9)

Apply boundary conditions


At xn = 0,

=
At xn = , =
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109. Semiconductor Devices

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Then (9) becomes

= +

And

= +
=
Then

=
The solution (9) becomes

---(10)

This shows that the hole distribution in the n-region and it decays exponentially from
its initial value .
Then the hole diffusion current on n-side is

(Since =
, = )

( )

Using (10)

=
= +

---(11)

Similarly the electron diffusion current on p-side is given by

= ---(12)

(The ve direction shows the ve direction of current flow)


Then total diode current by (1)

= ( = 0) + ( = 0)
By (11) and (12)

= = +
=
=
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= +

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109. Semiconductor Devices

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Substituting (6) and (7)

) +

= ( ) ---(13)

Where

is called reverse saturation current.


We have

=
=
Then

---(14)

This shows that reverse saturation current is a function of temperature and if


temperature increases, ni increases and IS also increases. It is not a function of biasing
voltage.
At a given temperature Ge p-n junction diode have more IS than others.

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109. Semiconductor Devices

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The I-V characteristics of ideal diode is shown below:


Question:
Part A
Plot the characteristics of a
diode. Explain.

Under forward bias, i.e. Va > 0, the current increases exponentially with increase in
forward bias voltage. Then forward current can approximate as

Where

=
.

Under forward bias the resistance of the diode reduces by increasing applied forward
biasing voltage.
Under reverse bias, i.e. Va < 0, the current remains constant at -IS. The reverse current
can approximate as

Where
.
This reverse saturation current is small in the order of several A for Ge diodes and
few nA for Si diodes.

Department of ECE, VKCET

Page32

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

Under reverse bias the resistance of diode decreases by increasing applied reverse
bias voltage.
Minority and majority carrier distribution in p-n junction:
The remains constant in depletion region, but may vary outside.
The minority carrier current is maximum at the edges of the depletion region and
reduces to zero at the ohmic contacts.
We have the total current in a diode

On n-side the minority carrier current

( ) =

Then majority carrier current

On p-side the minority carrier current

( ) =

Then majority carrier current

The distribution of majority and minority carrier current through the diode is shown
below:

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Page33

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

Problem
The following data are given for a Si abrupt p-n junction at 300K. A = 1 cm2 Va = 0.6V
On p-side: Na = 1018 cm-3 n = 50s Dn = 34 cm2/s
On n-side: Nd = 1016 cm-3 p = 10s Dp = 13 cm2/s
Calculate Ip(xn = 0) , In(xp = 0) and total diode current at kT/q = 0.026V.
Solution:

( ) =

=
( = ) =

.
=
=

= = .

= .

= .

. .

= .

( ) =

=
( = ) =

= .

.
=
=

= = .

= .

. .

= .

= = + = = . + . = .
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Page34

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

Minority carrier distribution in a reverse biased p-n junction:


The minority carrier (hole) concentration on n-side is

= 0 + ( ) ---(1a)
The minority carrier (electron) on p-side is

= 0 + ( )---(1b)

We have

Question:
Part A
Plot minority carrier distribution
across an abrupt p-n junction
under a) forward bias b) reverse
bias.

=
---(2a)

=
=

---(2b)

Under reverse bias


=

And

Apply this to (2)

= ---(3a)
= ---(3b)
Using (1)

= = (
= = (

) ---(4a)

) ---(4b)

Equations (3) shows that excess minority carrier is zero at x and at the edge of
the depletion region it is on n-side and on p-side.

Equations (4) shows that the minority carrier is same as equilibrium minority carrier
concentration at x and is zero at the edges of depletion layer.
The plot of the minority carrier distribution in a reverse bias p-n junction is shown
below:

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Page35

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

General form of diode equation:


Consider the length of p-side as Wp and n-side Wn.
Then the diode current is given by

=
+

Question:
Part A
Give the generalized form of
diode equation. How it is
modified for a short diode?

Then for short diode Wp << Ln and Wn << Lp


And

=
Where coth

Wn
Lp

=L

1
p Wn

, if

Wn
Lp

is small

Real diodes:
The diode current equation may differ from the ideal
Question:
behavior due to:
Part A
1. Generation/recombination in the depletion layer
What is real diode? What are the
2. Voltage drop associated with neutral n and p factors that deviate the
regions
characteristics of a real diode
3. Current due to leakage across the surface of p-n from that of the ideal diode?
junction
4. High-level injection
Current due to generation and recombination in the depletion layer:
Considering the carrier generation in the depletion
Question:
layer, the current due to generation can be expressed as
Part A

=
= ---(1)
Explain
generation
and

recombination currents.
Where is the effective life-time of carriers in the
depletion region.
Under forward bias, recombination of carrier is more and the resulting current is
given by

=
=

Where thermal voltage =


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) = (

Page36

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

Then total forward current

= +

For the given biasing voltage Idiff dominates Irec.

I-V characteristics of real diode:


Reverse current of real diode is

Question:
Part A
Explain the temperature
dependence of reverse
characteristics of Si and Ge
diodes.

= = ( + )

We know that IS is independent of biasing voltage, but


IR0 is a function of depletion width W. Then it increases
with increase in biasing voltage. So reverse current
doesnt saturate.
Also IS is proportional to ni2 and IR0 is proportional to ni. Then IR0 dominate at low

temperature, and IS dominate at higher temperature. Then for Si, reverse current saturate at
high temperature only and for Ge it will happen at room temperature.
The temperature dependence of reverse current of Si and Ge diodes are shown below:

Under forward bias, recombination current is negligible for very low temperature in
Ge diodes. In Si and GaAs diodes, recombination current is large compare to
diffusion current at room temperature. But high biasing voltage dominates diffusion
current over other current. Therefore the shape of I-V characteristics is same as that
of ideal diode.
Taking these two effects, the diode equation can be modified to

= (

Where I0 = IS when diffusion current dominates


= IR0 when generation/recombination current dominates

is known as ideality factor and for Ge diodes it is 1 and Si diodes it is 2 at room


temperature.
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Page37

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

Depletion layer capacitance (Diode capacitance):


The charge on either side of the depletion layer is given by

= = ---(1)

Question:
The distance xp and xn are the functions of biasing
Part B
voltage and depletion layer itself changes with bias.
What is depletion layer
So the there is a capacitance across the depletion layer capacitance? Derive an
and it varies according to depletion layer width. This expression for it.
capacitance is called depletion capacitance or transition capacitance or junction
capacitance Cj.
By definition it is given by

=
---(2a)
( )

( )

---(2b)

Taking

=
+

---(3)

We have

Then

=
+
( )

=
+

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( )

Page38

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

=
+

( )

---(4)

Substituting (3) and (4) into (2b)

+

=
+

=
---(5)

This shows that the junction capacitance is similar to parallel plate capacitance and it
depends on depletion width W.
Under forward bias, depletion width W decreases, then junction capacitance Cj
increases. Under reverse bias, depletion width increases and junction capacitance
decreases.
Equilibrium depletion layer capacitance
Equilibrium depletion layer capacitance is given by
Question:

Part A
=

Show that =

---(6)

With Va

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---(7)

Page39

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

Dividing (7) by (6)

=
=

---(8)

Question:
Part A

This shows that junction capacitance directly


proportional to Va.

Plot of

What is the dependence of


biasing in junction
capacitance? (April 2014)

versesV0 - Va is by

=
+


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Page40

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

This shows that at Va = V0, Cj is infinite and if Va decreases Cj also decreases.

Problem
A Si abrupt p-n junction at 300K has Na = 1016 cm-3 on p-side and Nd = 1014 cm-3 on nside. Area of cross section is 10-5 cm2. Calculate the junction capacitance at
a) Equilibrium
b) Forward bias of 0.5V
c) Reverse bias of 1V and 10V
Solution
a) Equilibrium

= .


= .
.

. .

+
.

= .
. .
=
= .
.

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Page41

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

b) Forward bias of 0.5V

.
.

= .

c) Reverse bias of 1V

= .

Reverse bias of 10V

= .

p+-n diode:
Here p-side is heavily doped and n-side is normally doped. Then Na >> Nd.
Then depletion width

=

+

Reverse saturation current

Since

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Page42

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

Question:
Electrical breakdown of p-n junction:
Part A
When diode is reverse biased, according to ideal
What is meant by
concept a small reverse saturation current IS will
breakdown in p-n junction?
flow and is independent to applied biasing voltage.
(April 2014)
When reverse bias voltage increases to a particular
Does breakdown damage a p-n
value, the current abruptly increases. This junction? Why?
phenomenon is called breakdown of p-n junction
and the reverse voltage for breakdown is called breakdown voltage Vbr.
Breakdown is an electrical phenomenon, it is reversible and there is no
mechanical damage for the diode.
The I-V characteristics of diode with breakdown is shown below:

There are two mechanisms causes breakdown: 1) Zener breakdown 2) Avalanche


break down.
A diode operating under Zener breakdown, Avalanche breakdown or mechanisms
is called Zener diode.

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Page43

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

Question:
Part B

Explain different
breakdown mechanisms
in p-n junctions. (April
2014)

Zener breakdown:
It is the breakdown occurs in heavily doped p-n
Question:
junction.
Part A
This breakdown is due to tunneling of electrons
What is zener breakdown?
from p-side to n-side.
Consider a heavily doped p-n junction, when it is reverse biased the energy bands
get crossed at relatively crossed. i.e. the filled states on p-side (valance band)
comes opposite to vacant states on n-side (conduction band). This is shown
below:

If the barrier separation between the valance band on p-side and conduction band
on n-side is too narrow, tunneling of electrons from p-side to n-side takes place.
This tunneling of electrons causes a reverse current from n to p.

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Page44

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

For tunneling under low reverse bias voltage, the width of the depletion region W
should be as low as possible. This will happen only for heavily doped p and n
regions.
Another reason for tunneling is due to the heavy electric field in depletion region
under reverse bias. This electric field increases the slope of the energy bands and
accelerates holes from n-side to p-side.
Typical electrical field for zener effect is 105 V/cm.

Avalanche breakdown:
It is the breakdown occur in lightly doped p-n
Question:
junctions, where tunneling is negligible.
Part A
This breakdown is due to the ionizing collision of
What is Avalanche breakdown?
carriers in depletion region.
When reverse bias voltage increases, an electron entering in depletion region
gains sufficient kinetic energy. This causes an ionizing collision and generates an
EHP.
Then the original and generated electrons move
Question:
towards n-side and holes to p-side.
Part B
If the W is large and electric field is high, carrier
What is meant by Avalanche
multiplication process continues in a cumulative multiplication? How is
way as shown below:
multiplication factor related to
reverse bias voltage?

This process is called Avalanche multiplication.


The electron multiplication factor in depletion region due to the Avalanche
multiplication M is given by

Where the value n varies between 3 and 6 depending on the material.


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Page45

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

Critical electric field under breakdown:


The maximum electric field in depletion region is

= ---(1)

=
=

Question:
Part A
What is meant by critical field?


+
+
Question:
Part B
Derive an expression for
breakdown voltage of p-n
junction.


=


=

When reverse bias voltage Va = -VR

---(2)

= Vbr breakdown voltage, at which

maximum electric field is referred as critical electrical field .

Using (2)

We know that
Using (3)

---(3)

---(4)

This shows the relationship between breakdown voltage and critical electric field.

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Page46

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

Problem:
A Si abrupt p-n junction has Na = 1018cm-3 on the p-side and Nd = 1016 cm-3 on the nside. Determine the breakdown voltage if critical electric field is 3 x 105 V/cm.
Determine the avalanche multiplication factor at reverse voltages of 10, 20, 29, 29.2
and 29.6V. Assume n = 3.
Solution:
+

. .
=
.

= , =
= , =
= , =

= . , =

+
= .

= .

= .
= .

= . , =

.
.

= .
= .

(This shows that M suddenly increase near the Vbr)

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Page47

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

Comparison between Zener breakdown and Avalanche breakdown:


Zener breakdown
Breakdown due to
tunneling of
electrons.
Characteristics near
the breakdown is
smooth, because of
tunneling.
Occur in heavily
doped p-n junction
Breakdown voltage
decreases with
increase in
temperature.
Vbr is less than 4Vg,

where =

Avalanche breakdown
Breakdown due to
Avalanche
multiplication.
Characteristics near the
breakdown is sharp,
because of Avalanche
multiplication.
Occur in lightly doped
p-n junction
Breakdown voltage
increases with increase
in temperature.
Vbr greater than 8Vg

Applications of diodes:
Diodes:
1. Rectifier Converting AC to DC.
2. Isolation Isolating signals from power supply.
3. Wave shaping.
4. Temperature sensor.
Zener diodes:
1. Voltage regulators
2. Reference voltage source.

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Question:
Part A
What are the differences
between Zener breakdown and
Avalanche breakdown?

Question:
Part A
What are the applications of
diode breakdown?

Page48

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

Switching transients:
Diodes can be used for switching applications or processing AC signals. So
analysis of diode under non steady-state conditions is essential.
For analysis of diodes based on switching transient involves two simultaneous
variables space and time.
Time variation of stored charge:
Consider the forward current in p+-n junction leads to change the stored charge
in the excess minority carrier distribution.

The hole current injected across p+-n junction is given by


()
()

---(1)

Where () is stored charge and is given by

=
()

, ---(2)

From (1), the first term

charge build-up term, for steady-state it is zero.


Solving (1), the stored charge is

is recombination term and second term

is

---(3)

Where is initial stored charge and when current


is terminated the presence of stored charge cause a
junction voltage v(t) and it will be zero when the
stored charge is completely removed.
The junction voltage is given by

()

Question:
Part A
What is meant by stored charge
in a p-n junction?

+ ---(4)

Under steady state this voltage becomes zero.


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Page49

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

Reverse recovery transient:


Most of the switching applications require to turn
Question:
ON (forward biased) and OFF (reverse biased)
Part B
diode continuously.
What is meant by stored delay
When diode is switched between ON and OFF time? How it is related to the
states, a reverse current which is greater than current through the diode? How
reverse saturation current can flow through the it is related to carrier life time?
diode.
Consider a p+-n diode suddenly changes from +V to V as shown below:

During t < 0, diode is forward biased by +V and current through the diode is
=

(where forward resistance of the diode is negligible than R).

At t = 0, the diode is reverse biased by V and the initial current must be reverse
and is =

. This current is due to the stored charge and junction voltage, both

change with time.


At t = 0, the current is reversed and the voltage drop across the diode remains
same as in forward biased.
This is due to the excess minority carrier distribution as shown below:

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Page50

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

When stored charge decayed, the current i(t) remains

until stored charge is

zero and is ve. The current flow and voltage drop across the diode is shown
below:

The time required for stored charge becomes zero is called storage delay time tsd.
It is given by

---(1)

The storage delay time is measured by

= +

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---(2)

Page51

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

Storage capacitance, Cs:


Under forward bias the capacitance due to stored
charge dominates the depletion layer capacitance.
This capacitance is referred as storage capacitance
or diffusion capacitance.
The stored charge

Question:
Part B
What is storage capacitance or
diffusion capacitance? How it is
related to forward current?

= ---(1)
But the forward current

---(2)
Question:
Part B
Derive the expression for
conductance of diode. How
does it vary with variation in
forward bias?

Then

= ---(3)

=
We have

= ( ) ---(3)
For forward bias
=
Then

---(4)

The capacitance due to small changes in stored charge is

= ---(5)

Using (1), (5) becomes

= ---(6)

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Page52

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

Similarly the ac conductance is given by

=
Using (2) and (3)


=
=

---(7)

Then the ac resistance of the diode

=
And

= .

The current flow in diode is given by

()
()
+

This gives that the storage capacitance introduces a serious limitation to high
frequency switching circuits.
Small signal equivalent circuit:
The small signal equivalent circuit of diode under
reverse bias is shown below:

Question:
Part B

Draw the small signal


equivalent circuits of an
abrupt p-n junction
under forward bias and
under reverse bias.
(April 2014)

Where
Cj is junction capacitance,
rR is dynamic reverse resistance, typically it is high value
Rs is resistance of p and n regions, typically it is low value
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Page53

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

The small signal equivalent circuit of diode under forward bias is shown below:

Where
Cs is storage capacitance and its value is lesser than Cj, so this capacitance
dominates.
rF is dynamic forward resistance. We have
= ( )
= ---(1)

From (1)

Then

---(2)

Problem:
For a p+-n Si diode at 300K, Nd = 1015 cm-3 on the n-side, cross sectional area is 10-3 cm2
on n-side and minority carrier life time is 0.1s. If the diffusion constant is 16cm2/s,
calculate dynamic forward resistance and storage capacitance at forward-bias of 0.6V.
Assume = 1.
Solution:
We have

and

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Page54

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

For p+-n junction

= (

If forward biased


Given

= /
= .
=
Then

. = .

.
=
=
= .

=
= .
.

.
= .
= . . (.) = .

.
=
=
= .

.
=
=
. = .

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Page55

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

Problem:
A Si p-n junction at 300K has Na = 1016cm-3, Nd = 1015cm-3, n = p = 0.1s, A = 10-3cm2.
Determine:
a) Junction capacitance at zero bias Cj0
b) Junction capacitance at Va = -5V
c) Storage capacitance at Va = 0.5V
Assume p = 480 cm2/V-s and n = 1300 cm2/V-s
Solution:
a)

= .


= .
.

. .

+
.

= .
. .
=
=
= .

.
= .

b)

.
=
= . = .

+
.

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Page56

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

c)


= ( )

=
+

=
=

, =

, =

= . = . /
= . = . /

. . = .

. . = .

=
=

=
=

= .

.
.

.
.
+

= .

= = . . .
= .

.
=
=
. = .

.
= .

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Page57

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

Metal Semiconductor Contact:


The junction between a metal and semiconductor may behave like a diode or an
ohmic contact.
The diode made up of metal semiconductor contact is called Schottky diode. This
type of diodes are mainly used for fastest switching applications.
The behavior of metal semiconductor contacts depends on the work functions of
metal m and semiconductor s.
The work function is the difference between vacuum level energy and Fermi-level
energy. Vacuum level energy is the energy required to remove an electron at the
Fermi-level to the vacuum outside the metal.
According the relative work functions between metal and semiconductor, the contact
may be rectifying or ohmic and are as follows:
Relative work functions
Type of contact
Metal n-type semiconductor
Metal p-type semiconductor

m > s

Rectifying
Ohmic

Metal n-type semiconductor Schottky contact:


Consider the energy band diagram of metal n-type
semiconductor during isolated and equilibrium states:

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m < s

Ohmic
Rectifying
Question:
Part B
Draw the energy band diagram
of metal n-type semiconductor
with m > s under
equilibrium and bias.

Page58

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

Due to the high conduction band energy level in n-type semiconductor, electrons move
from semiconductor to metal until the barrier potential maintains by a depletion
region. Then the n-side near the metal will completely
Question:
depleted with charge carriers.
Part A
Under equilibrium, there is a barrier for electron flow
Write the expression for V0 and
from metal to semiconductor and is
for metal n-type

= ---(1)

Where x is electron affinity of semiconductor.


From the isolated energy band diagram,

= ( )---(2)
= + ( )---(3)

Also the energy barrier for electron flow from


semiconductor to metal is

semiconductor contact in terms


of and .
Question:
Part A
Define electron affinity and
work function of a
semiconductor.

= ( ) ---(4)

Using (1), (2) and (3), (4) becomes

= ( )
= + ( )
= ---(5)
Using (5) and (2), (1) becomes

= +
= + ( )---(6)
This energy barrier is called Schottky energy barrier and it varies from different metalsemiconductor contact. It is independent of applied biasing voltage.
The barrier for electron movement from semiconductor to metal can change by biasing
voltage. The energy band diagram of forward biased and reverse biased metal n-type
contact are shown below:

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Page59

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

Under forward bias, the barrier from semiconductor to metal decreases and current flow
from metal to semiconductor increases. The current is mainly due to the electron flow
from semiconductor to metal.
Under reverse bias, the barrier from semiconductor to metal increases and the injection
of electron flow from semiconductor to metal decreases. But there is a flow of minority
carriers and causes a low current flow.
Depletion width and electric field of metal semiconductor contact junction:
The equilibrium depletion layer width of metal semiconductor junction is similar to
p+-n junction. It is given as

The potential drop of the junction is given as

Question:
Part A
Derive the expression for
equilibrium depletion layer
width of Schottky diode.

Then maximum electric field

Problem
A contact between tungsten and n-type Si with Nd = 1015 cm-3 is made at 300K. Calculate
the contact potential, equilibrium depletion layer width and maximum electric field at
equilibrium. Given = 4.5V, electron affinity of n-type Si is 3.84V, NC = 2.8 x 1019
cm-3.
Solution:
Contact potential

= ( )
We have

i.e.

=
+ =

+ =

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Page60

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

.
=
= .

= .
=

( )
= . . . = .

. .

= . = .

.
=
=
= . /

.
Depletion layer capacitance of metal semiconductor contact:
It is similar to that of p+-n type diode.
Question:
Part A
Derive the expression for
depletion layer capacitance of
Schottky diode.

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Page61

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

V-I characteristics of metal semiconductor contact:


Under forward bias, there is no change in energy barrier
Question:
from metal to semiconductor. Therefore the electron
Part B
flow from metal to semiconductor is negligible. The
Derive the expression for I-V
energy barrier from semiconductor to metal reduces in relationship of Schottky diode.
forward biasing by qVF and electron can flow from
semiconductor to metal.
Then the current due the forward biasing is mainly due to the majority carrier flow
from semiconductor to metal. Then there is no minority carrier storage in Schottky
diodes.
The barrier from metal to semiconductor reduces according to the contact between
metal and semiconductor. Then the current flow in metal semiconductor contact can
be expressed by thermonic emission current.
By Richardson-Dushmann equation, thermonic emission current can represented by
= ---(1)
Where A is surface area of emission, R is Richardson constant =

, T is

absolute temperature.
Then current due to electron flow from semiconductor to metal is given by
= () ---(2)
Where is Richardson constant with mn*
The current due to electron flow from metal to semiconductor is given by
= ---(3)
Then the net current flow through the junction is

=
= ()
= ( )
=
=

---(4)

= is reverse saturation current of metal semiconductor


junction. And = = .
Where

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Page62

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

The main difference between Si p-n junction diode and Si Schottky diode is: Schottky
diode has high forward current as well as reverse saturation current. This is shown
below:
Question:
Part A

Draw the V-I


characteristics of Si p-n
junction and Si
Schotkky diode. (April
2014)

Comparison between Schottky diode and p-n junction diode:


Schottky diode
p-n junction diode
High reverse saturation
Low reverse saturation
current
current
Lower forward voltage
Higher forward voltage
drop
drop
Used as low-voltage high- Used as high-voltage
current rectifier
high/low current rectifier
There is no minority
carrier diffusion, hence no Have storage capacitance
storage capacitance.
Reverse recovery time is
Reverse recovery time is
decided by junction
decided only by the
capacitance as well as
junction capacitance,
storage capacitance,
hence suitable for high
hence not suitable for
speed switching
high speed applications.

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Question:
Part A
What are the advantages of
Schottky diode over abrupt p-n
junction diode?

Page63

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

Problem
Question:
Part B

A metal with work function of 4.3eV is deposited on n-type Si.


Determine the doping density required at 300K, so that there is no
space charge region at equilibrium. Electron affinity of Si is
4.15eV. (April 2014)
Solution:
Given

= .
= .
If there is no space charge region, V0 = 0V.
We have
= ---(1)

= ( )
= ( )
= + ( )
= = . . = . ---(2)
=

For Si, Eg = 1.1eV, then =

= .

= (. + )
Substitute this into (2), = .
. + = .
= . . = .
Using (1)

= . .

= .

Problem
A Schottky barrier diode is formed by depositing tungsten on n-type Si. Determine at 300K,
if Nd = 1015 cm-3, = . and electron affinity = 4.15eV
a) V0 b) W0 c)
Solution:
a)

= ( )
=?
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Page64

109. Semiconductor Devices

= . ---(1)

Module 2

=
= .
= .

.
= .

Substitute to (1)

= .
+ . = .
= . . = .
= = . . . = .
= .
b)

. .

=
.

=
=
= . /

Department of ECE, VKCET

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109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

Problem
A Schottky diode between tungsten and Si doped with 1015 As atoms /cm3 has a junction
area of 10-3 cm2. R* = 110 A/K2 cm2, = . at 300V.
a) Determine the current through the diode at 300K for forward bias of 0.3V.
b) Consider a p+-n junction diode with equal doping n-side. What is the current at the
same forward bias? Take Dp = 12 cm2/s and p = 1s.
c) What is the forward voltage required for the same forward current as that in part (a)?
Solution:
a)

= . . .
= . = .

b)
For p+-n junction diode

=
=

= .

= .

= .

.
= .

c)

. = .

. =

.
.

.
.

= .

= .
= . = . . = .
(This shows that p+-n junction diode require more biasing voltage than Schottky diode to get
same current)
Department of ECE, VKCET

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109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

Metal p-type semiconductor Schottky diode:

> .

This junction contact behaves like rectifier when

The energy band diagram of metal p-type semiconductor under isolated, equilibrium,
forward biased and reverse biased conditions are shown below:

Department of ECE, VKCET

Page67

109. Semiconductor Devices

Module 2

Question:
Ohmic contact:
Part A
These are for making contact with semiconductor.
What is ohmic contact?
The energy band diagram of metal n-type
semiconductor ohmic contact under isolated, equilibrium, forward biased and reverse
biased conditions are shown below:

Under isolate condition, Fermi level of metal is greater than semiconductor, because

m < s

At equilibrium, EFs moves closer to EFm and there is no barrier for the movement of
electron from metal to semiconductor or vice versa.
The electrons move from metal to semiconductor and accumulate near the interface.
There is no depletion layer near the junction.
During +ve bias between metal and semiconductor, the potential and electric field
across the semiconductor bend upwards. Then the carriers from both directions cross
the junction.
During ve bias between metal and semiconductor, the potential and electric field
bend downwards and carriers flow in both direction.

Department of ECE, VKCET

Page68

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