Frequently Asked Questions

from
The Art of Electronics
by
Paul Horowitz and Winfield Hill
AMiglani2014@gmail.com
Last Updated: November 13, 2014

Contents
1 Foundations

2 Transistors

3 Field-Effect Transistors

4 Feedback and Operational Amplifiers

4.1 Introduction to feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Operational Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Golden Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Inverting Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 Non-inverting Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6 Followers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7 Current Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8 Basic Cautions for Op-Amp Circuits . . . . . . .
4.9 Linear Cicuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.10 Nonlinear Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.11 Departure from ideal op-amp performance . . . .
4.12 Effects of op-amp limitations on circuit behaviors
4.13 Low-power and programmable op-amps . . . . .
4.14 Logarithmic amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.15 Active Peak Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.16 Sample-and-Hold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.17 Active Clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.18 Absolute-value Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.19 Integrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.20 Differentiators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.21 Biasing Single-Supply AC Amplifiers . . . . . . .
4.22 Single Supply Op-Amps . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.23 Comparators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.24 Schmitt Trigger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 Active Filters and Oscillators

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Chapter 1

Foundations

Chapter 2

Transistors

Chapter 3

Field-Effect Transistors

Chapter 4

Feedback and Operational Amplifiers

4.1

Introduction to feedback

Q 1: What are the advantages of negative feedback? Ans 1

4.2

Operational Amplifiers

4.3

Golden Rules

Q 2: How much differential input voltage is necessary to swing the output to its maximum value? Ans
2
Q 3: How much current does an op amp draw? Ans 3

4.4

Inverting Amplifiers

4.5

Non-inverting Amplifiers

4.6

Followers

4.7

Current Sources

4.8

Basic Cautions for Op-Amp Circuits

Q 4: Why should op-amp work in active region? Explain if it leaves active region. Ans 4
Q 5: When will happen when an op-amp with a negative feedback has inverting and non-inverting inputs
are mixed-up? Ans 5
Q 6: Why must an op-amp circuit have feedback at dc? Ans 6
Q 7: What would happen if we put a capacitor in series between the output and the inverting input?
Ans 7
Q 8: What would happen if large input current flow in an op-amp? Ans 8
Q 9: Why should the maximum voltage difference between inverting and non-inverting inputs be limited
to as little as 5V in either polarity? Ans 9

4.9

Linear Cicuits

Q 10: Why is this mandatory to use a resistor to ground in case of op-amp with ac-coupled inputs? Ans
10
Q 11: Is it necessary to have equal resistance for each of inputs to the summing amplifier? Ans 11
Q 12: What does happens when output of a non-inverting amplifier is fed to the follower with push-pull
configuration? Explain complete analysis of this circuit? Ans 12
Q 13: Design an 10V regulator using an op-amp as comparator and darlington configuration with power
transistors. Ans 13
Q 14: Why are ripples are reduced if we bias the zener, which provides reference voltage, with a current
source instead of resistive network? Ans 14

4.10

Nonlinear Circuits

Q 15: Give possible configurations for rectification of signals smaller than a diode drop. Also analyze the
circuit. Ans 15

4.11

Departure from ideal op-amp performance

Q 16: What is input current and what are the side-effects of this? Ans 16
Q 17: What is input offset current and what are the side-effects of this? Ans 17
Q 18: What is input impedance and how is this measured? Ans 18
Q 19: Why should input impedance be high? Ans 18
Q 20: What is the (dc) common-mode input range and what does happen when input goes beyond this
range? Ans 19
Q 21: What is the differential-mode input range? Ans 20
Q 22: Explain the importance of output impedance and relationship between output swing vs. load
resistance. Ans 21
Q 23: What is the effect of compensation on slew rate? Ans 22
Q 24: In low-drift and high-precision instrumentation op-amps why should the load be kept very high
above 10K? Ans 23

4.12

Effects of op-amp limitations on circuit behaviors

Q 25: What is the relationship between open-loop gain (A0 ) and gain of feedback network ()? Ans 24
Q 26: What is the relationship between transition frequency and 3-dB frequency? Ans 25
Q 27: Plot the variation in peak-to-peak output voltage with respect to frequency and explain the phenomenon of 1/f drop-off of this characteristics. Give relationship between peak-to-peak voltage
and slew rate. Ans 26
Q 28: For precision applications, why is this a good idea to avoid large output currents? Ans 27
Q 29: What is the meaning of offset voltage at the output? Ans 28
Q 30: Explain how input bias current creates problem at the output. Provide three remedies in terms of
input impedance at both inverting and non-inverting terminals, resistance of feedback network or
dc gain to unity. Ans 29
6

Q 31: What is the typical range of input current in case of op-amp with BJT and FET/MOSFET? Ans
30
Q 32: List down the trade-offs associated with impedance (high and low) of feedback networks. Ans 31
Q 33: List down the trade-offs associated with quiescent current (high and low) of op-amp. Ans 32

4.13

Low-power and programmable op-amps

Q 34: What are low-power and programmable op-amps? Ans 33

4.14

Logarithmic amplifier

4.15

Active Peak Detector

4.16

Sample-and-Hold

4.17

Active Clamp

4.18

Absolute-value Circuit

4.19

Integrators

4.20

Differentiators

4.21

Biasing Single-Supply AC Amplifiers

4.22

Single Supply Op-Amps

4.23

Comparators

4.24

Schmitt Trigger

Q 35: What is the purpose of using positive feedback? What are the differneces in the operations of
schmitt trigger without feedback? Why should not we use negative feedback in it? Ans 34
Q 36: What is the purpose of using two thresholds in the schmitt trigger? Ans 35
Q 37: How does a capacitor increase the switching speed of the schmitt trigger? Ans 36

Chapter 5

Active Filters and Oscillators

Q 38: Is this possible to cascade multiple filter stages to get close to ideal low pass filter? Explain in
terms of trade-off between fall-off and knee of the response. Ans 37
Q 39: What is the effect of cascading several RC sections on 3-dB frequency? Explain in terms of roll-off
frequencies. Ans 37
Q 40: Give definition 3-dB frequency, breakpoint frequency, transition frequency etc. Ans 37
Q 41: What is the effect of using inductor in filters on fall-off, knee etc? Ans 37
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