Journal of Hazardous Materials 165 (2009) 11281141

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Journal of Hazardous Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhazmat

The spatialtemporal distribution of the atmospheric polluting agents during the

period 20002005 in the Urban Area of Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico
Hermes U. Ramrez Snchez a, , Mara D. Andrade Garca b , Rubn Bejaran c , Mario E. Garca Guadalupe a ,
Antonio Wallo Vzquez d , Ana C. Pompa Toledano e , Odila de la Torre Villasenor a
a

Astronomy and Meteorology Institute, University of Guadalajara, Mexico

Geography and Territorial Ordination Department, University of Guadalajara, Mexico
Atmospheric Sciences and Oceans Department, University of Buenos Aires, Argentina
d
Chemistry Atmospheric and Contamination Center of the Cuba Meteorology Institute, Cuba
e
Meteorology Provincial Center of Santiago de Cuba, Cuba
b
c

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 17 July 2008
Received in revised form 23 October 2008
Accepted 24 October 2008
Available online 12 November 2008
Keywords:
Polluting agents
Spatialtemporal behavior

a b s t r a c t
In the large cities, the disordered urban development, the industrial activities, and the transport, have
caused elevated concentrations of polluting agents and possible risks to the health of the population.
The metropolises located in valleys with little ventilation (such as the Urban Area of Guadalajara: UAG)
present low dispersion of polluting agents can cause high risk of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.
The objective of this work was to describe the spatialtemporal distribution of the atmospheric polluting
agents: carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ), sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), particles smaller than 10
microns (m) (PM10 ) and ozone (O3 ) in the UAG during the period 20002005. A spatialtemporal distribution analysis was made by means of graphic interpolation (Kriging method) of the statistical parameters
of CO, NO2 , SO2 , PM10 and O3 with the collected data from eight stations of atmospheric monitoring in
the UAG. The results show that the distributions of the atmospheric polluting agents are variable during
the analyzed years. The polluting agent with highest concentration is PM10 (265.42 g/m3 ), followed by
O3 (0.11 ppm), NO2 (0.11 ppm), CO (9.17 ppm) and SO2 (0.05 ppm). The most affected zone is the southeast
of the UAG. The results showed that an important percentage of days exceed the Mexican norms of air
quality (93199 days/year).
2008 Published by Elsevier B.V.

1. Introduction
At present the problems of environmental pollution are well
known, particularly of the air, that give rise to the accumulation
of risks for the health and the welfare of the population [13].
Much of those problems are a result of rapid and disorderly urban
growth and industrialization, phenomena that often are not accompanied by programs aimed at protecting the environment [46].
For decades air pollution has been associated with certain adverse
effects on the health of the population. In 1948 extremely high levels of air pollution were associated with excess mortality in Donora,
Pennsylvania, United States of America [7], also in London, England,
1952 [8] and Meuse Valley, Belgium, 1930 [9]. These episodes were
characterized by high levels of particulate matter, sulfur dioxide
(SO2 ) and mixtures of gases. On the other hand, not so extreme pol-

Corresponding author at: Av. Vallarta 2602, Col. Arcos Vallarta, Guadalajara,
Jalisco, Mxico CP 44130, Mexico. Tel.: +52 33 36164937; fax: +52 33 36159829.
E-mail address: ramirez@astro.iam.udg.mx (H.U.R. Snchez).
0304-3894/$ see front matter 2008 Published by Elsevier B.V.
doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.10.127

lution levels can also be associated with premature mortality. The

analyses of data from London have shown an association between
mortality and a wide range of concentrations of pollutants, without
any evidence of a lower limit [10]. A study in children under the age
of 15 who attended the emergency services and family medicine
from a hospital in the Social Security Mexican Institute (IMSS) in
the Southwest area of Mexico City in 1993, Tllez-Rojo et al. [11]
showed that an increase of 50 parts per billion (ppb) in the hourly
average of ozone (O3 ) a day, would cause, the following day, an
increase of 9.9% in emergency consultations for upper respiratory
infections, in winter, a gure that can rise to as much as 30% if the
increase occurs for ve consecutive days. A study in Mexico City,
Borja and cols [12] observed an increase in mortality, associated
independently with O3 , SO2 and total suspended particles (TSP).
When the three contaminants were considered simultaneously in
the same model, only the TSP is associated with the mortality, in
such a way that a 6% increment in the mortality was observed for
each 100 g/m3 . There was no independent effect of O3 associated with mortality, but is difcult to attribute the effects observed
to a contaminant itself, due to the complexity of the mixtures to

H.U.R. Snchez et al. / Journal of Hazardous Materials 165 (2009) 11281141

which the population is exposed. The process of urbanization in

Latin-American countries has been extremely fast during 20th century. Large urban agglomerations exist with more than two million
inhabitants. In Mexico, among the cities with these characteristics
are: The Valley of Mexico Metropolitan Zone (ZMVM), Guadalajara
Metropolitan Zone (ZMG), Monterrey Metropolitan Zone (ZMM)
and Valley of Toluca Metropolitan Zone (ZMVT); the four present
highest growth rates. At present the inhabitants of the cities represent approximately 75% of the total national population. The
statistics on the use of motor vehicles provide potentially one of
the most signicant indices of air pollution. We know that from
1984 to 1993, the number of the vehicles in Mexico has grown at an
accelerated rate of 43% [13]. Although the gures provided related
to all vehicles in the country, it is not unreasonable to think that
the majority is concentrated in urban areas and their transit. The
present paper discusses the problem of air pollution in UAG, as well
as the spatial and temporal evolution of the concentration of pollutants during the period 20002005. This will allow the future
evaluation of the impact of pollutants on the health of the population, the making of recommendations to diminish their effects, and
function as a frame of reference for potential control policies and
reducing emissions of air pollutants in the UAG.
2. Area of study
Guadalajara Metropolitan Zone is situated in the Central-West
of Mexico and is the second largest city of Mexico (Fig. 1). It is the
capital of Jalisco state and is located at a latitude of 20 39 54 N,
longitude of 103 18 42 W, and an altitude of 1 540 meters, with an
approximate surface area of 2239 km2 and a population of 4.5 million inhabitants. The physiographic is lie on the Valley of Atemajac,

1129

between the basin of the Valley of the Rio Grande of Santiago, the
Valleys of Atemajac and the Plain of Tonal, between the mountainous zones of the Sierra Madre Occidental and the Axis Neovolcanic
that constitute a natural physical barrier for the circulation of the
wind, which impedes the escape of the air pollution [14].
The UAG is affected for most of the year by the inux of tropical
maritime air. In the course of the year a great variety of weather
phenomena of regional scale, near the surface and in the upper
atmosphere, inuence the weather conditions. The UAG is also
under the inuence of anticyclone systems generated in the Gulf
of Mexico or the Pacic Ocean, that cause a great atmospheric stability inhibiting the vertical mixing of the air. Likewise, it receives
abundant solar radiation due to its latitude of 20 N that makes
atmosphere highly photoreactive [14].
The frequency of thermal inversions is 283 days of the year
(78%), in the periods JanuaryJune and NovemberDecember, they
are everyday occurrences. During the period JulyOctober, their
frequency becomes less than 50% of the days. In December, the gradient of the thermal inversion has presented values of 12 C. The
thickness of the thermal inversion is typically ten to a few hundred
meters, being greater in the dry season [14].
The dominant wind comes from the West (15.5% frequency) followed by the winds from the east (7.5% frequency). In both cases,
their speeds vary between 520 km/h and can reach 2135 km/h.
Likewise, periods of calm are observed with a frequency of 44.3%,
which indicates the great potential for accumulation of contaminants due to lack of ventilation in the UAG. There are two main
wind circulation patterns: 33% for the winter-spring seasons with
western wind ow (southwest, westsouthwest, west, northwest
and westnorthwest) and 18% incidence for the summerautumn
wind Eastern ow (northeast, eastnortheast, east, southeast and

Fig. 1. Geographical location of the UAG.

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H.U.R. Snchez et al. / Journal of Hazardous Materials 165 (2009) 11281141

Table 1
Days exceed the Mexican norms (NOM) and international norms (USEPA) of air quality.
Air pollutant

National limits (NOM)

Ozone (O3 )
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2 )
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Sulfur dioxide (SO2 )
Particles smaller than 10 m (PM10)
a
b
c
d
e
f

International limits (USEPA)

0.11 ppm (1 h)
0.21 ppm (1 h)b
11 ppm (8 h)c
0.13 ppm (24 h)d
150 mg/m3 (24 h)e

0.12 ppm (1 h)
0.05 ppm (annual)f
9 ppm (8 h)f
0.14 ppm (24 h)
150 mg/m3 (24 h)

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

65
18
21
0
199

36
21
5
0
180

75
26
7
9
183

71
5
11
0
115

49
6
8
0
94

66
13
3
0
93

NOM-020-SSAI-1993.
NOM-023-SSAI-1993.
NOM-021-SSAI-1993.
NOM-022-SSAI-1993.
NOM-025-SSAI-1993
NAAQS (USEPA).

Table 2
Statistical results of the means, modes and maximums monthly concentrations of air pollutants CO2 , NO2 , SO2 , PM10 and O3 in the Urban Area of Guadalajara from 2000 to
2005.
Means

CO (ppm)
NO2 (ppm)
O3 (ppm)
PM10 (g/m3 )
SO2 (ppm)

Modes

Maximums

Maximum

Minimum

Maximum

Minimum

Maximum

Minimum

1.942
0.034
0.023
50.915
0.009

0.647
0.011
0.008
20.218
0.005

4.883
0.089
0.053
156.006
0.068

0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000

1.129
0.025
0.009
35.488
0.007

0.502
0.012
0.006
33.397
0.003

4.400
0.136
0.047
499.900
0.052

0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000

9.166
0.114
0.110
265.415
0.049

6.021
0.071
0.044
108.633
0.056

53.600
0.526
0.650
499.900
0.534

0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000

X: arithmetic mean; S: standard deviation.

eastsoutheast). Winds from the North and South have a 5% share,

often with little impact on the local movement [14].
3. Materials and methods
The data on the concentrations of pollutants (period
20002005) were acquired through the automatic network of
atmospheric monitoring (RAMA) of the Secretary of Environment
and Sustainable Development (SEMADES) of the Government of
the Jalisco State (GEJ), which evaluate the hourly averages of the
contaminants, in the stations situated in the ZMG. With the data
obtained the database is formed; they obtain averages, modes and

monthly maximums of each pollutant, for each year and for all the
period.
Subsequently, maps were produced in raster and vector les, as
well as, graphic interpolation (Kriging method) of the concentration
levels of the atmospheric pollutants using the program of IDRISI ,
in order to know the value of the concentrations of pollutants in the
whole UAG. The area (of the UAG) which we used for this research
is based on the radius that SEMADES handles as catchment area of
2 km for each station monitoring, which was conducted in digital
format on the orthophotos contained in the les of the topographical maps of Guadalajara. We digitized a UAG georeferential map
showing the main roads, the municipal limits and the delimita-

Fig. 2. Time series of monthly averages of CO in the UAG (20002005).

H.U.R. Snchez et al. / Journal of Hazardous Materials 165 (2009) 11281141

1131

Fig. 3. Time series of monthly modes of CO in the UAG (20002005).

tion of the research area, with the location of the monitoring; this
from the orthophotos b, c, e, f, of the F13D65 Western Guadalajara
map, and d of the F13D66 Guadalajara map, This was done, at scale
1:50,000, in the program IDRISI . Once acquired data were analyzed to obtain the behaviors and trends reporting mainly the days
exceeding the norm, average, modes and monthly maximums.

4. Results
The results of the temporal distribution show that the behavior of air pollutants is highly variable throughout the year and over
the years analyzed. However, it was clear that the contaminant that
is more concentrated are the particles smaller than 10 m (PM10 ),

Fig. 4. Time series of monthly maximums of CO in the UAG (20002005).

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H.U.R. Snchez et al. / Journal of Hazardous Materials 165 (2009) 11281141

Fig. 5. Time series of monthly averages of NO2 in the UAG (20002005).

followed by the ozone (O3 ), nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ), carbon monoxide (CO) and sulfur dioxide (SO2 ). The spatial distribution show
that the most affected area is the south and southeast of the UAG,
which has the highest levels for maximums, arithmetic means and
modes; also it has the sites with most high events during the period
studied. The annual results showed that a signicant percentage of

days exceed the Mexican standards of pollutants emission (Table 1).

April, May and June presented high concentration of O3 and CO
while December, January, February and March reected intense
concentration of PM10 , NO2 , CO and SO2 , the result of the presence of low temperatures to prolong the duration of the thermal
inversions and low humidity of the environment, not permitting

Fig. 6. Time series of monthly modes of NO2 in the UAG (20002005).

H.U.R. Snchez et al. / Journal of Hazardous Materials 165 (2009) 11281141

1133

Fig. 7. Time series of monthly maximums of NO2 in the UAG (20002005).

their dispersion. Table 2 presents the statistical results (averages,

modes and monthly maximums).
4.1. Carbon monoxide (CO)
The behavior of the average monthly concentrations has with
seasonal variations, a tendency to maintain constant concentra-

tions during the study period, with values below the norms of the
United States Environmental Protection Agency USEPA (9 ppm) and
the Mexican Ofcial Norm NOM (11 ppm). The mean of the monthly
averages was 1.942 0.647 ppm. The range of the monthly average is between 0.0004.883 ppm (Fig. 2). The monthly mode of
the concentration presented seasonal variations with a tendency
to maintain constant concentrations during the study period, with

Fig. 8. Time series of monthly averages of O3 in the UAG (20002005).

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H.U.R. Snchez et al. / Journal of Hazardous Materials 165 (2009) 11281141

Fig. 9. Time series of monthly modes of O3 in the UAG (20002005).

values lower than EPA and NOM regulations. The average of the
monthly modes was 1.129 0.502 ppm. The range of the monthly
modes is between 0.000 and 4.400 ppm (Fig. 3). In turn, the monthly
maximum concentrations showed values above the norm in the
majority of the period analyzed (Fig. 4); however, there were major
peaks reaching values close to 55.000 ppm, which represents ve
times the NOM and nine times EPA regulations, so that these lapses

were risk factors for the population. These events are registered
in the driest period of the year (March, April, May, June), just
before the period of precipitation. The average of the monthly maximums was 9.166 6.021 ppm. The range of monthly maximums is
between 0.000 and 53.600 ppm (Fig. 4). The spatial distribution
show that the zones most affected are the central and southeast of
UAG (Figs. 1719), however, the pollution generated by the CO in

Fig. 10. Time series of monthly maximums of O3 in the UAG (20002005).

H.U.R. Snchez et al. / Journal of Hazardous Materials 165 (2009) 11281141

1135

Fig. 11. Time series of monthly averages of PM10 in the UAG (20002005).

the UAG is considered signicant only at times of the peak maximums.

4.2. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2 )
Most of the average monthly concentrations present values
below the EPA (0.05 ppm) and NOM (0.21 ppm) limits; however,

they show irregularities and in some cases values above the

EPA limit (0.050.10 ppm). The mean of the monthly averages
was 0.034 0.011 ppm. The range of the monthly averages varied between 0.000 and 0.089 ppm (Fig. 5). The monthly modes
presented seasonal variations with a tendency to maintain constant concentrations during the study period, with values below
the EPA and NOM limits. The average of the monthly mode

Fig. 12. Time series of monthly modes of PM10 in the UAG (20002005).

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H.U.R. Snchez et al. / Journal of Hazardous Materials 165 (2009) 11281141

Fig. 13. Time series of monthly maximums of PM10 in the UAG (20002005).

was 0.025 0.012 ppm. The range of values of monthly modes

is larger than that of averages, with values between 0.000 and
0.136 ppm (Fig. 6). In turn, the monthly maximums (Fig. 7) have
very important variations with values from 0.000 to 0.526 ppm.
The peaks of maximum concentration can occur in the winter
epoch or in summer, not showing a cyclical behavior. The UAG

shows very high maximums of NO2 in the period of study. The

average value of the monthly maximums was 0.114 0.071 ppm.
The range of the monthly maximum is between 0.000 and
0.526 ppm. In this case, the spatial distribution show that the
zones most affected are the southwest, west and northwest of UAG
where the maximum values occur; it is a problem of the whole

Fig. 14. Time series of monthly averages of SO2 in the UAG (20002005).

H.U.R. Snchez et al. / Journal of Hazardous Materials 165 (2009) 11281141

1137

Fig. 15. Time series of monthly modes of SO2 in the UAG (20002005).

UAG (Figs. 1719). The contamination by NO2 is serious in the

UAG.
4.3. Ozone (O3 )
The average monthly concentrations showed seasonal variations with tendency to remain constant during the study period,

with values below the NOM-020-SSA1-1993 (0.11 ppm). The mean

of monthly averages was 0.023 0.008 ppm. The range of the
monthly averages oscillated between 0.000 and 0.053 ppm (Fig. 8).
The monthly modes presented seasonal variations with a tendency to maintain constant concentrations during the study
period, with values below the limits. The average monthly mode
was 0.009 0.006 ppm. The range of the monthly mode values

Fig. 16. Time series of monthly maximums of SO2 in the UAG (20002005).

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H.U.R. Snchez et al. / Journal of Hazardous Materials 165 (2009) 11281141

was between 0.000 and 0.047 ppm (Fig. 9). The monthly maximums in most of the reporting period were above the limits
and with a slight tendency to rise during recent years. There are
very signicant variations with values from 0.000 to 0.650 ppm;
the highest concentration peaks occur in times of drought and
summer where there is more sunshine and transformation of
primary pollutants into O3 . The average value of the monthly
maximums was 0.110 0.044 ppm (Fig. 10). The spatial distribution show that the zones most affected are the central, north
and south zones of UAG (Figs. 1719); however, the pollution

generated by O3 in the UAG is considered moderate, which represents a risk factor for peoples health, especially when maximums
occur.
4.4. Particles smaller than 10 m (PM10 )
The average monthly concentrations present values between 0
and 156 g/m3 ; the majority of the records are located between
the limits of EPA (50 g/m3 ) and NOM (150 g/m3 ), and these
levels are maintained without showing a reduction, making the

Fig. 17. The spatialtemporal distribution of the atmospheric polluting agents (arithmetic means) in the UAG (20002005).

H.U.R. Snchez et al. / Journal of Hazardous Materials 165 (2009) 11281141

PM10 the most important contaminant in the UAG. The mean

monthly average was 50.92 20.22 g/m3 (Fig. 11). The monthly
modes presented seasonal variations with a tendency to maintain
constant concentrations during the dry period from September to May; the majority of the values were below the EPA
and NOM limits, with the exception of temporary droughts in
20032004 and 20042005 in the South and Southeast of the
UAG. The mean of the monthly modes was 35.49 33.40 g/m3 ,
while, the range of values was between 0 and 499.90 g/m3
(Fig. 12).

1139

The monthly maximums are all above limits with a range of

0500 g/m3 ; the concentrations vary with constant behavior.
The measured values are above the limits, so they are the main
air pollutant in the UAG. The average of the monthly maximums
was 265.12 108.63 g/m3 (Fig. 13). The concentrations of PM10
represent the main atmospheric contaminant in the UAG, and consequently, an environmental contamination problem and risk factor
to peoples health. However, the spatial distribution shows that
the extreme events are located in the south, southeast, east and
northeast during the whole year (Figs. 1719).

Fig. 18. The spatialtemporal distribution of the atmospheric polluting agents (modes) in the UAG (20002005).

1140

H.U.R. Snchez et al. / Journal of Hazardous Materials 165 (2009) 11281141

Fig. 19. The spatialtemporal distribution of the atmospheric polluting agents (maximums) in the UAG (20002005).

4.5. Sulfur dioxide (SO2 )

The average monthly concentrations varied between 0.000
and 0.068 ppm. Practically the values never exceeded the EPA
(0.03 ppm) and NOM (0.13 ppm) limits. The values remain constant without tendency. The SO2 is a contaminant of little inuence
on peoples health in the UAG. The mean monthly averages
were 0.009 0.005 ppm. (Fig. 14). The monthly modes presented
seasonal variations with a tendency to maintain constant concentrations during the period of study, with values below the
EPA and NOM limits. The average of the monthly modes was

0.007 0.003 ppm. The range of monthly modes presented values

between 0.000 and 0.052 ppm. Only one extreme event in the summer of 2004 was recorded (Fig. 15). The majority of the monthly
maximums during the period presented values above the EPA limit,
but below the NOM limit (Fig. 16). The events that exceeded the
NOM limit occurred in the summer of 2000, winter 2001, all of
2002, spring 2004 and winter 2005. Thus, the monthly maximums
presented very important variations between 0.000 and 0.534 ppm.
The average of monthly maximums was 0.049 0.056 ppm. The
spatial distribution show that the zones most affected were the
central, north and southwestern of UAG (Figs. 1719); however, the

H.U.R. Snchez et al. / Journal of Hazardous Materials 165 (2009) 11281141

concentrations of SO2 mean that it does not represent a risk to the

health of the population in the UAG.

1141

The spatial distribution (Figs. 1719) shows that the most

affected zones are the Center, South and Southeast of the UAG and
eventually we expect extreme values in the rest of the UAG.

5. Discussion and conclusions

Acknowledgements
The evolution of contaminants shows that the UAG presents similar environmental risks to Mexico City. During the past 2 years,
the UAG has experienced signicant environmental contingencies
due to the conjunction of factors such as heavy thermal inversions (hundreds of meters) and duration (breaking at 14:00 and
15:00 h), atmospheric stability (calm winds) and large quantities of
emissions that cannot be dispersed efciently by climatic factors.
Likewise, the vehicular trafc has grown by 20% and a signicant
portion has more than 10 years of use and lack of maintenance.
The results of the analysis show that the maximums of all the
contaminants exceed the limit and that the average and modal concentrations are maintained below national limits (NOM), but above
the international limits (USEPA), which represents potential risk
factors for health.
Based on this, we conclude that in the UAG:
The contamination by CO is considered signicant only when
the maximum peaks are presented (9.1653.60 ppm). The parameter proposed by the World Health Organization (WHO) for CO is
10 ppm for 8 h. The effects of the exhibition frequently demonstrate in the systems of organs the most sensitive to the absence
of oxygen, in particular, the heart and central nervous system. The
high exhibition can cause acute poisoning; comma and collapse.
The classic symptoms of poisoning for CO are headaches, sickness,
severe headache, cardiovascular symptoms and there exists the risk
of comma and the death [15,16].
The concentration of NO2 is important when the maximum
peaks are presented (0.110.52 ppm). The accumulation of NO2 in
the human body constitutes a risk for the airways, being more frequent in cases of chronic bronchitis. The increase of the dose ends
in a sequence of effects: problems of olfactory perception, respiratory inconveniences, acute respiratory pains, pulmonary edema
and nally the death [14,16].
The concentration of O3 is moderate (0.110.65 ppm); however, the exposure to high concentrations during prolonged periods
represents a risk to human health. The O3 provokes injuries in
the airways, pulmonary inammation, depression of the immune
system, systemic effects in the liver, decrease of the aspiratory
capacity, bronchi constriction, and decrease in the pulmonary function, asthma and annoyance of the eyes, nose and gullet [14].
The concentrations of PM10 present the highest maximums averages (265499 g/m3 ) and are the main atmospheric contaminant
in the UAG; this represents a signicant problem of environmental
pollution and risks to the health of the population. The exhibition
to PM10 reduces the pulmonary functions, increase the frequency
of respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular and lung cancers, increase
in the attacks of asthma, pneumonia, bronchitis and chronic cough
[17,18].
The concentration of SO2 (0.05 ppm), remained below the limits
(0.13 ppm), which does not represent a risk to human health.

This work was carried out with the aid of a grant from the
Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research (IAI) [TISG-J-1]
which is supported by the US National Science Foundation (Grant
GEO-0436199).
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