JB Electronic Journal of Biotechnology ISSN: 0717-3458

2001 by Universidad Catlica de Valparaso -- Chile

BIOTECHNOLOGY ISSUES FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Biotechnology, bioethics and the poor

Minakshi Bhardwaj
Institute of Biological Sciences
University of Tsukuba
Tsukuba Science City 305-8572, Japan
Tel: 81 298 53 4662/4625
Fax: 81 298 53 6614
E-mail: bminakshi@hotmail.com

Convention on Biological Diversity describes biotechnology as "any technological application that

uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or
processes for specific use" (UNEP, 1992). There is a wide array of biotechnologies and its
different techniques and applications have provided various goods at different times. Considering
the definition under CBD, we can regard using biotechnology dating back when humans started
using yeast for making bread or using lacto bacillus for yogurt or curd. We are dependent on
biotechnology in our everyday life and it has become inevitable to not to use it.
Biotechnology has come under sharp criticism and media focus for its potential negative impacts
and contingent risks. There is an unprecedented and injudicious uproar because of the
irreplaceable potentiality of the technique and the way it can change the course of nature and life.
The issue is just not limited to agriculture and food, but goes beyond the animals and humans.
Although we can say that humans have been altering the genetic make up of plants and animals
for centuries through selective breeding in plants and animals to obtain desired characteristics
and particular traits of desired species. With the improvement in the basic understanding of the
biological make up and processes of growth and development as well as increase in
understanding of the genetic make up with other molecular and cellular processes, we are now in
the position to apply this knowledge in a more considerable manner in plant and animals for
agriculture and food and medicine purposes.
Biotechnology is a multidimensional issue and it has social, economical, ethical and legal
implications; along with its discrete implications for the environment and all the biological
systems. Although biotechnology has largely been regarded as a legacy of the developed world,
and the current debate on the future of biotechnology has also included its benefits and risks for
developing countries. Many propositions have been made on its advantages and disadvantages
for the poor in the world. Sometimes debates have not been poised and not involved participation
from third world.
Morality and ethics semantically mean roughly the same, although they are not. Morality
describes the accepted norms that govern behavior towards others. Ethics involves rational
decision-making, balancing risks and benefits. There are 4 basic principles of bioethics
beneficence, autonomy, do no harm, and justice (Macer, 1998). Ethical principles essentially
mean the same for all regardless whether one is rich or poor. However, they are generally
prioritized according to circumstances for beneficence and justice to all.

Basically, the main questions raised for the new biotechnology applications include if it would
eradicate hunger, can it assure sustainable development, will it effect biodiversity and how
environment is affected, can it provide a disease free world, will it ensure renewable resource
economy and most importantly its contribution to sustainable development. The premise of this
paper is to reflect on some of the bioethical issues that challenge the principles of bioethics as
biotechnology is applied in many new socio-scientific contexts, especially its relevance to poor
countries.
Food and agriculture
Food is one of the basic necessities of life and its provision and access to it are fundamental
ethical questions. Despite the fact that right to food is recognized as a human right, hunger still
very much prevails and it is causing a lot of suffering and death. The right to food is a concept
extending from Article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which proclaims "
everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well being of himself
and of his family, including food..." (United Nations, 1948). But there are over 800 million people
estimated to be hungry and malnourished globally (FAO). It is an ethically unacceptable situation,
and protagonists of biotechnology believe that it can help to solve the food insecurity problems.
Food security as described in World Food Summit 1996 Rome Declaration on food security, "food
security exists when all people at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe
and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life"
(FAO, 1996). The issue is multifold and complex. Food is the need and the one of the most urgent
demands for the third world. We need to examine why there is food insecurity? Food insecurity
exists because of poverty, lack of resources and furthermore inability to properly utilize the
available resources, lack of information and education and there are many more that can be
counted.
It is believed that biotechnology has great potentials to provide some answers to some of the
questions. Although food security for growing population is considered as the most common and
most urgent need, it makes a little impression on biotechnology opponents who dismiss these
arguments as being heard before for Green Revolution. Green Revolution failed to meet its
promises in the long-term. Post Green Revolution concerns on yield deceleration, productivity
decline, yield ceiling, large yield gap, social inequity, unequal distribution of food and assets; and
environmental degradation as justification for their outright rejection. The second line of thought is
that the new biotechnology provides opportunity for any kind of species in any environment. It is
valuable tool for any kind of land or climate conditions of either high or low potential. It is plausible
to target it to meet any environmental conditions. Nevertheless these are based on unexamined
assumptions.
Unlike Green Revolution, which concentrated on High Yielding Varieties (HYV) biotechnology
goes further beyond to produce herbicide resistant crops, insect resistant crops, virus resistant
crops, salt tolerant crops, increase in food quality and high yield staple crops. Ethically, we can
regard if biotechnology can enhance food quality and food supply with production without much
disturbance to agro-ecosystems, it should be applied to feed the hungry world. But the issue goes
beyond that argument when technologies like terminator technology are being discussed or
FLAVR SAVR tomatoes are being genetically modified to suit the market needs. Use of Genetic
Use Restriction Technologies (GURT) have been controversial especially for small scale farmers
in poor countries who need to buy new seeds every year; where the general practice had been to
save and use the seeds from the previous crop for the following year. However, it is arguable on
the cost effectiveness of using saved seeds, which many times get diseased due to long improper
storage or develop disease later in the cycle.
In majority of the developed countries large-scale farming is done and agriculture is big business.
The picture is different in the poor countries where agriculture is still considered as a social
activity and usually done at a household level or small level. The challenge is how we can merge

the two when it comes to international level. Globalization has its advantages and disadvantages.
Increase in market competition and lack of resources to develop better infrastructure for
agriculture has jeopardized the future of small-scale farmers in poor countries. Although we can
argue that information on technology has become relatively more easily accessible with
globalization.
With regard to consumer's choice and other genetically modified food related issues like labeling,
many surveys show that public has negative feelings against GM food, especially in Europe and
Japan. Choice of food, whether GM or non-GM holds small meaning for the poor who need food
to survive. There are developments for producing genetically modified food carrying vaccines or
enhanced nutritional content that could be source of preventing nutrient deficient diseases. This
might be useful in the countries where large populations suffer from malnutrition.
Health and medicine
The concept of health and medicine is largely related to food and the environment. Hunger,
malnutrition results in sickness and death. Ethical issues in biotechnology applications in medical
sector became more vocal after the sequencing of genome and also partly due to controversies
over the Human Genome Diversity Project. Will biotechnology be able to provide good health to
all sick people? There are fears that it might widen the poor and rich divide. In the developing
world, such a revolutionized molecular medicine based expensive health care may not be the first
choice for better treatment, where millions of people do not even have access to basic medical
treatment. Poverty and fierce patent protection makes drugs unaffordable poor people in the
world. As many disease-causing microorganisms are becoming antibiotic resistant, the people
need new medicines. A parallel issue is that in many developing countries, traditional medicine is
used for treatment of many diseases. Countries like China and India have developed Ayurveda
and Acupuncture and it is a big source of income as well as cultural practice (WHO). From that
aspect biotechnology may affect their income generation source. Many developing countries also
make cheaper generic drugs and have a big market in poor countries in Africa. When world trade
regulations come into force from the year 2006, the supply of those generic drugs would dry up.
In June 2001 UN announced a Global Health Fund of $ 10 billion to fight AIDS, TB and malaria in
the poor countries but it could generate only one tenth of its target because of differences in the
priorities between Europe and Unites States (Mackenzie, 2001).
The arguments are not meant to depreciate patents. Patents encourage scientific spirits and
retain enthusiasm of stakeholders to explore new things. The challenge is how we can balance
the needs of the poor with satisfying the demands of drug manufacturers. Roughly it takes
approximately $ 500 million to produce a drug, with decades of intensive research. For scientists
who spend time, money, energy and intelligence, patents are a reward for their invention. But
there are limits to autonomy and scientific freedom. Scientists also have social duty above their
personal autonomy to provide best from their expertise without doing harm in any form (Bhardwaj,
1999).
It is agreed that it will be extremely difficult and in some cases impossible to provide best
treatment to all in need, but a rational and balanced approach is needed so that the people in the
developing world have their share of benefits from these advancements. The principal of justice is
not limited to the provision of good health-care systems, also it could be related to biocentric
thinking when animals are used for experiments, which is another cause of concern in many
countries. Criticism has been raised against multinational drug corporations using poor, disease
prevalent countries as testing grounds or for placebo control trials, especially in African continent
where it is not only cheaper to do trials, also, since the epidemic is at very alarming stage, the
results for the trials are easy to obtain. Ethically we should provide food and medicine to those
who need them. The concept can be argued from utilitarian ethics, which says maximum good for
maximum people or based on theory of Justice by Rawls, that argues for goodness based on the
least that could be benefited.

Need for proper Information management

Information management is ability to access information and at the same time being able to
disseminate information. Information management is an important issue in the light of rapid
emergence of information tools. It is part of capacity building and empowerment of the nations.
Still there is a very visible divide on the issue of information management between the rich
countries and the poor countries. The central issue in information management is the knowledge
gap and information problem (World Bank Report, 1998). The relationship between knowledge
gap and information problem is a twin issue and cannot be addressed separately. It is unlikely to
entirely eliminate unequal distribution of knowledge and close the digital divide in the larger
context of the rural environment, but it can be elevated from its present situation if parallel efforts
are taken to improve the local environment; being able to accept the rich flow of information in a
new and different form.
Even with the costs of communications plunging, the 'digital divide' is conspicuous between North
and South. Poor countries first need technology get to access to the information. They don't need
to recreate technology, they can just adopt the technology; but the paramount issue is lack of
basic resources to get access to technology for information. Computers and Internet is not
available in the remote villages. Even if it is available, illiteracy is an obstacle to people to fully
exploit the advantages of digital technology. The local people in the rural villages lack the capacity
to understand and capture the knowledge in the digital form. Internet connectivity alone will not
solve the issue of information problem where in the most development programs the main source
of information is through training and direct consultation with expertise.
Information dissemination is equally important as the access to information. Information is still a
property of the rich world, and in the world where half of the world still does not use telephone, it
is difficult to distribute equal and proper information. Over 40% of the US now uses the Internet
but just 1.6% of Asians and 0.3% of Africans do so. And when it comes to content over 80% of
web pages and 90% of documents on the web are in English despite the fact that the vast
majority of the world does not speak it (Brown, 2000). The question is prudent but should not be
ligated to the need for education or health improvements; but how best we can improve the
technology so that it can reach the grass roots in an effective way. We need to find new ways to
leverage information technology for distance learning, basic health information to patients and
practitioners and also weather forecast, crop techniques to farmers in the area of food and
agriculture.
Sustainable development and natural resource management
Sustainability is often used in environmental concern arguments during GM debates. However
people are not sure of its accurate meaning. Sustainable development includes sustainable use
of natural resources for better quality of life. The concept of sustainable development is a
balancing act that focuses on socio-economic development with the demand for sustainability and
safeguarding the environment with economic development for present and future generations.
The difficulty is to lessen the threat of economic growth or economic development to the
environment. Out of 1100 million people of the developing countries, 800 million people live in the
rural areas, and since such large populations are concentrated in the rural areas, they often get
marginalized in the development process resulting in an alarming growth in the number of hungry
and unemployed people in rural areas.
Sustainable system should ensure sustainability of environment, which provides natural
resources that are harnessed and utilized for our existence and well being of society. It includes
both resources that are renewable and non-renewable. It should ensure sustainability of
economy, which is one of the essential basic criteria for sustainable life. Measures for poverty
eradication will not be successful unless people are empowered. Empowerment by education,
helping them to be self-reliant by promoting training programs, extension services, providing

technical expertise at the grass-root. But these programs have sometimes been alienated from
the ways or opportunities of their returns for implying enhanced technologies for improving
productions. According to FAO Sustainable development should focus on sustainable livelihoods,
people's participation and mainstreaming of gender; and population issues. Sustainable rural
development should work for agrarian transformation and institutional reform; research,
extension, education and communication; natural resource monitoring and management (FAO,
Sustainable Development Department). A sustainable rural development will occur only when
there is a clear, understandable, fruitful interaction is there between donors and the recipients.
When demand and supply is balanced and resources are not exploited but harnessed. There is
participation and interaction at grass-root level.
Conclusions
Ethical issues of biotechnology are not limited to the issues discussed in this paper. We need to
examine our own judgment before we apply ethical principles in any aspect of life. How to
balance our own interests with the interests of the society in which we live and share the fruits of
the knowledge and expertise? Bioethics gives value to everything, either intrinsic or extrinsic.
When we apply bioethical principles to biotechnology, the greatest challenge for humankind is to
accredit value of food, value of human health and well being, value of oneself and community,
most importantly value of nature and natural resources.
References
Bhardwaj, M. (1999). Ethical issues of Human Genome Project. Conference on Global Ethos,
United Nations University, Tokyo, Japan. Available from:
http://vulab.ias.unu.edu/GlobalEthos/papers/minakshi.html
[ Links ]
Brown, M.M. (2000). Bringing Information Affluence to the Developing World. Address to The
State of the World Forum, New York, 7 September 2000.
[ Links ]
FAO. Available from: www.fao.org.

[ Links ]

FAO. (1996). Rome Declaration on World Food Security. Available from:

www.fao.org.
[ Links ]
FAO. Sustainable Development Department. Available from: www.fao.org.

[ Links ]

Macer, D. (1998). Bioethics is Love of Life. Eubios Ethics Institute, Japan.

[ Links ]

Mackenzie, D. (2001). Protection Racket. New Scientist. 21 July 2001.

UNEP. (1992). Convention on Biological Diversity.

[ Links ]

United Nations. (1948). Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

WHO. Available from: www.who.org.

[ Links ]

[ Links ]

[ Links ]

World Bank Report 1998. Knowledge for Development, Geneva 1998. Available from:
www.who.org.
[ Links ]

http://www.eubios.info/NBB/NBBGEP.htm (jurnal EJB)

Advancement of plant breeding techniques: scientific, social and global impact
- Hiroshi Harada, Docteur-es-Sciences,
Professor Emeritus, University of Tsukuba
Home: 5-13-11 Minami-Aoyama, Minato-ku, Tokyo 107, JAPAN
Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 6 (1996), 131-134.
Abstract
Ed- This is an abridged summary of a plenary lecture given in July 1996 in Tsukuba, at
the 4th International Symposium on the Biosafety Results of Field Tests of Genetically
Modified Plants and Microorganisms, on the recent developments in plant breeding
techniques and the impact on quantitative and qualitative improvement of food
production, and also some related problems that we are now facing and we are expected
to overcome in near future. To date there have been 84 applications including 42
transgenic plants that have complied with the MAFF Guidelines in Japan. The 15 plant
lines of virus resistant-tomatoes, -petunia, -rice, -melon, ripening delayed-tomatoes and

herbicide tolerant-canola and -soybean are now released in Japan. The Ministry of Health
and Welfare notified the guidelines including the food safety assessment of crop plants
derived through biotechnology in February 1996. MAFF notified the guidelines of the
safety assessments for animal feed and feed additive derived through biotechnology in
April 1996. 7 transgenic crops including herbicide tolerant canola and soybean, and
insect resistant potato and corn are now being under review in the Ministries.
Introduction
Today, many people will share a common idea that deepening basic research and
promoting practical application of biotechnology are essential to maintain and even to
enhance agricultural production, to conserve natural resources and to improve
environmental quality for the present and future life of the people on the earth. This idea
has, in fact, been materialized in various areas of plant science, particularly in plant
breeding. We can now count dozens of new varieties worldwide that have outstanding
unique characteristics introduced by recombinant DNA techniques.
These achievements require us to consider genetically modified plants within the context
of genetic changes occurring on the earth, either naturally - which we cannot manage; or
artificially - which we can manipulate. This further tells us that it is important to
understand and utilize new biotechnological approaches within the comprehensive nature
of plant breeding that takes initial, unfinished materials and transforms them into
practically useful, new varieties.
My research team at University of Tsukuba was one of the earliest groups which applied
for safety evaluation of genetically modified plants in Japan. My involvement in
biosafety evaluation is continuing, and I chair the plant subcommittee of MAFF's
committee on utilization of genetically modified organisms. These experiences make me
more and more confident about the importance to make further progress in plant breeding
techniques in which biotechnology is an essential component.
Sexual hybridization
The tremendous genetic improvements in crop plants achieved to date are largely based
on sexual hybridization. As emerging cellular and molecular technologies develop
further, sexual methods will continue to play a major role in crop improvement. For
example, a new rice Japanese variety "Hitomebore", was developed which possesses a
strong tolerance to cold injuries and also good eating quality.
Although plant geneticists have frequently been able to manipulate and recombine the
genome into agriculturally effective combinations using sexual breeding methods, they
are limited by a lack of understanding of interactions among genes.
Genetic manipulation via sexual methods exploits the natural reproductive systems of
crop species. More fundamental knowledge of the nature and control of reproductive
mechanisms may facilitate their manipulation to increase the efficiency. Many traits of

interest in plant breeding are quantitatively inherited. Better understanding on the genetic
base of multigenic traits using DNA markers is valuable in establishing a proper breeding
strategy and might permit the molecular dissection of these traits.
The ability of plant cells to regenerate a whole plant is called totipotency. Plant breeding
by using tissue and cell culture is based on this unique characteristics of plant cells. The
expression of totipotency depends on not only the cultural conditions but also plant
species or even varieties within the same species. In this slide you can see the difference
of shoot regeneration from seed callus between two rice varieties. Somatic
embryogenesis is a typical example of totipotency of plant cells. Somatic embryos are
formed directly or indirectly from various kinds of tissues.
A great number of studies have been conducted to develop plant regeneration systems
from plant cells. The culture conditions to regenerate plants are so variable for each plant
material that in most cases rather empirical investigations have been usually required.
During the past several years, however, studies are being more and more intensively
undertaken to know what exactly is totipotency at the biochemical and molecular levels.
These studies are certainly useful for more effective application of totipotency in plant
breeding.
For the plant breeding, haploids are an attractive material. They do not have any alleles,
therefore a recessive character in a diploid is detectable in a haploid plant. In addition, we
can easily get recombinant inbred lines through doubling chromosomes of haploid plants
derived from hybrids. Anther and isolated microspore culture are suitable techniques for
obtaining a large number of haploid plants, and have been developed in over 250 plant
species since the first report in 1964. Up to now, registered varieties of rice, tobacco,
Chinese cabbage and other crops have been produced by these methods, in Japan.
For breeding, a large number of doubled haploid plants is necessary. More efficient
methods should be developed. Androgenic embryogenesis has been reported in several
crops. It seems to be less mutable than callus-formed culture. Haploid plants do not have
any alleles. Then, the analysis of genes by molecular genetic methods in haploid is
expected to be fruitful. We need efficient transformation systems in haploid plants.
The protoplasts can be fused to obtain somatic hybrid plants whose parents are not able to
be cross pollinated or introduce genes from wild species. Several cell fusion and
screening methods have been developed; for example, fusion by the treatment with PEG
and electric pulse, asymmetrical fusion techniques and screening of fused cells by
antibiotics, identification by RFLP and RAPD analysis, and so on. At first, the protoplast
fusion was thought to be a miracle method to produce new crops. Unfortunately, few new
crops have been obtained because of chromosome elimination, imbalance of sink and
source organs, sterility and so on. But now, we know that the fusion is still promising
method to introducing genes into vegetatively propagated crops from their allies, resynthesize polyploid crops with various combination of genome, and introducing
cytoplasmic genes.

To clarify the characteristics of genes controlling phenotypical traits and to improve

plants by changing the genetic information, identification and isolation of genes
corresponding to trait are required. Map-based cloning is one of the methods to perform
this goal. In case of rice, precise tagging of target trait is promised using many DNA
markers produced by genome analysis. Further, DNA fragment carrying a gene of target
trait is identified utilizing a rice physical map produced by genome analysis. Narrowing a
target genomic region by increasing a segregation population size and by down-sizing a
candidate DNA fragment, we expect to isolate a gene of target trait.
The candidate cDNA or cosmid clones have to be ascertained for their ability to carry a
target trait by transformation. In addition, biochemical and physiological analysis of the
candidate gene product is indispensable for the final identification of gene corresponding
to target trait. The genes isolated and characterized as above are to be utilized for
improvement of not only rice but also other crops and the molecular information
accompanying with these genes are to be the fundamental knowledge in plant science.
Incorporating foreign genes
Transformation can introduce new useful genes into plants without changing their
original basic characters. Because of this, transformation is considered to be an attractive
tool in plant breeding. Among the several methods of introducing foreign gene(s) into
plants, Agrobacterium-mediated transformation is the most popular. Transformation by
Agrobacterium had been applied in many plant species. Recently successful
transformation of monocots, for example rice and maize, has also been achieved, thus
widening the possibility of this method. To date, several genes had already been
introduced into many plants, and the production of new breeding material is underway.
For utilization of transgenic plants in breeding, there are several barriers to overcome.
First point is to establish efficient transformation systems in various plant species, second
point is to isolate more useful genes, third point is to control gene expression. Finally we
must determine the influence of transgenic plants on the environment, the quality of them
as foods, and have public acceptance.
As a mechanical method for gene transfer, electroporation is used to species for which
protoplast culture system has been established. Microprojectile bombardment employs
high velocity metal particles to deliver DNA into plant cells or tissues. A wide range of
plant species recalcitrant to Agrobacterium- mediated method or protoplast
transformation have been transformed by microprojectile bombardment. It is apparent
that the transformation frequency by this method is still low. This makes the experiment
labor intensive and rather expensive. However, improvements in hardware design and
particle gun availability will certainly improve efficiencies and extend the list of crops
that can be transformed using this technology.
Genetic Resources

Diverse genetic resources of crop species involve the genes needed for future crop
improvement. Germplasm collections provide food, feed and fiber security for mankind
and materials to answer fundamental questions of biology. These days pressing
limitations on assembling and utilizing genetic resources include the rapid decrease in
diversity worldwide. The urgency to protect global genetic resources is greater than ever
before.
Since 1991, collaborative explorations between Japanese and Russian scientists have
been undertaken to collect diverse genetic resources in north Caucasian and Central Asia.
The Japanese government has ratified the "Convention of Biological Diversity", which is
an international agreement to share the benefits and sustainable use of global genetic
resources. Major focus in the research on genetic resources is placed on strengthening the
international network for conservation of plant diversity.
Improving food production and environment
Due to the recent explosion in world population and the deterioration of the earth's
environment, great concern is mounting over global food supply. In many countries
scientific research and innovative agronomical activities have been and are being
conducted in order to improve world's food supply and global environment. In this
regard, biotechnology, including the measures for the creation and use of genetically
modified organisms, is one of the key-technologies. Many researchers are trying to create
epoch making plants and microorganisms, such as low-allergen plants and producing biodegradative plastics, vaccine and other useful industrial materials.
Safety assessment of transgenic plants
However, the introduction of new molecular technologies in the early 1970s initiated
discussion on safety in biotechnology. This discussion resulted in a number of national
and international recommendations, guidelines or regulations, and legislation. The OECD
has worked to set general principles for the safe development of rDNA organisms since
1983, such as "good industrial large-scale practice (GILSP)", "familiarity" and
"substantial equivalence" pertaining to microorganism handling, agricultural applications
and new foods, respectively. In many countries voluntary guidelines or laws are
compatible to the national regulations currently in effect.
Many enterprises are moving rapidly towards the commercialization and marketing of
agricultural and industrial products of modern biotechnology. Both public and private
sectors have, therefore, identified the need for harmonization of regulatory approaches to
assess these products in order to reduce unnecessary duplication, facilitate administrative
work, improve public acceptance, thus contributing to safe application of biotechnology,
promoting global exchange of biosafety information, and avoiding further trade barrier.
Such an international framework should not give negative impacts to research and
development in biotechnology and technology transfer. Furthermore, individual technical
provisions contained in the framework should be established on the basis of scientific
consideration, and considering the speed of development in this field, the framework

should be designed in such a way that technical provisions could be revised periodically
and the results of the technical development could be incorporated into the framework
without delay. We think it is important to establish an internationally harmonized
framework for the safe handling of rDNA organisms within a few years.
Present State of agricultural use of transgenic plants in Japan
In Japan overall development, including handling and culture of rDNA organisms are
placed under seven guidelines. Of the five covering post -laboratory fields, one by the
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) covers all categories of
organisms, including plants, animals and microorganisms, and general release of those.
The purpose of these Guidelines is to establish basic requirements concerning the
appropriate application of recombinant organisms in agro-industries so as to assure the
safe use of recombinant organisms and to achieve sound overall development. The MAFF
Guidelines were re-issued in 1995 concerning the handling of recombinant plants
developed in foreign countries.
In the case of plants, safety is assessed in four steps, two steps are conducted in green
houses for research, other two in fields for practical use. So far, eighty-four applications
including forty-two transgenic plants have complied with the MAFF Guidelines by the
Minister. The fifteen plant lines of virus resistant-tomatoes, -petunia, -rice, -melon,
ripening delayed-tomatoes and herbicide tolerant-canola and -soybean are now released
in Japan.
The Ministry of Health and Welfare notified the guidelines including the food safety
assessment of crop plants derived through biotechnology in February 1996. Furthermore,
MAFF also notified the guidelines of the safety assessments for animal feed and feed
additive derived through biotechnology in April 1996. Seven transgenic crops including
herbicide tolerant- canola and -soybean ,and insect resistant potato- and corn- are now
being under review in the Ministries.
Public acceptance
On the other hand, some of the general public are not familiar with rDNA technology,
and some seem to feel uncomfortable with biotechnology. In order to promote
agricultural biotechnology, it is essential to give precise information about biotechnology,
especially rDNA technology, to general public so that they can comfortably accept
biotechnology and the products.
Governments and developers should constantly promote activities to build and foster
perception and comprehension of general public about rDNA technology and its safety to
introduce the products without consumer's misgivings. Lectures and practical experiences
on rDNA to train key-persons, and setting a place to actually touch and see the products
derived through rDNA techniques for general public are an important process. The MAFF
has been implementing a special project to gain public acceptance throughout Japan since
1995.

Our desire is to develop this technology even further so that it will be more useful in the
welfare of people all over the world as we try to live in harmony with nature. Therefore,
all scientists concerned, especially ourselves gathered here today, should continue the
research work in order to secure more stable supply of foods, better environment and
necessary energy for the world.
Needs of biotechnology in developing countries
There are various constraints on agricultural production: heat, drought, salinity, pests,
diseases, etc. These biotic and abiotic constraints result in the instability of crop yield,
which often leads to starvation and malnutrition of a large number of people in
developing countries. In addition, the rapidly growing population accelerates the
deterioration of natural resources, especially in marginal lands. We are now faced with
the need to increase the sustainability of agricultural production, while the lack of
materials and infrastructure necessary for agricultural production in most of the
developing countries makes it difficult to increase and stabilize their agricultural
productivity. Therefore, the role of plant breeding or genetic improvement of crop species
for high adaptability will become increasingly important in the agriculture of the
developing countries.
Japanese rice breeders have recently developed a new upland rice variety with drought
tolerance which was selected from a cross between JC81(local indica variety introduced
from IRRI) and Norin-mochi 4 (Japanese upland variety). The former variety is highly
tolerant to drought due to the deep root system, a trait which has been successfully
incorporated into the new variety. However, the determination of the root depth of
progenies was considerably laborious. Biological procedures such as a molecular marker
assisted screening method may greatly facilitate plant breeding for drought tolerance.
Moreover, recent progress in biotechnology is rapidly increasing the possibility of
modifying crops genetically to make them highly tolerant to various kinds of adverse
conditions. Using biotechnology along with genetic resources, it will become possible in
the near future to carry out breeding at the molecular level for many important crops for
the induction of stress tolerance. These new crops should contribute to the increase and
stabilization of agricultural production with lower labor and financial input in developing
countries.
Although biotechnology facilities have been recently established in many developing
countries, their scientific and technical capability remains still limited compared to that of
industrialized countries. Lack of funding and human resources results in the application
of limited aspects of biotechnology in most of these countries, where genetic engineering
is too costly. It is hardly possible to carry out molecular breeding in the developing
countries for the time being, although the farmers in these countries need the benefits of
modern high technology.
The private sector now plays an important role in research, development and use of
biotechnology in industrialized countries and they invest more in those areas where they

expect a profit. Many of the staple or subsistence crops important to developing

countries, however, receive too little attention. Thus advanced research institutes in the
public sector of industrialized countries may take the initiative to promote shuttle-type of
programs for the development of biotechnology techniques adapted to the specific
conditions of individual developing countries in collaboration with international
organizations.
How to assist developing countries
There are considerable differences in the biotechnological capability among developing
countries. In China, Thailand and several other countries, for example, some transgenic
crops including tobacco, tomato, etc. are being cultivated in the field, while the majority
of developing countries have only a limited capacity in advanced biotechnology. The
involvement of the private sector in this field is very limited in most of the developing
countries, in contrast to the conditions of industrialized countries.
One of the major constraints on promoting biotechnology research and development in
the developing countries is the shortage of appropriately trained researchers and
technicians. Some advanced biotechnology research units of industrialized countries and
international organizations now offer high-level training programs to researchers and
technicians in developing countries. In addition to the training of researchers and
technicians, training of research managers and leaders of national agricultural research
systems in developing countries is urgently required. Since many researchers in basic
scientific fields such as molecular biology are being involved in biotechnological
research and development without any experience in agricultural production,
biotechnology research planning should be carefully examined and well-organized by
sufficiently trained managers and leaders.
Another issue is the enactment of regulations and guidelines necessary for the promotion
of biotechnology research, development and use in developing countries. In order to
stimulate the private sector to participate in this field in developing countries, intellectual
property protection is a prerequisite. In addition , biosafety considerations are necessary
to get public acceptance for genetically modified plants and microbes, which we are
going to discuss in detail in this symposium. The experiences of industrialized countries
in this matter could be helpful to many developing countries.
Conclusion
One of the most important goals we should keep in mind is to create excellent plant
varieties which can really provides benefits to the mankind. In fact, development of
biotechnology in application to plant breeding has been so successful that more than
twenty new varieties with unique characteristics have been brought into practical use.
This has been supported in part by continuous improvement in procedures of biosafety
evaluation, from rigid to flexible and commonality-pursuing nature. Recent achievement
in cross-species commonality in gene sequences of genome would be a valuable addition
to earlier research to support this trend of advancement.

There will be two ways to further enhance effective use of outcome of biotechnology,
especially biosafety field tests. One is to improve public understanding. Since public
attitudes are shaped more by history, culture, and sociological factors than they are by
scientific considerations, special efforts to improve public acceptance need to be
strengthened by all sectors involved.
Another is to promote international harmonization. This should aim to reduce duplication,
contribute to safe application of biotechnology, promote international exchange of
information on biosafety and avoid further trade barrier.
These two ways are actually interlinked, widely agreed harmonization will certainly bring
an increased assurance to public acceptance. Above all, the most important thing for all of
us is to strictly maintain scientific quality and validity under which biosafety issues are
evaluated.
Go to paper by Hajduch & Libantova
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Review of Aspects of the Biosafety of Transgenesis
- Martin Hajduch
Gene Experiment Center, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305, Japan
Jana Libantova
Institute of Plant Genetics, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Akademicka 2, P.O.Box 39A,
950 07 Nitra, Slovakia
Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 6 (1996), 134-135.
In the early 1970s recombinant DNA techniques were discovered. Nowadays, these
techniques are used in many areas of research. Much of the world population still have
problems producing food. New coming technologies based on recombinant DNA give
new possibilities for resolving this problem. Improvement of existing plant species
through incorporation of foreign genes to the plant genome can be a very effective way.
Successful application of these techniques led to the construction of plants, such as
oilseed crop with improved oil composition, pest-resistant corn, soybean, potatoes, and
cotton, FLAVR-SAVR tomatoes, etc. Despite the number of genetically modified plant
species used in agricultural practice, we don't think the environmental impacts of their
use have been fully evaluated.

Like any new or exotic species we do not know the effect of putting these transgenic
plants into nature, but we should be sure, that the use of transformed plants in agriculture
is safe and have no unexpected influence on the environment. Cordle et al. (1991) have
described a step-by-step safety assessment as given below.
A) At first we should determine the level of safety concern for the unmodified organism.
This includes the following:
1) the pest/pathogen status of the organism,
2) its ability to become established in the accessible environment,
3) its ecological interrelationship, function and importance in the community,
4) its ability to transfer genetic information,
5) the potential for monitoring and control.
B) As a second step we should consider how the genetics affect safety. This includes the
following:
1) the process of genetic modification,
2) gene construction and expression,
3) the degree to which knowledge of molecular biology and other information is available
to predict the safety level of modified organism relative to that of the unmodified
organism.
C) The third step is to combine the evaluation in steps above. The risk assessment
concerning genetically modified organisms (GMOs) is made by integration of the
information on the unmodified organism and on the genetic modification.
It is important to have well defined foreign DNA inserts in the transformed plant. By use
of available transformation methods it is still difficult to obtain a transformed individual
species containing single or low-copy number of foreign genes. Lebel et al. (1995)
described a set of broad-host range transformation vector based on the Ac/Ds
transposable elements that improve both transformation efficiency and the quality of
transgenic loci. This type of vector could be an important additional tool for the
production of transgenic plants with well defined foreign DNA inserts required for
biosafety approval and commercialization. Determination of possibilities of genes
movement from transgenic plants to surroundings is important. Gene escape from
transgenic plants can be precipitated by one of several events (Love, 1994):
1) transfer of modified genes into micro-organisms or pathogen population,

2) horizontal movement of genes into other plant species, due to latent infection with a
bacterial vector ,
3) escape and proliferation of transgenic plants in to the wild ,
4) hybridization with and transgene introduction into native wild species (Evenhuis et al.,
1991; Kapteijns, 1993; Regal,1994).
No evidence exists for gene transfer from plants into microorganisms or for horizontal
gene movement, although research will probably continue to provide new information on
these issues (Evenhuis et al. 1991). Escape through crop naturalization and escape
through hybridization can be much more a problem. In the case of potatoes in the United
States and Canada, escape and proliferation of transgenic varieties is not of concern,
because potatoes are not competitive outside of cultivated areas. This agree with the
conclusion of Bartsch et al.(1993), who determined that a number of crop species have
the ability to "run wild", but that potatoes are not among them. Potatoes will neither
hybridize with non-tuberous Solanum weed species, nor tuber-bearing Solanum species,
because there are a number of barriers which prevent natural hybridization and
introgression including endosperm imbalances, multiple ploidy levels, and
incompatibility. The number and magnitude of the barriers makes natural hybridization
highly unlikely and transgene introgression impossible or at least highly improbable
(Love, 1994). Evenhuis and Kapteijns concluded there was no risk in the Netherlands for
transgenes to flow from cultivated potato to wild species. The major criterion for this
conclusion was the lack of indigenous crossable species. The situation in Slovakia is
similar to that found in the Netherlands. This information will have important
implications for transgenic potatoes in the future. It should allow the removal of one
major concern from the list of regulatory criteria, that of deleterious ecological impact.
Umbeck et al.(1991) made the investigation to determine the movement of pollen from
field test site of genetically engineered cotton. The results from this investigation showed
a consistent and significant reduction in pollen dissemination as distance from the test
plot increased. Conner and colleagues (Tynan et al.1990; Conner et al. 1991) planted
fertile chlorosulfuron-resistant potato plants cvs Ilam Hardy, Iwa and Rua on plots
surrounded for 10.5m by border rows of nontransformed fertile potato cultivars, or the
solanaceous weed, nightshade (Solanum nigra). In the field tests conducted for three
subsequent years, they detected only 29 chlorosulfuron-resistant seedlings out of 366500
(0.008%). One of these seedlings was found 6m distant from the test plot, all others were
within 4.5m of the test plot. No transgenic progeny were detected in the nightshade plot.
Thus, there is no evidence of widespread dispersal of transgenic potato germplasm, and a
border row of 6m is sufficient to reasonably ensure containment. The hybridization of
transformed plant species with wild flora and ability of the crop to run wild is one way
for gene movement also. Field-tests with safe crops can be used to assess the effects of
introducing transformed plants in agricultural ecosystem. These aspects have been
investigated by Kapteijns (1993) with use of four unmodified agricultural crops (potato,
beet, oilseed rape and maize). The toxicity of genes products to humans and animals that
have been incorporated into the plant genome require a consideration of each gene

construct. Transgenic products that naturally occur in other organisms have been
consumed without detriment for years and therefore are undoubtedly safe. This will also
be true of the transgenic potatoes that are being engineered either to over-express or
under-express potato genes that have been isolated (granule-bound starch synthase,
patatin, starch phosphorylase).
A class of molecular aids essential in enabling the genetic construction of transgenic
plants - selectable marker genes (e.g. NTP II) and their encoded proteins - stays with the
crop and with food made from them. Regulatory committees worldwide are currently
debating the safety of these markers. There are four major questions that should be
addressed in the safety appraisal: (1) is the NTP II gene product toxic, (2) does eating the
NPTII protein compromise oral antibiotic therapy, (3) does the transfer of the NPTII gene
from plant to pathogenic bacteria compromise antibiotic therapy.
None of the plant, bacterial and other species into which active NPTII gene has been
inserted have shown deleterious effects that could be attributed to the NPTII protein.
Calgene (1990) established that NPTII is rapidly inactivated and degraded upon
ingestion. Furthermore, in gene therapy cells containing the NPTII gene have been
infused into human cancer patients and now adverse effects attributable to NPTII were
observed.
Firstly NPTII as a protein which does not contain any unusual amino acids is rapidly
inactivated and degraded during the digestive process. Secondly, NPTII requires ATP in
order to catalyze the inactivation of kanamycin. ATP is however present in the digestive
system at extremely low concentrations. Thirdly, only about 0.36% of the kanamycin
administered was for oral or gastrointestinal tract use.
The highest concentration of potentially pathogenic bacteria occurs in the gut. Most, if
not all, of ingested NPTII DNA would however, be degraded in the stomach and the
small intestine, before it reached the gut. Calgene calculated even with the most liberal
assumptions, that eating genetically modified tomatoes containing the NPTII gene, would
increase the number of kanamycin - resistant microbes in the gut by less than 0.000001%.
We can conclude that there are no scientific reasons to prohibit or limit the use of
selectable marker NPTII, nor to encourage or require their removal from genetically
modified plants. However, case by case examination of each gene will be necessary
before broad use in agriculture is admissible.
As Harada (1996) in his paper has said, for the commercialization of transgenic plants in
agricultural system we need to: (1) establish an efficient transformation system, (2)
isolate more useful genes, (3) control gene expression, (4) determine the influence of
transgenic species on the environment and their quality as food, (5) have public
acceptance.
He notes one of the barriers for utilization of transgenic plants in breeding is lack of
public acceptance. For the purpose of obtaining public acceptance, first we have to be

sure about the safety of using transgenic species. Then we should create an ethical basis
for use, which will help us to communicate with the public.
An example how to apply ethical theories into transgenesis is Mepham (1993), who
explores a scheme for the ethical evaluation of animal transgenesis beginning with an
overview of deontological and consequentialist ethical theories. He proceeds to apply the
four ethical principles (autonomy, justice, non-maleficence and beneficence) to the
interests of treated animals and of different groups of people affected by biotechnology.
He suggested that attempts to eradicate hunger, to improve animal welfare and to devise
sustainable agricultural systems will be facilitated by greater investment in the emerging
academic field of agricultural bioethics.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express their sincere thanks to Mr. Henry Osador Aigbedo for
his irreplaceable help.
References
Bartsch, D., et al. 1993 Introduction of plants with special regard to cultigenes running
wild. In K. Wohrmann and J. Tomiuk (eds.), Transgenic organisms: risk assesment of
deliberate release. Birkhauser Verlag, Basel, Germany .
Calgene, Inc. 1990. Request for advisory opinion-kanr gene: safety and use in the
production of genetically engineered plants. FDA Docket Number 90A-0416.
Cordle M.K., et al. 1991. Regulation and oversight of biotechnological applications for
agriculture and forestry. In L.R. Ginzburg (Ed.) Assessing ecological risks of
biotechnology. p. 289-311. Butterworth-Heinemann, Boston
Evenhuis, A. & Zadoks, JC. 1991. Possible hazards to wild plants of growing transgenic
plants. A contributtion to risk analysis. Euphytica 55: 81-84.
Harada, H., 1996. Advancement of plant breeding techniques: scientific, social and global
impact, EJAIB 6 (1996), 129-33.
Kapteijns, AJAM., 1993. Risk assessment of genetically modified crops. Potential of four
arable crops to hybridize with the wild flora. Euphytica 66: 145-149.
Lebel, E.G., et al. 1995. Transposable elements as plant transformation vectors for long
stretches of foreign DNA. Theor. Appl. Genet. 91: 899-906.
Love, L.S. 1994. Ecological risk of growing transgenic potatoes in the United States and
Canada. American Potatoes Journal 71: 647-658.

Mepham, T.B., 1993. Approaches to the ethical evaluation of animal biotechnologies.

Anim. Prod., 57: 353-359.
Regal, P. J. 1994. Scientific principles for ecologically based risk asessment of transgenic
organisms. Mol. Ecol 3: 5-13.
Umbeck, P.F., et al. 1991. Degree of pollen dispersal by insects from a field test of
genetically engineered cotton. Journal of Economic Entomology 84 (6): 1943-1950.
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http://www.eubios.info/BFP.htm

Bioethics for the People by the

People
Darryl R. J. Macer, Ph.D.
With some friends, and some of the people.
Eubios Ethics Institute 1990
Copyright1994, Darryl R. J. Macer. All commercial rights reserved. This publication may
be reproduced for limited educational or academic use, however please enquire
with the author.

Contents
v-iv: Preface

I. Universal Bioethics
1-12: 1. Universal bioethics: heritage and hope
Biological heritage 2
Social heritage 4
Spiritual heritage 6
Hopes and fears for universal bioethics 9
Synthesis 11
12-29: 2. A framework for universal bioethics
Autonomy 12
Justice 16
Love: to do good while avoiding harm 16
Stewardship: the value of being alive 18
Ethical limits of animal use 24
The quality of life 28
Balancing 29
30-38:3. Sustainable living and technology
Sustainable living 30
Lifestyle Change 32
Bioethical maturity 34
References 37

II. International bioethics

39-40: International Bioethics - Darryl Macer
41-45: Trends in bioethics in the United States - Michael S. Yesley
46-50: The Clinton Health Care Reform: An overview and critique - Daniel Wikler
51-56: Genetic information in the health care reform era - Paul R. Billings
57-62: Ethical principles in public health care in Scandanavia: Relativism and the cultural
foundations of health care ethics - Knut Erik Tranoy
62-67: Neshama and Inochi as bases for Israeli-Japanese bioethical communication Frank J. Leavitt
68-73: Bioethics within the Council of Europe: The protection of genetic information Christian Byk
74-91: Scientific ethics: Response to workshops on science and ethics in New Zealand Darryl Macer, Howard Bezar, D.Gareth Jones, Alan Kirton, & Barbara Nicholas
92-97: Bioethical dimensions of underdevelopment - Vijay Kaushik

98-124: Global bioethics and common hope - Jayapaul Azariah

98: 1. Ecology and Religion: Spirtuality mode - A keystone in ecobalance
104: 2. Eastern environmental ethics and 'conceptual resource' transfer
112: 3. Biophilosophy of the biosphere and the Darwinian paradigm

III. International Bioethics Survey

125-138: International Bioethics Survey - World View - Darryl Macer
139-145: Bioethical reasoning in New Zealand, Australia - Darryl Macer
146-150: Bioethical reasoning in Japan - Yuko Kato & Darryl Macer
151-156: Bioethical reasoning in Russia - Vijay Kaushik & Darryl Macer
157-160: Bioethical reasoning in India - Jayapaul Azariah, Hilda Azariah & Darryl Macer
161-164: Bioethical reasoning in Thailand - Peerasak Srinives, Prasert Chatwachirawong,
Miho Tsuzuki & Darryl Macer

165-169: Bioethical reasoning of students in Singapore and Hong Kong - Darryl Macer,
Chin Choon Ong, Maureen Boost & Tit Meng Lim
170-173: Bioethical reasoning of medical students in the Philippines - Darryl Macer &
Angeles Tan Alora
174-176: Bioethics surveys and the quantification of ethics - Frank Leavitt; response:
Darryl Macer
177-185: Bioethics in High Schools in New Zealand, Australia & Japan - Darryl Macer,
Yukiko Asada, Shiro Akiyama & Miho Tsuzuki

IV. International Bioethics Survey Data Tables

186-187: Index to data tables and question numbers
187-205: Statistical Results Data Tables 1-10
206-215: Statistical Results Data Tables 11-27
216-241: Reasoning and examples of open comments
242-248: International Bioethics Survey Questionnaire
249-255: International Bioethics High School Education Survey Questionnaire
The following sections are not on line:
256-325: Nature - in words and pictures
326-349: Nature - in pictures
350-405: Life - in words and pictures
406-425: Life - in pictures
426-452: Teachers views of what bioethics is

Cataloging-in-Publication data
Macer, Darryl R.J. (Darryl Raymund Johnson), 1962Bioethics for the People by the People / Darryl R.J. Macer.
Christchurch, N.Z. : Eubios Ethics Institute, 1994.
1 v.
Includes bibliographical references and indexes.
ISBN 0-908897-05-7
1. Genetic engineering--Australia--Hong Kong--India--Israel--Japan-New Zealand--The Philippines--Russia--Singapore--Thailand--Public
opinion. 2. Biotechnology--Australia--Hong Kong--India--Israel--

Japan--New Zealand--The Philippines--Russia--Singapore-Thailand--Public opinion. 3. Genetic engineering--Australia--Hong

Kong--India--Israel--Japan--New Zealand--The Philippines--Russia-Singapore--Thailand--Moral and ethical aspects. 4. Biotechnology-Australia--Hong Kong--India--Israel--Japan--New Zealand--The
Philippines--Russia--Singapore--Thailand--Moral and ethical aspects.
5. Bioethics--Australia--Hong Kong--India--Israel--Japan--New
Zealand--The Philippines--Russia--Singapore--Thailand--Public
opinion. 6. Public opinion--Australia--Hong Kong--India--Israel-Japan--New Zealand--The Philippines--Russia--Singapore--Thailand.
7. Medical genetics--Moral and ethical aspects. 8. Environmental
ethics. I. Eubios Ethics Institute. II. Title.
303.4830952 (174.9574)
Key Words: Bioethics, Biotechnology, Environmental ethics, Eugenics, Genetic
Counseling, Genetic Engineering, Genetic Screening, Gene Therapy, Human
Genetic Disease, Medical Ethics, Medical Genetics (Diagnosis, Treatment and
Prevention), Nature, Patenting of Life, Public Perceptions of Genetic Disease, Public
Perceptions of Genetic Counseling, Reproductive Technology.
Further copies can be obtained by ordering from the Eubios Ethics Institute,
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1. Universal bioethics: heritage and hope

It will be apparent to anyone who looks at the problems of the world that the ethical
principles people are using are not working very well. This does not mean that the ethical
guidelines that are used by particular groups of people will not succeed in developing a
better world, but it does mean that none has been able to be applied universally. Even as
we approach the 21st century with renewed hope for a new phase of international

relations following the collapse of the Soviet superpower and the demise of Cold War
mentality that persisted for nearly half a century, the reality of the daily wars and
conflicts don't allow us to forget that the world is made up of groups which claim to be
different. The claim to be different from another group, often made by leaders of a
particular social group or gang, which underlies many conflicts, does not mean that such
groups are actually different.
This raises a fundamental question which is the main reason behind the assembly of
papers and survey data in this book. The question is a sensitive one, do people in different
countries share the same thinking, and reasoning? If they do, then we could call this
universalism, and it makes the possibility of universal ethics real. If they do not, then
what we must aim for is cross-cultural understanding, perhaps with some degree of
universalism. At the beginning I should make it quite plain that the use of surveys is only
one part of the overall approach we can use to look at cultures, and that this book is
intended as a contribution to answering this question, it does not claim to have the whole
picture. However, the data presented here are a challenge to all of us to incorporate or
explain into any description of the real world.
All human beings are found as members of some society, all accommodate some
individualism within a social niche. Any ethical approach must consider the biological,
social and spiritual origins of humanity. First let us consider these aspects of our heritage,
then the hope that is behind universalism. This book is principally concerned with
presenting the data from an International Bioethics Survey and comparisons of that data
with other observations. The theme of universal bioethics is to be more fully explored in
a rigourous academic text in a full book, Universal Bioethics: Heritage and Hope (1).
What follows is a brief introduction to the heritage and hope for universal ethics.
Bioethics especially includes medical and environmental ethics. The word was mainly
applied for issues of medical ethics in the 1970s and 1980s, but the 1960s and 1990s saw
much more attention on environmental ethics. The word "bioethics" was first used in
1970 (2), however, the concept of bioethics is much older, as we can see in the ethics
formulated and debated in literature, art, music and the general cultural and religious
traditions of our ancestors.
Life is diverse and complex and so are the issues that the manipulation of life and nature
raises. To resolve these issues, and develop principles, we must involve anthropology,
sociology, biology, religion, psychology, philosophy, and economics; we must combine
the scientific rigour of biological data, with the values of religion and philosophy to
develop a world-view. Bioethics is therefore challenged to be a multi-sided and
thoughtful approach to decision-making so that it may be relevant to all aspects of human
life. Without combining both of these spheres of thought, natural science and values, we
can never succeed to even approach a universal ethics. However, bioethics is not just an
academic endeavour or an applied part of philosophical ethics, it is rooted in the daily life
and attitudes of all people, hence the title of this book, Bioethics for the People by the
People.

The term bioethics should mean the study of life ethics, but it has often been viewed only
as a part. The concern with medical ethics has meant that while many people, or
committees, are called "bioethics" committees, they only consider medical ethics.
Likewise, ecological and environmental ethics must include human-human interactions,
as these interactions are one of the dominant ecological interactions in the world. Both
extremes are incomplete perspectives. In the conclusion of an earlier book, Shaping
Genes (3), I said that we have much to learn from the issues raised by genetic technology,
not just the nature of our genes, but the nature of our thinking about what is important in
life. New technology can be a catalyst for our thinking about these issues, and we can
think of the examples like assisted reproductive technologies, organ transplantation, and
genetics, which have been stimuli for research into bioethics in the last few decades.

Biological heritage
A range of questions need to be considered, but especially those raised by biotechnology
and human activity in society and the environment. Bioethics considers issues affecting
all living organisms and the environment, from individual creature to the level of the
biosphere in complexity. All living organisms are biological beings, and share a common
and intertwined biological heritage. The term bioethics reminds us of the combination of
biology and ethics, topics that are intertwined.
Humans are members of the species Homo sapiens, one of the millions of species alive
on the planet Earth. Fundamentally we must ask whether humans are a special form of
life, different from other living creatures? We must also compare humans with other
species and see where differences may be. We may also look at individual humans and
ask whether there is any significant difference between individual members of the human
species that could influence the ethical duties we have to them.
The method of our creation appears to be via a process of evolution, like all life on this
planet. This is most consistent with the data we have. There is no conflict between a
belief in the creation of the world by God described poetically in the Bible and the theory
of evolution. In fact the Bible says that all creatures are made from the dust of the earth.
When Darwin's books The Origin of Species, and The Descent of Man, were published
there was a mixed reaction from the church (4). The Unitarian and Broad churches were
favourable to the theory of evolution from the publication of it, the Catholics were mixed
on the theory, but the Methodists and Low church were very opposed to it in the first ten
years. The suggestion that there was a conflict was generated by scientists who wanted to
replace the church as the respected authority of human society, something that they have
achieved to some extent (5). Scientists used the theory and the opposition to it to create
an image of a "conflict" between science and religion which has been very harmful ever
since. As a more scientific world view has been adopted many people continue to think
there is a conflict.

People have minds which search for knowledge, and we can understand more and more
of the world. A primitive picture of God is to use "God" to explain things we do not
know, this could be called "god of the gaps", we use "God" to explain what we do not yet
understand. This is not a Christian idea. Rather, whatever we know of the world we
should be appreciative of our existence. There is, however, a difference in our outlook if
we believe that the world was created by pure chance or if it was created with a purpose,
but this itself is a nonscientific question, a question which no one can ever disprove.
The types of evidence that can be found to support the theory of evolution come from
observations of past organisms in fossilised or preserved remains, by comparing the
genes of different species alive today, and by our limited period of observation of
biological species in the world and in laboratory experiments. The strongest evidence for
an evolutionary process of genetic change comes from analysis of DNA and gene
sequences among different individuals and organisms. Using techniques of DNA
amplification, in the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), a single copy of DNA can be
analysed, so that ancient preserved tissue can be compared with other sequences. From
this the changes, from those of a single base to those of gene duplication, rearrangement
or deletion, can be investigated.
Mitochondria are small parts inside cells, organelles, which produce the cell's energy.
They contain DNA, and the changes can be detected. When a sperm and egg fuse to
begin a new human individual the mitochondria come from the cytoplasm of the egg
because the sperm does not contain contribute cytoplasm to the egg, only the nucleus, so
the inheritance is from the mother. It is believed that all modern humans inherited their
mitochondrial DNA from a common female ancestor (6). There is debate however about
when this ancient Eve lived. In 1987 Allan Wilson of the University of California,
Berkeley, claimed that the data supported an Eve who lived 200,000 years ago in Africa
(7). They studied the differences in mitochondrial DNA in samples taken from many
people of many races and tribal groups. They found greatest diversity among Africans,
consistent with people having lived longest in Africa where they originated. They then
estimated the time taken for the DNA mutations to occur. Another method of comparison
of DNA sequences is to compare the different forms, or alleles, of a single gene, called
polymorphism. Some genes have many alternative alleles, all of which are slightly
different yet perform the same function (Some alleles do not perform the function
adequately or at all, and these are genetic-disease-causing alleles). Part of the Human
Genome Project involves taking samples of DNA from 300-500 diverse human
geographic populations, which is called the Human Genome Diversity Project. What can
also be done is to look at DNA from human remains over the last few thousand years, and
this can form a more accurate picture of the spread of human tribes and cultures.
However, this study itself raises ethical issues (8).
Africa is also suggested as the origin of modern humans by fossil evidence. The earliest
member of the genus Homo appears to be
Homo habilis
(9). However, there is not a linear evolution of humans, and there is a related genus

Australopithecus
. It is suggested by fossil evidence that a species
Homo erectus
evolved in Africa, and some left Africa migrating to Europe and Asia. The fossil evidence
suggests that they migrated about 1 million years ago. These were early humans. It is then
suggested that another migration of a more modern human from Africa occurred about
200,000 years ago which displaced all the old species of humans, consistent with the
mitochondrial DNA studies. There is disagreement about the fossil evidence, and changes
in skull bones, and it is difficult to reconstruct fragments. However, the biological data
tells us that all human beings have the same basic set of genes, the variation found in any
one population covers almost all of the total variation, and that humans share a common
African ancestor. All peoples suffer from genetic diseases and variation. The genetic
factors of human beings are being scientifically determined, and we must await the
results of the human genome diversity project, and the identification of the function of
human genes to get more detailed answers.
Changes in DNA sequences have also been used to trace the way that different organisms
evolve, called phylogenetic trees. We can compare the DNA of species alive today, and
investigate trends in the sequence change, and we can also look at DNA from past
organisms which is a more direct measure of the change over time. The movie Jurassic
Park, based on the novel (10), was based on some scientific accounts of extracting DNA
from insects that had been preserved in amber for 65 million years. Such DNA sequences
have been reported, but there are fundamental questions about whether DNA sequences
obtained are really those of the insect, as the DNA chemically changes over such long
periods of time (11).
Human beings are created in the midst of an intricate biodiversity, which is yet to be
comprehended. The process or time scale over which all life was made is not so
remarkable as the species and ecosystems that we have today, or those that we can see
from the fossils. The debate over the method and time frame of evolution is likely to
continue for a long time, and may not ever be resolved, but we can marvel at the diversity
of life, and also consider the shared biological origins.
Although we have a common ancestor, there is variation. Racial boundaries are the most
apparent differences in the world, one of the reasons why they have so often been used as
a basis for discrimination. These racial boundaries are slowly disappearing with many
intermarriages, though the attitudes to mixed race offspring has sometimes placed them in
another group. The cause of racial discrimination is also related to social, linguistic and
cultural heritage and geographical factors.
Biological differences may also be the root of some discrimination against people with
handicaps, for example people with Down's syndrome or physical handicaps are seen as
different. There are many thousands of genetic diseases that are known, and we all share
many disease-causing genes, whether they be causing cancer, heart disease or weak
bones. There is genetic diversity, and genetically we can show that every person has
numerous genes that are related to disease. Some genes are very common, for example,

around 10% of people have the gene (ApoE4) which is a risk factor for Alzheimer's
disease. We are also all carriers of potentially fatal genes that could kill any future
children if we have the bad luck to marry someone with one of these corresponding
genes, and the bad luck that these two fatal genes join together in our offspring.
Fortunately many of these genes are recessive, meaning that they will not cause disease if
the other copy of the gene that we have is normal.

Social heritage
Human beings are organised into societies, and our social groups include our spouse,
children, relatives, neighbours, religious group, community, workplace, village, city,
nation, and international partners. The social origins can be studied by sociology and
history, and they would immediately tell us that most societies we think of today as
countries are modern artificial creations of historical and present political power systems.
Perhaps the best example of the artificiality of the national borders is the division of
Africa, an artefact of colonial power struggles between Britain, France and Germany. The
attempt to stop further wars in Africa by the regional congress is only a partial success,
because further power struggles resulting from the earlier separation of tribal boundaries
can easily be used to engender conflict.
We could consider that wars are a sign that universalism is already lost, however, if we
really look at origins of most wars they are caused not by clashes between ideologies and
customs of ordinary people - most are caused by certain charismatic individuals who are
seeking further power. They may draw upon the perceived differences between cultures,
often generated with the help of the media. They utilise the sense of national identity that
is attractive to one part of human beings - we all have an urge to be identified as a
member of some community. Sometimes religious groupings are used, sometimes racial
differences, and these are usually combined with ethnic differences and the promise of
better economic conditions.
At the onset we should realise that the complete diversity of attitudes and characters of
human individuals are represented in any one society. A failing of human thought is that
people view their society as being different from another, with sweeping generalizations.
We describe the English as conservative, the Australians as noisy, the Japanese as quiet.
Such thinking is often tied to discrimination, for example men are..., and women are...;
whites are..., blacks are..., and Asians are... . Such thinking, of "us" and "them" is a root
of much disharmony in the world, and should be actively discarded from thought.
Language is central to social structure. Linguistic trends are consistent with migrations of
humans over the planet traced by genetics (12). We see languages and communication in
other animals also, but it is unclear what relationship they have to symbolism and
thinking. Some studies on language origin suggest that language may have only began in
the last 40,000 years. This is the same time that we see engravings or sculptures
appearing. That would be 60,000 years after the appearance of modern human species.

The anatomical structures of the vocal tract and larynx also suggest that other land
animals cannot talk, neither could premodern Homo species (13). However, individual
communication systems are found in other social mammals and birds, and they are used
to discriminate between individuals. Some other behavioural systems may also be shared
with other animals, as will be discussed more in the following chapter when looking at
the origin of love, altruism and selfishness, and animals.
We need to look at the world and ourselves. In many countries it is apparent when you
walk in the street, or read the newspaper, that the country is mixed. Ever more than
before, universally applicable ethical principles are necessary. Many immigrants from a
range of countries have come to the new countries like Australasia or America, and to the
centres of the old European Empires, especially Britain and France. The practises that
immigrants are accustomed to differ from each other. Their religions may also be
different, and certainly some social customs. The indigenous people in Australasia and
America, and the southern part of Africa, and with other Asian examples, have been
suppressed and although they have been overrun by culture introduced from the
immigrants countries, often a new culture has emerged. This continues to be a source of
friction in some countries, because the groups may try to form an "us" and a "them".
One of the assumptions of this book is that all human beings have equal rights. There are
universal human rights which should be protected, and recognised. We can argue for the
foundation of human rights from secular philosophy or religion, as will be explored later.
Universal cross-cultural ethics should be developed to allow diverse views to be
maintained even within a single community, as well as throughout the world in the global
community. Even within a so-called homogeneous culture, such as Japan, there is a wide
variety of opinions. The view of life that people have is individual, despite the often
assumed homogeneity. This is one part of this theory of universal ethics that can be
tested, and available data relevant to these conclusions is discussed throughout the book.
Economic factors are an inseparable part of society, and trading between adjacent regions
has been a major source of cultural mixing, today as in past centuries. The world has
become smaller with modern trade and communications, and this is certainly one factor
in the growing trend for internationalism. This is empitomised in GATT, signed in 1993.
International economics helps break down geographical And linguistic barriers, though
globally it has resulted in deepening divisions between rich and poor nations, another
hurdle to the recognition that much of human heritage and much of ethics is universal.

Spiritual heritage
The spiritual origins of humanity are less mixed than the social ones, and these have been
used as transnational boundaries in the past, and also today. The Islamic countries,
Catholic countries, and loosely-called Christian countries, are major regions of the world.
Asia has more diversity of religion, for example, Buddhism in Sri Lanka is different from

that in Japan. Within Asia there are also many Christians and Muslims, and most of the
world's religions.
Despite the scientific world view that is prevalent among academics, most other people
find religions to be a much more important source of guidance in life than science. In
questions of ethics, this is true of most people. Any theory of bioethics that will be
applied to peoples of the world must be acceptable to the common trends of major
religious thought. At a first look many people have suggested that the religious
differences are too great and have looked towards a new type of foundation for bioethics
based on humanism (14). However, we should look again at whether the differences
between religions are actually so important when it comes to bioethical thinking, and we
may find that it is more important to look at the individual level between people.
This comparison is one purpose of the International Bioethics Survey reported here. The
countries chosen in the survey were chosen for two reasons, one being as representatives
of the world, and the other in terms of convenience of access. Unfortunately there is no
African or South American, nor Islamic country among the countries chosen. It is hoped
that future studies will look at these questions in these and other countries also, as a test
of the ideas discussed here. The countries chosen include India, a country of mixed
religion and the major so-called "developing" country, though it has an agricultural and
social history much longer than most countries. Russia represents the former communist
world, another possible dominant force in shaping opinion. The Philippines is a Catholic
country. Thailand is a Buddhist country and represents South East Asia. New Zealand and
Australia, with some comparisons to North America, and to past European surveys,
represent Christian and Western countries. Hong Kong and Singapore represent the
Chinese influence, and some comparison to mainland Chinese attitudes is also made. A
small sample from Israel was also included, as one Middle Eastern country. In compiling
the data from these different countries, and comparing to other published data, we can
form a better global picture of the reasoning used by people, and whether there are
religious differences. In many issues there are not, and this will be discussed in the survey
summary.
We must also learn from traditions, these are another type of data we have. There are a
variety of different ethical traditions, and it is essential to consider these for the
development of universal bioethics. These traditions are also part of our social heritage,
though most have a more spiritual base. These different traditions should be respected to
make this universal bioethics also cross-cultural ethics; respected to the extent that they
do not conflict with fundamental human rights. We can find many common features that
are useful to develop universal ethics. I have summarised some of the medical ethics
traditions in an earlier book3 so I will not repeat that all here. A brief description of some
relevant traditions follows.
The ethical tradition of Judaism is discussed in the chapter by Leavitt in this book and in
another recent publication (15). Judaism includes guiding regulations for the appropriate
behaviour of followers in Jewish Law, both the rabbinic tradition or Talmud, and the
Torah (scripture). There is a description of the proper attitude people should have to wise

doctors written about 180 B.C. in the Old Testament Biblical book, Ecclesiasticus 38: 115. It describes a physician who conscientiously practises his profession and is an agent
of God. This attitude is found in Judaism, Christianity and Islam. A principle ethical code
is the codification formerly ascribed to Moses Maimonides (1135-1204). Unlike the
Hippocratic Oath, but in common with some codes, such as the ancient Chinese code,
there is the idea of helping the poor and needy. A key feature of Jewish Law is the
overriding value and sanctity of human life, rejecting any Hippocratic, Christian or
Modern compromises (16). The duty to preserve life is the dominant obligation, and this
is reflected in their medical ethics, however preservation of fetal life was not reflected in
the survey results from Israel.
The Christian's role model is Christ, not Hippocrates. There are five basic principles of
Catholic medical ethics, those of stewardship of the body, inviolability of human life, the
principle of totality, of sexuality and procreation, and the principle of double effect. There
are many Catholic Hospitals and Medical Institutions which are instructed to follow the
Catholic ethical codes, which differ principally from the standard Western codes with
regard to reproductive questions and abortion, as we can see in the results from the
Philippines. Modern Protestant medical ethics is based more on viewing the relations
between the patient and the physician as a covenant (17), than the sharply formulated
principles of Catholic moral theology. Christian codes regard beneficence, such as
striving to do the best for the patient and avoiding harm in the Hippocratic ideal, as a
command which does not just apply to the patient but an active duty to all people.
Modern Islamic ethics uses a system based upon moral law as recorded in the Koran and
the Hadith, and is basically "Allah's will be done". If an explicit reference to the classical
sources of Islamic law cannot be found, then it may be considered in the light of "public
benefit" (Maslaha). Islamic ethics is gaining importance because of the number of
Muslims in the world and the greater desire to follow the Islamic lifestyle by them.
Islamic medical ethics was largely formulated during the ninth and tenth centuries, while
Arab scholarship was at its zenith, with influence from the Hippocratic corpus. Islamic
culture is based on the Koran, with the medical tradition having dual sources from
scripture and the Hellenistic world. What was to emerge was not a dichotomy but the
growing Muslim civilisation developed a mixed approach of drawing on other values, the
way of "adab" (18). This balance was framed in the ninth century work "Practical Ethics
of the Physician" , which actually was written by a Christian, Ali al-Ruhawi. The
desirable characters and etiquette of a physician included being sensible, learned, pious
and act without haste, and have faith in God (19).
Hindu medical ethics are different to the Christian or Islamic approaches. There are some
oaths, including the Oath of the Caraka Samhita from the first century which is
structurally similar to the Hippocratic Oath. There is also an instruction to pray for all
creatures. The directive to leave dying patients without medical help is not found in the
Hippocratic Oath (20), but is seen in some Hippocratic writings. The code is linked to the
idea that ill health is because of bad behaviour in this or past lives. Since the thirteenth
century there has been influence from Buddhism and Greco-Arab influence which led to
Yunani medicine, which has a code similar to the Hippocratic one. The Indian philosophy

also includes the idea of do no harm as one guiding principle. Indian medical ethics today
includes Hindu and Western influences, plus many folk traditions and other religious
groups. India includes followers of many religions, and the long tradition of living
together, and the environmental aspects, as described in full by Azariah in his papers in
this book.
Modern secular philosophy is different from that of either Hippocrates or religious ethics,
and within the last decade has led to the emergence of the concept of patient rights (21).
This came together with general civil rights, which became dominant after the 1960s,
also involving environmental concerns. The American Hospital Association 1972
formulated a "Patient's Bill of Rights" in 1972, and within several years this was adopted
into law by U.S. Government agencies. The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of
Europe adopted a recommendation "On the Rights of the Sick and Dying" which also
states that the patient has the right to refuse medical treatment in 1976. The responsibility
for bioethical decisions in the West has shifted to the individual public during the last few
decades, though this has gone to the extreme in the United States.
The former Soviet-block communist world is in a process of change back to Christian
roots, and is in a process of tradition. The survey in Russia allows us to glimpse into the
thinking of ordinary people there, as discussed in the paper on the Russian results.
Socialist medical ethics also involves using oaths, for instance the "Oath of Soviet
Physicians" in 1971, which replaced the Hippocratic Oath. The pledge of loyalty is
changed to the service of people and for the interests of Soviet society. This is in contrast
to the Hippocratic Oath where the physician must work for the sole interests of the
patient. In socialist countries the right to personal health care was also stressed. However,
with the fall of communism in Eastern Europe many countries have rapidly lost such
ideals of justice and have switched to private medicine. Nevertheless, the physicians are
still respected much more than the government.
Chinese ethics, including medical ethics, involves the convergence of Confucianism,
Taoism and Buddhism (22). Communist ideology also continues to have influence, but
equality and "social harmony" have older roots. In the seventh century Sun Simiao wrote
"On the Absolute Sincerity of Great Physicians," sometimes called the Chinese
Hippocratic Oath (23). Among the commitments are equality of treatment, attempts to
save all creatures, and not to seek wealth. The Confucian scholar Lu Chih (754-805)
urged similar virtues, of humaneness and compassion, stating that the medical resources
must be distributed fairly among the population. The Taoists and Buddhists, revised this
with the concept of "Great Physicians" who possess special knowledge and responsibility,
thus creating an elite. However, there is a strong emphasis upon the virtues, including the
concern for equal treatment of all classes, with writers such as Kung T'ing-Hsien in 1615
attacking those physicians who had reduced medicine to a profession. It is historically
interesting that before the communistic ideal of the last few decades there has been a long
history of the idea of equality which is not found in the Hippocratic tradition which
addresses behaviour to the individual patient only. They do share the concern for a
prohibition on killing, and the two sides of ethical behaviour, to do good and not to do
harm.

Japanese ethics is a mixture of Buddhist and Confucian influences combined with Shinto
influence, and could be said to now be rather pragmatic and centred on the authorities
(24). This is certainly seen in most medical practice, though may be in a process of
change. Informed consent is becoming accepted, and bioethics may transform Japanese
society (25). The individual attitudes of Japanese are generally similar to Westerners, as
shown in this and past surveys (26)
There has already been a book written on the subject of the similarity of traditional
Buddhist concepts and Western medical ethics (27). Buddhism includes the idea that
medical knowledge alone is insufficient for medical treatment, a caring relationship must
also be present. Although the concept of karma (like fate) is recognised, similar to other
religious traditions, human effort is also a means to lengthen human life. The sanctity of
life concept is extended to animals in some types of Buddhism, as in Hinduism.
There are a variety of other spiritual origins that people in the world have, and a much
fuller examination and conceptual comparison of these different spiritual origins will be
in a following book. There is still further hopes and fears which we must examine,
regarding universal ethics. In the following chapter we will look at common ideals that
can be a basis for a universal bioethics.

Hopes and fears for universal bioethics

We can also ask whether universal ethics is even desirable. Different societies have
different goals, as do different people. This diversity is to be valued, and at the outset it
must be made clear that the type of universal ethics that is being discussed in this book is
one that will maintain diversity. If our capacity for diversity was lost it would not
succeed. Diversity is part of what we call being human. It is what could be called an
integrated cross-cultural approach to ethics. We should never expect all people to balance
the same values in the same way all the time. Nevertheless, there are numerous benefits if
basically similar values, or principles, can be used by all people and societies, and
harmony and tolerance are two.
Even if universalism is not possible, all would agree that tolerance of cultural diversity is
generally welcome. The limits to tolerance are already broadly outlined in international
covenants such as the Declaration of Human Rights, and the International Treaties against
abuses of human rights. One of the basic factors is whether groups with little power are
oppressed, in which case the international community may attempt to restore order. There
are also international treaties on environmental protection outlining some of the limits of
damage to the common environment that will be tolerated by other countries, such as the
convention on ozone-damaging chemicals, and on deep sea dumping. We also have
economic treaties, such as GATT, defining the limits of unfair trade. However, as will be
discussed later, economic priorities conflict with environmental protection, and we need
better resolution of this conflict in practical bioethics.

The extent of this similarity in universal ethics can be scientifically measured, and data is
presented and reviewed in this book. When we realise the enormity of the problem of
developing universal ethics we may want to give up, yet we must realise that individual
action is a necessary prerequisite for developing a world sharing common ethics.
Individual shortcomings can destroy the harmony and peace of any relationship, but
collectively they can have global consequences. The basic principle of ethics still is "love
thy neighbour as thyself", and if this was followed there would be no need to write a
book on how we may do this. This book joins others that recognise a need for guidelines
to protect others and our world. The law should encourage us to think about our ethical
duties, and attempts to promote justice to all, recognising our failings and selfishness
(selfishness is excessive autonomy).
There are large and small problems in ethics. We can think of problems that involve the
whole world, and problems which involve a single person. We can think of global
problems, such as the depletion of the ozone layer which is increasing UV radiation
affecting all living organisms. This problem can be solved by individual action to stop
using ozone-depleting chemicals, if alternatives are available to consumers. The
international convention to stop the production of many ozone-depleting chemicals is one
of the best examples yet of applying universal environmental ethics. Another problem is
greenhouse warming, which results mainly from energy use. This problem however can
only be solved by individual action, to reduce energy use. We could do this by turning off
lights, turning down heaters and air conditioners, building more energy efficient
buildings, shutting doors, and driving with a light foot. These are all simple actions which
everyone must do if we are concerned about our planet, yet not many do so. Energy
consumption could be reduced 50-80% by lifestyle change with current technology if
people wanted to. New technology may help, but lifestyle change can have much more
immediate affect. This reminds us of the economic interests of the major electricity and
oil companies, which slow any substantial reduction in energy use.
One of the common goals shared by many people is to make a world of more harmony. If
we look around we can only see limited examples of harmony, but we cannot even dream
of making a perfect world, that is God's realm. There will always be some people who do
not seek harmony. One of the principle failings of many ethical systems is that they
ignore the selfishness of human behaviour. Human beings often disregard ethical norms
and standards, and will continue to do so. Does this mean that it is pointless to try to
develop universal ethics with a goal of a more harmonious world? No, but what it means
is that we must be realistic, recognising our spiritual, social and biological limitations. As
Jesus said, "Blessed are the peacemakers", but he did not say that we could expect human
society to be at peace in its current self-seeking state.
Some economic and social systems have been successful in limited circumstances, but
they have all had problems. This is no criticism of the desirability of universal ethics, and
neither is it a reason not to try. The economic and social inequalities of the world have
been a feature since recorded history. Some religious systems have the longest record of
social survival in history, but they have all been misused by selfish people. The system of
economics often has more impact on the policy decisions than the ethical and religious

norms that people follow. Wars may be fought over religious differences, but often they
are based on poverty. In an ever more crowded world we can expect more, unless
inequalities are lessened and nationalism and racism are squashed. The environmental
crisis has added its cry to that of human suffering, and as it becomes recognised that
uncontrolled consumerism is not sustainable on the planet, we need to look for a fresh
and integrated approach to ethics.
This book focuses on bioethics, which could be broadly defined as the study of ethical
issues of life. Issues like justice, abortion, euthanasia, and stewardship of nature have
been debated for millenia. We need to consider this heritage when building a universal
ethics. Differences in approaches are clear from early historical discussions of these
issues, for example, there have always been people supporting and opposing euthanasia
or abortion. These differences and similarities are seen within any group of people within
every society (2). Basically data from opinion surveys and observation suggests that the
diversity of thinking within any one group is much greater than that between any two
groups, therefore we can attempt to look at basic universal principles that can be used in
deciding these issues. The social environment that people grow up in, and the education
strategies, are becoming more similar with time suggesting that a universal approach is
even more possible now than it was a century ago.
The same forces that have intermixed populations, and made them heterogeneous, are
actually making the world more homogeneous as a whole - making it more similar. The
world is losing some diversity. The modern communication media has allowed images of
different countries to be portrayed into the homes and minds of the ever increasing
number of people with access to them. However, the media image is one that is moulded,
consciously or unconsciously by those who transmit and select the news and
commentaries of life. The image presented from one event by people and reporters is
often different. Media editor actually maintain differences between societies because such
news sells better. Selective news which reports on the differences between cultures is
very dangerous. They must be indirectly blamed for the numerous detrimental effects of
promoting a false view of the world. It will result in wars and divisions, as nationalism
grows and people think that others are different from them.
There are enough problems for harmony raised by the lack of understanding due to
language differences. If we think that there are 3,000 languages on this planet, we will
see that there are going to be misunderstandings. If we expect others to be different then
we may read more into a simple smile, frown, or gesture then was intended. Proper
communication is very important. Television has brought us pictures of people in distant
lands, sometimes we see similarities and sometimes differences. What kind of world does
it paint? Is the picture to be trusted?

Synthesis

The picture that is painted in this book is intended to be realistic optimism, and the
practical conclusion of such universal ethics must be in the synthesis of all the traditions,
ideals, and aspects of biological, social and spiritual heritage that we have. The "we"
includes not only peoples of the world, but all of life, however, ethics relates to how we
regulate human behaviour and so this book is written in those terms. An introduction to
what this synthesis might look like is in the following chapter.
Please send comments to Email < asianbioethics@yahoo.co.nz &gt.
To part 2 of Universal Bioethics
To part 3 of Universal Bioethics, and the references
To contents list
To book list
To Eubios Ethics Institute home page

pp. 12-29 in Bioethics for the People by the People, Darryl R. J. Macer,
Ph.D., Eubios Ethics Institute 1994.
Copyright 1994, Darryl R. J. Macer. All commercial rights reserved. This publication may
be reproduced for limited educational or academic use, however please enquire
with Eubios Ethics Institute.

2. A framework for universal bioethics

We need to both examine what ideals of ethics could be universal, and also look at how to
balance conflicting ideals. How do we balance protecting one person's autonomy with the
principle of justice, that is protecting all people's autonomy? Utilitarianism (the greatest
good for the greatest number) will always have some place, but it is very difficult to
assign values to different people's interests and preferences. Different people's interests
will conflict, so that there are exceptions to the maintenance of privacy and
confidentiality. Many medical and environmental technologies are challenging because
they involve technology with which both benefits and risks are associated, and will
always be associated. Human beings are challenged to make ethical decisions, they have
to. The benefits are great, but there are many possible risks - the greatest of which is to do
nothing.
Even if life for many people in rich countries may have become physically easy, we
cannot avoid making decisions. These decisions must be made by everyone, whether rich
or poor. The more possibilities that we have, the more decisions that we make.

Fortunately standards of education are increasing, but this is no guarantee that the right
decisions will be made. People need to be taught more on how to make decisions, and the
education system should accommodate this need of modern life. Some results of
education surveys are also presented in this book from the International High School
Bioethics Education Survey. Let us then look at some basic ideals of bioethics.

Autonomy
It is easy to see that people are different, if we look at our faces, sizes and the clothes that
we wear. This is also true of the personal choices that we make. We may decide to play
soccer, read a book, or watch television. We may be put under some pressure by the
people around us to engage ourselves in a particular activity, or to behave in a certain
way, but ultimately it is our choice. There is a duty to let people make their own choices.
This is also expressed in the language of rights, by recognising the right of individuals to
make choices. Respect for the autonomy of individuals is a fundamental principle of
ethics, and is found in early times in those religions which recognised freedom of belief.
Above the challenges of new technologies, and increasing knowledge, the challenge of
respecting people as equal persons with their own set of values is a challenge for us all.
If we respect autonomy of human beings we should respect their right to have at least
some property, or territory, and control over their own body. We are animals, and most
animals (social insects excepted) have individual control over their bodies. In law and
medicine, the emphasis on confidentiality is very important. The keeping of confidences
is also necessary to retain people's trust, and has been a common feature of business and
medical ethics. Autonomy is an ideal, and there are limits in cases where personal choice
harms others, for example in criminal activity.
A feature of the ethical use of new genetics is the privacy of genetic information. This is
one of the residual features of the existing medical tradition that needs to be maintained.
We need to protect individuals from discrimination that may come in an imperfect world,
one that does not hold justice as its pinnacle. There may need to be exceptions if other
people are directly at risk from not knowing the condition of a patient. However, in the
case of a predisposition for a certain illness, or the case of the inevitable development of
a illness, the informed individual should have the right to keep this information that will
affect their future life. Only when symptoms show that will affect a third party should
their condition be reported if they have not already voluntary done so. There must be care
in the reporting also, so that it is not widely spread. We must be careful, because we use
computer databanks that contain such information, and if they can not be kept
confidential, the information should not be entered to such a bank.
Privacy is an extension of confidentiality, the right to refuse questions. If medical
insurance companies try to take only low risk clients by prescreening the applicants, there
should be the right to refuse such questions. The only way to ensure proper and just
health care is to enforce this on insurance companies, or what is a better solution, a

national health care system allowing all access to free medical treatment. The problem is
more related to justice.
It is accepted that humans possess unique moral wills, which is the basis for autonomy. In
this section discussing autonomy, we should ask whether all people have this and whether
animals also have some capacity for free moral judgement? If they are incapable of
exercising, or responding, to moral claims then they do not possess the same sort of rights
as humans do.
What is a person?
If we want to debate the issues of birth, death and the quality of life, we must ask what
constitutes a person. The word "person" comes from the Greek 'persona', meaning an
appearance or face, an individual appearance that has continuity through a story. Human
beings change with time and experience, persons grow, creating themselves. From birth
we become rational, self-aware, and through our childhood we learn and/or are moulded
as our genes interact with each other and the environmental. Beings can also be treated as
persons in a linguistic way, by names, and by ascribing emotions. Parents can do this as
they interact with their infants in terms of psychological attributes that they assign to the
infant, and we may do this to domestic animals too.
A person is generally referred to as someone who is rational, capable of free choices, and
is a coherent, continuing and autonomous centre of sensations, experiences, emotions,
volitions and actions. These are what may be called the characters of a person. A crucial
part of our person is self-awareness, or personal identity. Our selfhood only finds its
growth in social relationships, we are made fully human by our web of social
relationships. However, if a person loses the capacity to communicate with others, but
can receive sensory input, we still consider them a person.
During fetal life the characters of personhood are apparent in increasing ways. It is clear
that the biological qualities of personhood are not present at conception. The early
embryo or conceptus does not manifest the activities of a human person. It is a potential
human person, at the biological level at least, rather than a human person with potential.
To function as a human person a brain is needed, and in a parallel way with brain death
the criteria used by some is brain life. The brain develops gradually, so it is difficult to
mark a particular time when a sudden change occurs (28).
Another approach, founded in ancient Greek and Christian thought stresses being more
than behaving. When a "human" possesses a soul they are a person. In Christian terms a
human person is someone made in the image of God, which is not dependent on a criteria
of actions. This is related to the topic of the value of life, which is discussed later in this
chapter.
One of the important reasons for religions to place a high value on human life is belief in
the soul. Each individual is precious and unique because they possess a soul, a spiritual

status. The body, soul and spirit of the human individual are not separated but are integral
in a Christian view. Before an individual becomes a self-aware person they may possess a
soul. The timing of the beginning of the human individual actually coincides with the
time of ensoulment, which I have discussed elsewhere.3 It is generally believed there is
no intermediate in the animal kingdom, if the soul is from God then it is not necessary to
envisage intermediates, but the threshold can be crossed in a single step, between animal
instinct and human reflection. The timing of ensoulment in humans does vary between
different religions, and within people of the same religion. In a tradition where the
presence of a soul is the source of autonomy and protecting human life, the characters of
personhood are less important in assigning autonomy.
Evolution and autonomy
In order to understand how human beings behave and how we should behave we need to
look at our biological, social and spiritual origins, as we did briefly in the last chapter.
Within a year or two, and certainly within this decade we will obtain the gene sequences
of all of the human genes that are involved in our life, including up to 75% which may be
involved in determining our behaviour. This will change the way we think, and will help
develop bioethics. Behaviour is influenced by both genes and environment, and the
results of this International Bioethics Survey suggest that there is at least as much
diversity in individuals in any one culture as across the world. This is consistent with a
strong genetic determinism of behaviour, which is another challenge of these results. If
each culture had there own range of diversity we would expect that behaviour was
environmentally conditioned by the social and educational system - however, the data
suggests that inside every culture there is equal diversity - consistent with more genetic
determinism.
Obviously the complete genetic sequence of humans, and comparison of the genetic
similarities and differences to other animals poses many implications. Humans are
primates, and the species most related to humans is chimpanzees, and we are in a small
group with higher primates including orangutans, gibbons and gorillas. Already we know
there is great similarity between chimpanzees and humans, how will it change our
opinion if we find there are only 100 genes different between these two species? By
difference I mean new genes or missing genes, rather than the vast majority of genes
which are the same between these two species having only a few nucleotide base changes
in their DNA. The similarity may be a great shock to many of us, especially considering
some people still deny the similarity we already know.
Humans are also spiritual beings, and the spiritual part of life may be somehow distinct
from the physical. Whether the soul of a chimpanzee is different to a human soul has
been debated for millenia, and is a question already found in many religions. It is a
question only God can answer, not humans. It is a non-scientific question, like many
other important questions of bioethics, the value of life, the value of love, and the
meaning of existence. Scientific questions are those we can disprove by experiment, and

there are many that we cannot. The concept of evolution means we see humans as living
creatures derived from other living forms.
What is more psychologically difficult to accept, is when sociobiologists begin to trace
the origins of our ethical behaviour. However, we can see behavioural patterns in all
animals, and increasingly sophisticated ones in so-called higher animals. The origins of
our selfishness and altruistic (giving) behaviour are fundamental to how we behave.
Excessive concern with personal autonomy could be called selfishness, and there is
obviously a balance between too little recognition of autonomy which is against the
dignity of a person, and too much which can clash with justice as discussed below.
Autonomy should not be the most valuable principle of bioethics, even if it is the most
dominant feature of human behaviour.
The Jewish-Christian-Islamic religions say that humans were made in the "image of God"
(Genesis 1:26-7). What is this image? Part of this image is what we could call the "human
soul", as discussed above, the part which gives dignity to humans. Another approach to
investigating the soul is to look for characteristics that have been claimed to make
humans higher than animals, and to which some people say reveal the soul. These
include, intelligence and intellect, and language ability. It is very difficult to estimate the
language ability of animals who use different communication systems. One way is to
examine the complexity of the language, which would eliminate most animals from being
close to humans, but there would still be doubts over some. It has been found that
chimpanzees can be taught sign language, and talk to humans in it, but only to the extent
of composing two or three sentence replies. This represents a stage equivalent to a human
baby learning to talk, before they can start to actually make longer sentences. This creates
enough doubt about their ability to give them at least certain rights, and together with
social evidence some claim we should give the higher primates, chimpanzees, gorillas,
orangutans, and humans, equal rights in what is called the Great Ape Project (29).
James Rachels in Created from Animals (30) advances the view that in secular
philosophy we should not be speciests, but judge animals as individuals with differing
moral worth which may be similar to humans. The sensitivity to pain and capacity for
intelligent behaviour are the main qualities we should use to judge whether to use an
organism for human ends, as is discussed later in this chapter in the section on animals.
The book claims that Darwinism has undermined theological underpinning's of human
superiority over animals, which is something many people will refute, especially those
who are religious. At the other extreme, the views of Aquinas, who thought animals had
no rights, are incompatible with what we know about the biological continuum between
animals, and humans. We can argue for a religious difference between the point at which
we violate the rights of humans and animals, or use the language of duties, but we
certainly have duties to some animals based on their characteristics which we are
increasingly becoming aware of. Our ethics must build on the knowledge that we have,
and change when that knowledge informs us of new ethically important qualities of
animals such as pain, self awareness and rationality.

There are dangers to making autonomy dependent upon revealed characters of behaviour,
or an act-centred definition, because not all individuals are able to show acts or even have
the potential for future acts. This will be discussed further later. In conclusion we must
broaden our horizons to look at the autonomy of all organisms. The reason we must do so
is because of justice, which is the subject of the next section.

Justice
The autonomy is limited by respect for the autonomy of other individuals in the society.
People's well-being should be promoted, and their values and choices respected, but
equally, which places limits on the pursuit of individual autonomy. We should give very
member in society equal and fair opportunities, this is justice (31). Society should also
include the future of society, future generations are also an essential part of society. As we
have just discussed, animals are part of the biological community in which we live, and
we also have to consider the implications of whether they possess autonomy.
Those who claim the individual autonomy comes above societal interests need to
remember that at major part of protecting society is because it involves many lives, which
must be respected. Individual freedom is limited by respect for the autonomy of other
individuals in the society. People's well-being should be promoted, and their values and
choice respected, but equally, which places limits on the pursuit of individual autonomy.
We need to share benefits of new technology and risks of developing new technology to
all people. People in developing countries should not be the recipients of risks passed
onto them by industrialised countries, despite the economic pressure to allow this. We can
think of the dumping of hazardous wastes to developing countries, in return for financial
reward, but the environmental and human health consequences of dumping toxic waste
cannot be measured. Industrialised societies have developed safeguards to protect
citizens, and some of these involve considerable economic cost. While it may not be
possible for developing countries' governments to impose the same requirements, they
should not accept lower standards - rather use data obtained in countries with strict and
sufficient safeguards of health, with the aid of intergovernmental agencies. Any basic
human right should be the same in all countries, and this is one of the roles of the United
Nations.

Love: to do good while avoiding harm

A fundamental way of reasoning that people have is to balance doing good against doing
harm. We could group these ideals under the idea of love. Human beings are spiritual
beings, sharing emotions such as love and hate, greed and generosity. Any system which
fails to acknowledge this is destined to fail. The question of spiritual origins of love in

humans and other living creatures, was discussed above. We need to also examine
whether the altruism of animals was the precursor to love in humans or whether love is
something extra - God-given. In the final analysis we cannot prove whether the extension
of altruism is from God, but that is a question that respect for autonomy would leave to
the individuals.
One of the underlying philosophical ideas of society is to pursue progress. The most cited
justification for this is the pursuit of improved medicines and health, which is doing
good. A failure to attempt to do good, is a form of doing harm, the sin of omission. This
is the principle of beneficence. This is a powerful impetus for further research into ways
of improving health and agriculture, and living standards.
The term beneficence suggests more than actions of mercy, rather the ideal is love. The
principle of beneficence asserts an obligation to help others further their important and
legitimate interests. It means that if you see someone drowning, providing you can swim,
you have to try to help them by jumping in the water with them. This case also includes
the weighing of risks, to avoid doing harm. This is another integral part of love, and it is
because we respect life. It is expressed more at an individual level, whereas justice is the
expression of this concept at a societal level. Love was called the only central principle of
ethics by Joseph Fletcher in a book Situation Ethics (32), following on from the idea of
the golden rule, "do unto others what you would have them do unto you", and the
commandments found in Christianity to love others as you love yourself.
Altruism and love
In the previous chapter we discussed the biological relationship of humans to animals. If
we consider biological relationships it is natural to ask the question whether animals
share similar behaviour to humans. If they do it has some relevance for ethics, and it
would establish more solidarity between animals and humans.
In evolution it is assumed that selfishness is required for selection. Natural selection
means survival of the fittest, and selfish behaviour allows an individual to leave more
offspring. At the genetic level it means a selfish gene will try to replicate itself and leave
more progeny (33). If a gene does not do this it will not last. When we look at animals we
see that some animals exhibit non-selfish behaviour, called altruism. Some even give
when there is no hope to receive any genetic benefit, helping unrelated individuals. We
must therefore ask the question is altruism the basis for love?
We can look at some interesting examples among animals of altruism, and analyse this
from the viewpoint of natural selection, asking why that behaviour would survive.
Vampire bats are not our image of a loving animal, but unrelated bats in the same colony
may feed each other. If one bat is successful and another unsuccessful, the successful one
may feed the unsuccessful hungry bat. This is called reciprocal altruism, because the bats
may reciprocate on another night. This behaviour can be mathematically modelled in
such a way to show that it could be a selective advantage for these bats, because they

meet frequently, and by helping each other they help themselves leave more offspring
(34).
We can ask whether males or females have genetically programmed roles in the raising of
offspring. Animal studies, and human experience, shows that fathers can raise offspring,
and maternalism is shared by both sexes (35). Although the mother gives birth to the
child the father can care for the offspring, sometimes it is actually the usual practice, and
other cases it can be induced if the mother is absent. Parental care can tie up resources,
but if the offspring will die parents who want to have offspring continue until
reproductive age must nurture them (36). Parent-offspring behaviour must be stable for
the next generation, for the offspring to become successful parents. This means that while
children can ask for food, they cannot ask for too much or else the parents will die - the
genes for this behaviour must be balanced. This can be done by making the food requests
also costly, which is consistent with observed behaviour in some species (37).
Uncertainty of outcome and risks
The precise outcome of interventions in nature or medicine is not always certain. This
uncertainty can be called a risk of failure or chance of success. This is common to diverse
activities such as medicine, driving a car, generating energy, or production of materials. It
has taken major ecological disasters to convince people in industry or agriculture of the
risks. Introducing new organisms to the environment is also associated with risk. We may
never be certain to have complete control over the effects of introducing new gene
sequences, and with many cases much further experimentation is required before we will
be able to ethically allow full scale use of them. Ignorance of the consequences means
caution in using new techniques, and this is an approach seen in the regulations
governing the introduction of new organisms into the environment, the basis of
quarantine regulations.
The uncertainty is more important the greater the consequences of any disaster. If we
introduce very different gene combinations into the environment they could have major
consequences, which may be irreversible. The new genes may enter other organisms, or
the new organisms themselves may replace existing organisms in the ecosystem. The
ecological system is very complex, minor alterations in one organism have effects
throughout the ecosystem. We can not yet predict these affects, so we must be careful,
and move cautiously. We have had bad experiences in the past to make us realise our
limitations. There is only one earth and we are dependent upon it, we must walk
carefully.
Slippery slopes
The idea here is that because we perform some action, we will perform another. This
expression envisages a slope where once footing is lost it cannot be regained, and
suggests that controls which are adequate for initial exploration may fail under increased

pressure. While we may not do any direct harm with an application in question, it could
result in progressive lowering of standards towards the ill-defined line beyond which it
would be doing harm. The inability to draw a line is no measure of the nonimportance of
an issue - rather some of the biggest fundamental questions in bioethics and life are of
this nature.

Stewardship: the value of being alive

An extension of love to other species could be considered under the concept of
stewardship. Stewardship can apply to both the way people use other humans and the rest
of nature. It has often been forgotten in the past, but has a long history in many religions,
being central to a Judeo-Christian doctrine of creation. Usually people prefer to neglect it
and to think of dominion of humans over the earth, treating the earth with little value,
however we see what problems this has caused. There are numerous pollution problems
that we can readily see, which affect humans and other species. Of special attention for
bioethics is the value of biodiversity.
The inter-relatedness of all living organisms can be readily seen. All organisms need
water, all organisms have the same genetic code and share similar genes. All creatures
appear, at first sight at least, to be temporal, they live and they die. This relatedness is
expressed by the idea that they are all alive. They share something - life. There is also a
continuity between inorganic and organic, ecology refers to the relationship of every
organism with the environment. Is there anything which distinguishes living organisms
from non-living materials beyond that they use information to replicate, and that
information is non-random?
We need to examine where the value of life comes from, and because of this value we
should not do harm. Many want to protect nature, not because of its value or property, but
simply because it is there. We need to look at what people imagine from the words "life"
and "nature", and examples of the many comments follow at the end of this book. For this
the idea of a Japanese word "inochi" is useful. Inochi can be translated as life, nature, the
energy that holds things together. There are various images, as shown in the comments at
the back of this book, but the inochi of every living organism is distinct, unique, and
equal (38). The inochi departs when an organism dies, and is distinct from the idea of a
soul. All organisms share the same amount of life, they are either dead or alive.
A similar idea is expressed in some ancient Greek thinking, and the idea continued in
Western thinking with the idea of vitalism. This thinking was challenged by the discovery
that the chemicals found in living organisms were the same as those found in inorganic
matter. It is now possible to synthesize DNA from chemicals, and to use the information
in such DNA to make proteins, such as an active enzyme. There is no longer anything
vitalistic with the workings of a cell, and the genes can be changed around in a
predictable way. What remains is undiscovered, but the basic mechanisms are becoming
understood. However, we may still believe that life itself is special, no matter how it

comes into being, or how much of the process we understand. Even if we understand the
reason for a blooming flower we may still value its beauty. This value is distinct from the
value given to a being because it has a soul, but there are similarities as mentioned above
with regard to autonomy.
Early human cultures worshipped the mystery of life in various ways. The earliest cultic
figures from palaeolithic ages are mother figures. Mother Earth was worshipped under
many names in America, India and Europe. Mother Earth is worshipped in some rituals,
she is set against the Father of Heaven. The symbol leads to a more dualistic view of the
world. The creation narratives in the Old Testament are polemics against the Canaanite
matriarchical cults. The pre-Aryan, Indian Jains saw the Universe as a colossal human
being, the organism of the World Mother was populated by living things without number.
There are numerous other symbols that have been used for the world, like the feast, or the
dance, the theatre, as music or as play. These ideas unite the things of the world together
(39). In a similar spirit, recently the Gaia hypothesis has been advanced, that the earth as
a whole is alive (40).
In a Judeo-Christian view, nature is created by God, nature itself is not divine but is the
handiwork of the Lord. Therefore humanity does not face a world full of ambiguous and
capricious gods who are alive in the objects of the natural world. Nature is not terrifying,
as it is to those primitive cultures that view every act as gods response to their actions.
The Bible does not discuss the method of creation, but merely says that God created the
world by His Word (41). The Biblical view of the relation of man and nature is that they
are both continually dependent on God. Humans have been told to subdue, cultivate and
take care of the earth, to multiply and to have dominion over the created order (Genesis
1:28, 2:15). A Christian's vocation is to continue the "good" work of creativity (42). This
is a huge responsibility, and demands much positive action for those that accept this
paradigm. The world was made good, but humans chose evil. A very common alternative
world view is that humans are innocent, but trapped in an evil world. We see this view in
some Asian traditions that look on the visible universe as illusory or insignificant or evil.
Matter is seen as relatively bad, goodness is only attributed to the spirit, and the religious
task is to transcend the world.
There have been some who argue for a reverence for all life, such as Albert Schweitzer
(43). This approach makes no distinction between higher and lower life forms, saying that
we can not judge other lifeforms in relation to ourselves. It does make the point that it is
very difficult for us to understand or judge the importance of other living organisms in
the natural order. The only reason for harming life he sees is necessity. However, what is
"necessary" can vary widely between cultures. This is consistent with the use of ideals in
bioethics, as useful principles for decision making.
The idea of a vital energy of life is still found in many people's thinking. Even if they
understand the biological reductionism of genetics they may still believe that there is a
special "energy" or "essence" associated with being alive. Whether or not we do, we may
still want to protect life. On the otherhand, we may attempt to destroy diseases, because
they destroy the lives that we value. By more research into the way people look at nature,

we can find shared universal ideas about the relationship of humans to the earth and
human responsibility to nature. We should emphasise the value of being alive and the
principles of do no harm and environmental stewardship common to the roots of all
people's beliefs.
Another metaphor is that the earth is just as a machine. This has led to a segregation of
the divine from the world, including the world of human beings, and ultimately leads to
atheism, that the world machine, and human beings, can function without God. It also
leads to devaluation of nature and life, as discussed further in a paper on Darwinism by
Azariah in this book.
Biodiversity and conservation
Human life affects other organisms and the environment and it always will. We can see
the effects of human activity everywhere in the world, from in the atmosphere to
throughout the oceans, from the poles to the tropics and from the coastal lowlands to the
highest mountains. The amount of land that we use to live in and grow our food on, and
the amount of resources that we use, can be easily seen. However, it is the substances and
wastes that we produce that may have the greatest effect. We produce new substances and
release very large quantities of naturally occurring substances that may disturb local and
global cycles.
The flow of these substances is important. Such cycles do change with time. Nature has a
history from a beginning and it changes, or evolves. The physical world regularly
changes, for example ice ages. Some organisms die and others thrive. Nature has changed
in dramatic ways in the past. The current number of different species that are alive may
be only a few percent of the total species that have existed since the dawn of life. At no
time in the past has nature been more dynamic than today because humans are rapidly
changing it. We are raising the temperature of the earth. We are depleting the ozone layer
and increasing the amount of UV radiation reaching the surface. We are causing the
extinction of tens of thousands of species, and within our lifetime we may see the
extinction of a quarter of the world's species. We are adding many pollutants to the
environment. We are making many new crops, and are using genetic manipulation to
change lifeforms themselves. We are increasing our population rapidly, which
exponentially increases the problems. Today we can doubly say that nature is dynamic,
maybe too much so!
Biodiversity is a word used to picture the great diversity of living organisms on the
planet. Just as the individual processes of life are dynamic, so is the composite of the
lifeforms. The idea of dynamism also implies a balance. This is illustrated by the words
biosphere, foodwebs or ecosystem, with the largest ecosystem being nature itself. The
dynamic nature is implied in both science - the second law of thermodynamics, and
religion - in the Biblical doctrine of creation and preservation; and Asian religions with
"harmony". Nature changes with time; some organisms die and others thrive, and has
done so in dramatic ways in the past. There are various religious stories to support

preservation of biological diversity, the most famous of which is the story of Noah, which
is shared by the Judeo-Christian-Islamic traditions. Noah preserved all the domestic and
wild animals from environmental catastrophe, a catastrophe that it says was caused by the
actions of humans.
The balance of nature, the way different species at different levels of the food web exist
together, is delicate. Some eating others, while others eat them, and others dependent on
the modification of the environment made by another species, with competitors at every
level. There is an important inbuilt tendency for species to reproduce so quickly to be
able to increase their numbers, yet this does not occur dramatically in a balanced
ecosystem, in the competition for resources, the struggle for existence, each species tries
to survive to reproduce. This concept is very old, it is seen in Plato's Timaeus who
answers the question "in the likeness of what animal did the creator make the world?"
with the answer that god did not make the world like any one species but rather as "one
visible animal comprehending within itself all other animals of a kindred nature". The
idea highlights how life itself is intertwined, in a web of complex relationships. There is
also a continuity between inorganic and organic, ecology refers to the relationship of
every organism to the environment.
Most people are aware of the loss of species and "nature". Because the abundance and
complexity of ecosystems has not been able to be assessed, an accurate estimate of the
rate of species loss is not currently possible. While only 1.7 million species have been
identified, 5-30 million remain yet to be identified. The problem of diversity loss is
broader than the extinction of species, because diversity losses can occur at each level of
biological organisation. Although the loss of a few individual species may seem
unimportant, the disappearance of a few species can dramatically affect the ecosystem
from where they disappeared. The current rate of loss of species is greater than the
estimated rate that species evolve.
We need to ask whether there is ethical value in having different species? While we can
argue for human benefit from biodiversity, is there any ethical value in maintaining
different species? A related idea is that of "species integrity", i.e. species should not be
mixed, which was examined by several questions in the International Bioethics Survey
(Q9-12). Modern biologists generally think of species as reproductive communities or
populations. There is no universal or absolute rule that all species are discretely bounded
in any generally consistent manner. One species may exchange little or no genetic
material with related or adjacent species, while others may do so all the time. Species
exist in nature as reproductive communities, not as separate creatures. The cross between
a horse and a donkey, the mule, is certainly accepted in many cultures.
Both cell fusion (joining two cells together to make a cell containing parts or all of both
cells) and genetic engineering techniques, allow species barriers to be readily overcome.
To challenge the integrity of a species requires more than a single gene change. Mammals
like mice contain 50,000 or more genes and changing a small number of genes will not
violate species integrity. Preservation of each species as a species is important, so we
should not lose each species' identity, but the question of changing genetic identity of

individuals for human utility is harder to answer. The new strains should not be thought
of as special, manmade, forms of life, considering the wide genetic variation naturally
occurring. In fact to think that we are the "makers" is "pretending to be God", or
arrogance.
We can at best, or worst, generally only modify existing attributes. The exception is to
add additional genes for human benefit, for example medical proteins in the milk of
animals, or vaccines into banana. New genes can be designed by human ingenuity for
generally medical reasons, but the ethical issue is what we do with them, not to modify
something for human benefit - or else we should stop building houses, and more relevant,
we would have to stop traditional agricultural breeding. For conservation of biodiversity
we should maintain unmodified organisms and ecosystems separate from agricultural
areas, and encourage diversity of crops.
If we consider a complete bioethics we must include the duties we have to human beings,
and can argue for conservation from human dependence upon the environment.
Preservation also has socio-economic benefits, and in some countries nature tourism is a
or the main income earner. Reduced diversity also eliminates the options to use untapped
resources for agriculture, medicine and industry. More value could be obtained by
harvesting the renewable resources from tropical forests than deforestation (44). In
agriculture the use of wild crops in breeding crop plants has accounted for half the
production increases, and is estimated to account for US$1 billion annually, in U.S.
Agriculture. Future gains in production will also depend on the use of genetic diversity as
well as genetic manipulation. Nature provides the raw materials, the genes. There are
indirect benefits of wild species such as the role in pollination, pest control, storing flood
waters, and detoxifying many pollutants to name a few.
Dependence upon living resources
Human beings affect all the world, most directly when they exploit or use resources.
Human beings are dependent upon this use, and we need to consider agriculture and
aquaculture in particular. Nature includes both agricultural land, cities, and wilder regions
- all is nature. We need to have an integrated view, and not consider agricultural areas as
areas which are "artificial". At the same time plans to green deserts with genetically
engineered trees and plants may concern us - though such future forests would be part of
nature - as would a potato making plastic.
We can alter the genetic blueprint of organisms much more easily than in the past with
genetic engineering. The introduction of genetically modified organisms into the
environment presents ecological risks that we must be careful to minimise. However,
stewardship also leaves room for the genes of organisms to be altered if it presents a
better alternative to the other options available for providing food for other members of
the human race. There is no inherent "sanctity of the genes" in this approach, however,
we may value to maintenance of existing species and "natural" nature beyond our
agricultural use, as the survey results show world-wide.

Food concerns are basic to humans, and need to be considered in bioethics. Agriculture
has been more than the supply of food, it has been credited with the birth of "civilisation"
and cultures, when humans changed from hunter gatherers to planting crops and having
domestic animals. The food supply is sufficient now, if distributed properly, however, we
cannot trust people to give food to the hungry. Improvements are still necessary,
especially given the increasing areas of the world which have salty ground and
unpredictable rainfall.
Some of agricultural issues are transnational, for example ocean resources. Currently,
98% of the food products of humans are obtained off 7% of the world's surface area.
From the oceans, 71% of the world's surface only 1% of the foodstuffs are harvested.
Aquatic food proteins are an important source of animal protein, but this proportion needs
to grow in the future. Only about 30% of the world's fish catch is from cultured areas,
whereas fish like tuna are almost entirely from the use of international ocean resources.
Most maritime nations have declared 200 mile limits within which they claim prior rights
to exploit marine resources, including fish. Therefore international fishing strategies are
necessary, and we can see many examples of over-fished species. The form that such
fishery protection takes is often to enact quotas, a given number of fish of each species
that should be caught. Fish have been well studied wild animals because of the need for a
knowledge of their biology in the management of sustainable fishing. Quotas were
introduced to North Atlantic fishing since 1970.
Agriculture produces food, but it needs to be sustainable. The most efficient production is
using plants, and eating grains and vegetables. Assuming that realistically animals will
continue to be eaten, we need to think that animal species differ in their efficiency of
converting plant material to animal protein. Animals also produce a lot of waste, for
example in 1970 the animal population in the USA was estimated to be 564 million head,
which produced the waste equivalent to 2 billion people.
Interfering with nature
Some people, from all countries, say that some developments of science and technology
such as genetic engineering are interfering with nature because "nature knows best". In
all activities we should not ignore the detrimental interventions that our lifestyle has upon
nature. We have some good reasons to interfere with parts of nature, for example, we try
to cure many diseases that afflict humans or other living organisms and we must eat.
The idea that genetic engineering is in some way interfering with nature lies more in the
idea that genes are a foundation of life. The idea is that genes in some way are more
sacred than other parts of the organism. However, DNA and entire genes can be made by
purely synthetic procedures in a laboratory. A new catch phrase is "Genethics" (45),
which suggests that the problems raised by genetic technology cannot be dealt with
ethically by existing ethical principles, or by Western morals, and we must turn to Eastern
religion. However, the Western Christian tradition has the principle of stewardship, which
is balanced with support for the creativity of humanity to find new technology. While the

use of genes may be seen as novel, we have had a very long history of genetic
manipulation using conventional techniques of plant and animal breeding, but only
recently do we understand the details of why they worked. We should consider our
knowledge when implementing any new variety of organism, however it was made.
For some there is a feeling that we should not explore all the secrets of life, that the
mystery of life will be gone if we discover too much. However, as many scientists will
say, the more we know, the more appreciative of the workings of life we become. The
fact that we have practical requirements, such as to feed, house and heal people of the
world, are major justifications for the pursuit of practical knowledge in any system of
religion or philosophy that places a high value on human life, it is the principle of love.
A negative science fiction image has been easily promoted and is appealing to the human
imagination. The fascination with creating "new forms of life" is coupled to a fear of how
far it might be taken. The Frankenstein Factor was coined by Gaylin (46) as a suitable
name for the wild scenarios imagined by some people, which represent the fear of the
unknown, as symbolised in the movie. There are many movies which play on similar
themes, in 1993 the blockbuster movie Jurassic Park (10) brought genetic engineering
into the imagination of many. These are very powerful in shaping public perceptions.
There have been many accusations that scientists are "creating new life forms", however,
our present technology is capable only of transferring one or a few genes into a genetic
background containing the order of a hundred thousand genes.
The term "Playing God" is a term applied to situations where humans make life or death
decisions without reference to God, this being seen as pride or arrogance. It may not be
the use of power and creativity that is wrong, but rather attributing power to our own
resources. This reasoning is found in different cultures. What is wrong is not the act itself,
but the attitudes that could be involved. However, useful applications of technology are
positively advocated in some religions, such as the Judeo-Christian tradition which
suggests co-creativity with God is part of good stewardship of the earth's resources.
The expression suggests that we should be cautious in the use of technology whose
potential risks and side-effects we do not fully understand, the idea of do no harm, as
discussed above. The idea is that while God may understand all, we do not, so we should
only tamper cautiously with things as basic as genes, or new life and death.
Whether or not nature itself has "rights", we certainly do have many duties to it. We
should not manipulate it solely to satisfy human desire. The theocentric approach
challenges two common tendencies. Some religions tend to blur the distinction between
God, humans and nature, leading to a glorification of nature. However, industrialised
thought tends to divide humans from nature, seeing nature as something to exploit for
human comfort. The same could be said of some interpretations of Darwinian theory, as
explored by Azariah in this book. We must remember that we are creatures, part of nature,
which is another interpretation of evolution. We are currently in a crisis of domination,
not just an ecological crisis, but a crisis of our whole life system, brought upon the entire
globe by ourselves. The origin of this crisis is in human behaviour and attitudes, and the

tremendous power of our technologies to shape the world. As a reaction against this some
people attack what they see as the cause, science and technology, and its effect upon
people's philosophy; however, the real cause is the age old problem of human selfishness,
which has become embedded in the short term economic desires of many businesses and
governments.
The greatest public concern is over the mixing of human and animal genes. There is
generally more concern about insertion of animal genes into humans then concern about
insertion of human genes into animals. However, some people object to the insertion of
human growth hormone, or hemoglobin, genes in pigs. These animals may be used to
make medically useful proteins, and could be considered just an extension of the modern
dairy industry which tries to increase milk production in cows. There is also research to
produce transgenic animals which can be organ donors for humans. This is technically
difficult, but perhaps possible - but at first people may consider this concept "playing
God". However, eating animals, or having inbred dog varieties is considered acceptable,
which suggests that it will be within the bounds of common morality to use animals for
organ donors. One could argue that medical need is a greater reason than the desire to eat
meat, so that this will be accepted. However, one can also say that everyone has some
limit to changing nature, and we do not know where this is.

Ethical limits of animal use

In most people's minds there are some differences between animals and plants.
Philosophers can argue that there are morally significant differences between animals and
plants, such as the capacity to feel pain. The question of whether animals can think is
related to autonomy. This section is also strongly linked to the concept of "do no harm",
which has a basis at a more fundamental level - the level of being alive.
If we are going to harm life, a departure from the ideal of doing no harm, it must be for a
good motive. Such a motive might be survival, and we can see this as natural - all
organisms consume and compete with others. Plants compete with each other for space to
grow, animals eat plants or other animals, bacteria and fungi also compete for resources
and space - sometimes killing other organisms and other times competing without direct
killing. Destruction of nature and life by humans is caused by two human motives necessity and desire. Basically, it is more ethically acceptable to cause harm if there is
necessity for survival than if it is only desire. This distinction is required ever more as
human desire continues to destroy the planet.
The motive for using animals alters the morality of their use in some religions, suggesting
these concerns have a long history. Animal sacrifice for worship is used in Islam, but they
would generally condemn scientific research or battery farming. Vivisection is allowed
under circumstances where there is no pain or disfigurement and if other animals benefit.
The use of animals in science is under the same moral codes as applied to humans. Even
though the animals possess a lower consciousness, Islam says animals know their own

mode of prayer and psalm, a voluntary act of praise. The killing of any breathing beings,
except for food or religious sacrifice, is high on the list of deadly sins. Hindus, Jains and
Buddhist believe that we will be reborn as another living animal, which creates their bond
of caring and compassion for animals. So they will reject animal sacrifice, even though
the sacrifice of an animal won't kill what is essential, in the reality, the soul, of that
animal.
Christianity also agrees that scriptures and traditions show that animals do have valid
claims upon us. Animals cannot be viewed simply as expendable raw materials for our
designs, they do not exist simply to serve us, the doctrine of creation is opposed to
anthropocentric notions. The use of animal sacrifices does not mean animals should be
sacrificed for the selfish pursuits of man, the practise of animal sacrifice was to bring
God into the focus of human hearts in place of their own selfish desires, and was not
necessary after the birth of Christ. The Bible often mentions animals, as Israel was an
agricultural community. God owns everything of creation, including all our cattle (Psalm
50:10) and He cares for them all (47). Animals should also rest on the Sabbath, and
should be fed first, before the farmer (48). However, early Christian theologians such as
Aquinas regarded animals as irrational creatures that weren't directly possible of human
friendships. The tradition of the Roman Catholic church is to regard animals as means to
human ends, and the moral objections to cruelty on animals are more concerned with fear
that those inflicting pain will contract habits of cruelty, something also seen in Kant. The
contrasting attitude of St. Francis of Assisi, to talk of sister cows or brother dog, is a
picture which may be more appropriate for ecology.
Beyond the motive, another important criteria we use in judging the use of animals is
avoiding the infliction of pain. Some distinguish pain from "suffering", but they are both
departures from the ideal of avoiding harm. Suffering can be defined as prolonged pain of
a certain intensity (49), and it is claimed that no individual can suffer who is incapable of
experiencing pain. The capacity for suffering and/or enjoyment has been described as a
prerequisite for having any interests (50) Judging pain is subjective, and there are
parallels in the way animals and humans respond. Many of the neurotransmitters are
similar between higher animals and humans. It is possible that animals do have a different
quality of "pain", as the frontal region of the cerebral cortex of humans is thought to be
involved in feelings of anxiety, apprehension and suffering components of pain. This
region is much smaller in animals, and if it is surgically treated in humans it can make
them indifferent to pain. There are differences seen in the types of pain receptors, some
respond to mechanical stimuli, some to noxious heat or irritant chemicals, and some to
severe cold. The difference between pain of animals and responses of plants (which
include electrical response like animals), is that a signal is only a signal, whereas pain is
something after the reception and processing of the signal in the nervous system.
We can think of ethical factors inside and organism and outside, and a summary of some
factors for judging animal use is below:
Intrinsic Ethical Factors
- Pain

- Self-awareness
- Future Planning
- Value of being alive?
Extrinsic Ethical Factors
- Human Necessity / Desire
- Human sensitivity to animal suffering
- Brutality in Humans
- Other animals disapproval
- Religious status of animals
- Nature
We may all agree that animals can suffer, but the question is how much does it matter?
There may be a choice between human welfare and the suffering of nonhuman animals.
Many people accept that all humans are equal in moral status, and all humans are of
superior moral status to nonhuman animals. From these two moral principles they put
human welfare ahead of animal suffering. Peter Singer argues that these two moral
principles cannot be defended within the terms of a nonreligious approach to ethics. He
concludes that there is no rational ethical justification for always putting human suffering
ahead of that of nonhuman animals. He argues that "if we are considering public policy in
a pluralistic society, we should not take a particular religious outlook as the basis for our
laws" (51). But we can ask, do we need to take rational utilitarian philosophy as the basis
for public policy? Many different people's cultural and religious views are more
consistent with human beings having a higher moral status than animals, and these views
may have more in common with each other than with the rationalistic philosophy of
academics. There are some fundamental questions about who should decide this, and it
needs to be considered at greater length.
However, it is still important to summarise his argument, as it does have consequences
for the way we regard animals, and we should improve their treatment. The problem with
saying that humans are of higher moral status than animals is that while the human
species may have higher mental capacities than animals, not all people do. The word
speciesism is used to argue that in rational philosophy we cannot prove that we owe the
human species any more ethical duties than we owe animal species. We should focus on
the individual when considering ethics, which has been a focus of the movements against
sexual or racial discrimination also. Singer argues that we should consider all beings who
can suffer in our moral considerations, regardless of species. However, he would still not
say that the deaths of animals are equal to the deaths of all humans, as there is an
additional factor of the awareness of the future that humans have, which most animals do
not have. To kill a human being destroys all the plans that they have made, a feature of
humans. He also acknowledges the importance of extrinsic moral factors, such the
feelings of family members if one dies (though this is shared with some other familial
mammals).
At the practical level, the feeling of pain is the first major guiding principle for animal
treatment. The second is that we should not kill some animals, if they have self-

awareness such as higher apes, and probably other animals such as dolphins. We do need
to consider the findings of animal studies on the level of self-awareness that some may
possess. Our bioethics must have a basis from all data, including reasoning, philosophy
and biological knowledge.
The creation of very diseased animals as models of human disease, for example cancer,
and many other genetic diseases, is becoming routine, and this decade could be called the
decade of the transgenic mouse in experimental biology. In this case we must try to
balance the pain caused by the benefit, and this is not done well (52). There are
agricultural reasons to make faster growing animals, or using animals to make products
("bioreactors"), as mentioned above. To make a chicken lay an egg full of interferon, a
protein that can treat some cancer, is novel, but not beyond the daily use of animals.
Ethically, if such proteins can be made in soyabeans for similar cost it is better, and if the
interferon can be delivered to the body by eating only beans - that would be a great
advance. Research to make edible vaccines in vegetables or bananas, is underway, which
most people would accept if it can provide cheap, just and safe medical care to more
people in the world.
A response to the ethical objection that it is wrong to cause pain could be to make
animals that don't feel pain to use for experiments, food, or other utility to humans. We
could call such animals vegemals (vegetable animals). Because pain is a basic sensation
we may object to manipulating it permanently out of strains of animals (53). These type
of experiments involve altering the mental requirements of animals to suite our means. In
fact these futuristic beings could be engineered to give consent. The motive is
anthropocentric and the means used are not interested with the life of the animals
themselves, however, if they did not suffer pain than they could be regarded by many as
being better off then beings that do, and many organisms that are currently used for
human benefit.
If we object to these experiments, we would probably be forced away from arguments
based on pain, in which the capacity of a subject for sensation, is the pre-eminent quality
on which attitudes towards the treatment of that being by others is based. If we object to
these painless animals being made, it may be because we hold religious views according
to which we should not grossly alter the creatures of the earth, because it is "unnatural". It
could be based on each being having a self, suffering being viewed as the threat to
characteristic, worldly related activities which threatens the integrity of the self (54), as
would the removal of sentience. The Christian view would be that God gave
responsibility to humans to look after animals, and we must respect other creatures in
God's creation and not misuse power (55). We may also have concerns about changing
our own values, but farming already treats animals as the longterm property of humans,
and decides when or how they come into existence and die, and their reproductive choice.
This example points us to the fact that some bioethical dilemmas must be answered by
human values, even if this is regarded by many philosophers as unsound, culturally
determined, and undefinable. While at first we need to apply the immediate ideals that
have common ground in religion and philosophy, we have a challenge to look at the the

question of the value of life - a real bioethics dilemma. Genetic engineering challenges
our thinking about the use of nature (3). .c2. The question of the value of life and nature
can be investigated by open questions, as has been done and reported in this book.
However, the issue of what is natural will change with time. Genetic engineering can also
reduce the number of animals used in toxicity testing, which is not only more ethical but
more economic (56). It is ethically consistent to use lower organisms, cells, or computer
models, if possible, and also to use human volunteers and epidemiological research.
People will continue to eat animals, and practical ethics must improve the ethical
treatment for all animals. One area of particular concern is whether animals should be in
a field or in a caged box, or factory farm. The main ethical question is confinement of
animals, such as veal calves, pigs and poultry in small cages. There have been several
countries which have banned the use of battery caged hens. It has been illegal to use
battery cages in Switzerland since 1992. In Sweden they will be illegal from 1998. The
possible boredom of animals on factory farms (57) may be another ethical argument
against their use. It is interesting that many farmers in the International Survey expressed
concerns about animal use, they clearly perceive images of what is a "natural" and "just"
life for an animal, and what is not. People need to decide how much more they are
prepared to pay for better treatment of animals, such as the costs of eliminating battery
farming, or the costs in not using new animal treatments that produce cheaper milk or
meat such as bovine growth hormone. The consequences on the different communities
involved in agriculture of these decisions also needs to be considered, a variety of
external factors, some of which will be discussed later.

The quality of life

The quality of life is more important for most people than the length of life. There is little
value in being alive if the quality of life is terrible. Rather than spending much effort to
fight genetics and disease to increase the length of human life beyond the eighty years of
lifespan many in industrialised countries can enjoy, we need to spend greater effort to
improve the biological, social and spiritual quality of life. This question is relevant to
euthanasia, and genetic selection before birth.
Human procreation is associated with a high degree of error, because when genetic
elements rearrange there are often mistakes. The number of fertilised embryos with
genetic abnormalities may be about 70%, a very high figure compared to simpler
animals. Most of the genetically abnormal individuals are spontaneously aborted in early
stages of pregnancy. But some are born and will die later, some have a painful life others
do not. If a fetus has a serious genetic impairment, with a consequence of serious mental
deficiency, some people might say that the fetus does not, and will not in the future, have
a "life" as "normal" humans have a life, it's potentiality is different.
Do we deny the potential for spiritual relationship between God and the most diseased
forms of human life? Severely retarded individuals may never be spiritually aware - but

can we judge? Many religions would argue there are no "worthless" lives. In Christianity
this is because in God's eyes each human person is precious and the property of God. In
Buddhism each life has its own "karma". However, most traditions support limits to
interventions to save life.
This question is also related to justice. The allocation of society's resources has to
consider equity rather than social merit, social productivity, quality of life, or ability to
pay. Considering justice we may consider quality of life as one factor in distributing
limited resources, and in fact if we don't, we are ignoring other people's lives. We do not
need to maintain life at all costs, as this may not be in the patient's best interests or in
God's will. One of the early statements on the distinction between extraordinary and
ordinary treatment came from the Pope Pius XII (1957); "We are normally held to use
only ordinary means, according to the circumstances of the situation, but are not obliged
to any grave burden for oneself or another to life... Life, death, and all temporal activities
are subordinate to spiritual ends."
The quality of life relates to the individual person, and conceptions of it change with time
and situation. People have different hopes and ambitions, and the capacity for personal
growth from a given state is important. Recently advance directives, or living wills, have
been introduced which allow people to make choices before they reach a situation where
their quality of life will become very bad and hopeless.
The distinction between acts and omissions is often not consistent, as in cases of letting
severely handicapped newborns die. However, it may be a useful legal barrier as there is
the existence of a potential slippery slope to widespread euthanasia. The law in the
Netherlands allows some active euthanasia. An objection used by many to this is that it is
interference with providence, but in a modern hospital one could argue that many medical
treatments interfere with nature. If we regard life as sacred, then we may not agree with
the modern concept of the right to decide our own life, or autonomy. If we intervene to
prolong life with experimental therapy this can be just as much playing God as shortening
may be.
A disease that might seem to make someone less "human", in fact may make others
around them more human in the love and care that they give. There is a strong idea that
ideal ethical behaviour is keeping with our true humanity, we need to be able to love to be
fully human. Often much of the suffering we see in others is what we would imagine they
feel if they had our sense of what is suffering (58). The suffering that is being avoided
may be more that of the family than the actual individual. Yet, everyone would agree
there are some lives too full of suffering to ever understand.
The issue of the value of life is fundamental in many issues in bioethics. This question is
important when considering the financial investment into new technology including new
genetic technology, offset against the cost of life if using genetic screening and such
negative means. Despite the ideal of treating every disease, there are limits. These limits
include both technical and financial ones.

While there should be no limit to our love, and we should not limit opportunities to show
love, we should not take our hands away from a situation and say this is in "out of my
hands", putting our head in the sand like an Ostrich. We should not knowingly make
misfortune for the sake of having a chance to love. Both options, to act or not to act, are
ethical decisions.

Balancing
These ideals all need to be balanced, and I would claim that many people already attempt
to balance them. The balance varies more within any culture than between any two, and
the International Bioethics Survey combined with observations of policy and behaviour
in different countries allows us to look at how these principles and ideals are balanced.
An examination of history also shows how the balancing act has varied in different times
and places.
A fuller discussion of these will come in the later book.1 From the data, and the
observations of many others before, already we may a type of universal ethics working
across the world. In the next chapter, the last of this brief outline of universal bioethics,
let us consider how sustainable living may be possible, and the concept of bioethical
maturity. A mature society is one which has developed some of the social and behavioural
tools to balance these bioethical principles, and apply them to new situations raised by
technology.
Please send comments to Email < asianbioethics@yahoo.co.nz &gt.
To part 1 of Universal Bioethics
To part 3 of Universal Bioethics, and the references
To contents list
To book list
To Eubios Ethics Institute home page

pp. 30-38 in Bioethics for the People by the People, Darryl R. J. Macer,
Ph.D., Eubios Ethics Institute 1994.
Copyright 1994, Darryl R. J. Macer. All commercial rights reserved. This publication may
be reproduced for limited educational or academic use, however please enquire
with Eubios Ethics Institute.

3. Sustainable living and technology

Sustainable living
In the midst of growing awareness of environmental change and damage we should be
aware of the need for sustainable living. We not only have to view the environment in its
role as essential to human existence, but we should value the environment itself.
Sustainable living involves not just efficient agriculture, but also minimising our energy
use and pollution. It involves changing public policy and the very way people think. We
must realise how important the use of new technology is when it aids this process, and
work towards this goal.
The type of research that is required for a transition to a lasting earth is of three broad
types. One is the use of science to discover the workings of nature, such as elemental
cycles, and developing technology for energy and resource conservation. Another is
economic systems that are consistent with sustainable living. Recent reports suggest that
technical change alone will not allow a switch to sustainable living because the global
economic system may not be able to be made compatible with sustainability (59). Even
with an optimistic view, the time delay in global implementation of new technology
would mean that the world may be very different from that of today.
We need a fresh approach to add to the battle of protecting the environment. In the long
term the most important approach is a lasting change of human attitudes to those that are
compatible with sustainable life. We need lifestyle change. We cannot isolate any
environmental problem from the whole crisis of modern life. The environment is
influenced mainly by human behaviour, national and international development,
economics and politics.
The recognition that we live on "Spaceship Earth" has led to the growing acceptance of
international accords, such as the United Nations Bills on Human Rights, the Law of the
Sea, the Montreal Protocol to eliminate the production of ozone-depleting
chlorofluorocarbons, and the Antarctic Treaty ban on mining. As people's of the world
attempt to unite more, especially in the increasingly positive international spirit of the last
few years, further agreements on global responsibility will be made. However, lasting
attitude change to proper stewardship is required to save the planet. There is a danger that

like the many short-lived public concerns of the last few decades, the focus on ecological
survival will pass. In order to assure the permanent attitude change that is necessary for a
lasting earth, we must ask how people view life.
Changing the way human beings behave towards each other is a supernatural task, that
can be aided by all of us changing our attitudes. We must ensure that efficient and
sustainable agriculture is encouraged, but recognise it is only part of a broader solution.
Sustainable agriculture could be defined as the appropriate use of crop and livestock
systems and agricultural inputs supporting those activities which maintain economic and
social viability while preserving the high productivity and quality of the land. Technology
does change the way we live. We need to improve agricultural efficiency to succeed,
however current research interests in biotechnology are not necessarily the best way to
provide sustainable agriculture. Large corporations are developing new techniques that
may require constant application. An example is biological weed control where about one
case in six has worked, and is very cost effective (most projects cost less than
US$150,000) (60). This success rate is still much greater than that achieved in searching
for useful agrochemicals, and much cheaper.
Some of the criticism is against technology, and needs balanced consideration. For
example, there are valid criticisms about the development of herbicide-tolerant plants,
that biological control is better, but they do have immediate environmental advantages in
some cases. For example, maize growers make 4-6 herbicide applications a season, but if
the crop was tolerant to a broad-spectrum post-emergence herbicide only one application
would be needed. Reducing herbicide use and switching to biodegradable products is
consistent with sustainable agriculture and is an important practical step in that direction,
as long as commercial interests do not prevent the eventual widespread use of the ideal,
biological control.
We also need to ask what type of world is sustainable? Current economics do not
consider the environment and its value, and this needs to change. By taking into account
the value of the environment, we are thinking of long term interests, something that is not
considered in most modern economic policies. In industrialised countries technology will
allow the shift to renewable energy resources over the next 50-70 years. This will reduce
the emissions of pollutions substantially. However, in developing countries it will take
longer. The level of pollutants can be reduced to one that is compatible with
sustainability, but the world may be in a different state from that today. It will not be
possible to return the world to a state that existed before the industrial age. The biological
regions will be different. This leads us to more easily accept some human directed change
of the natural regions of the earth.
Some proposed solutions have been called "eco-engineering". These include biochemical
changes such as increasing the efficiency of carbon fixation, by the engineering of certain
cell enzymes. It may be useful to do this to agricultural crops, or specially planted forests
that will be used for biomass production. For example, recently hybrid Black Cottonwood
trees that grow twice as fast as parent trees have been bred. The price of alcohol from
woody sources will be competitive with petroleum products in the near future, and by the

time those trees grow it will be a clear advantage (61). Transgenic plants of the nitrogenfixing tree,
Allocasuarina verticillata
, have also been grown. This tree is a member of the family Casuarinaceae, which as fast
growing trees will be important in efforts to reforest desert areas of the world, and to
provide fast-growing wood sources (62).
However, the affect of introducing genetically modified species is not ecologically
predictable for natural ecosystems, so genetic engineering should not be used in
"naturally" occurring ecosystems. Large scale afforestation has already been conducted in
many countries, such as New Zealand, and is underway in many countries. Forestry has
become much more important with the recognition of the role of forests as a carbon
dioxide "sink" (if carbon dioxide is taken up into plants or dissolved in the oceans there
will be less increase in greenhouse warming). To prevent deforestation is still more
effective, however, because it preserves biological diverse ecosystems, which may also
be more stable to climatic change. In the future the greening of deserts can occur, though
also in this case, desertification is a major problem. For example, Libya has just
completed the construction of water tunnels to utilise ancient underground water reserves,
and it also intends to use these to green the desert to produce agricultural crops. The
extreme of eco-engineering is the atmospheric conversion of the entire planet Mars, in
order to grow plants there, and over long time periods, to make it habitable (63). More
importantly, we should concentrate on not ruining the planet we already have.
Sustainability may occur only in a more human-constructed and designed world than that
of today. The cities may include many artificial parks rather than natural parks.
Ornamental plants are already selected for specific characters, and genetic manipulation
will add to the choices possible. However, from these choices of humans will select
which varieties to plant in the parks, so that more "nature areas" and parks will be
artificial. Nature which contains less diversity and complexity may be the norm for many.
To retain a major proportion of the original biodiversity is only possible if people decide
to leave some of the areas of nature undisturbed, and some for nature to reestablish.

Lifestyle Change
As discussed above, the most important change required for sustainable living is lifestyle
change. Already the social and cultural religions of many cultures do attempt to control
human lifestyle for the benefit of the environment. The concept of harmony with nature is
found in many cultures. The problem is that selfish behaviour of people, combined with
the preeminence given to modern economic policy which does not value the
environment, mean the environment is destroyed and exploited. Even a country like New
Zealand, seen as a home of nature, has had 80% of its forests destroyed since humans
came. It is interesting that before European colonisation, at which stage there was still a

majority of forested land, it was suggested in Britain that the whole colony be a national
park!
There are two phases in the lifestyle transition to sustainable living. One is the dramatic
change in lifestyle, and action, to clean up the pollution already made and to avoid
making more of it. In any event there will be a changed world, but immediate action will
reduce the difference between the world we have today (or in the recent past before
widespread pollution) and the possible future sustainable world. The next is to continue
to live in a way healthy for the world and for future human society.
Human lifestyles have changed dramatically over the last few centuries, and will continue
to change. We need to direct the change in the direction of sustainable living consistent
with a lasting and healthy world. The life goals of people can change, and the image of
money as the most important life goal can be changed if replacement images are
provided. We may not have immediate change, but even if people start adopting new
lifestyles today, it will not be too early, and it will still take decades for the whole world
to change. The human addiction to intervention in nature needs to be changed so that we
can enjoy more of what nature we have left. This will also give human beings more
emotional security for living in the lasting earth.
We cannot leave it to governments to look after the planet, the actions of individual
members of the human community are required. Some types of environmental
improvement can be brought about already by individuals. Some useful guides have
already been produced (64). Using alternative products is one option. In many countries
improving the efficiency of lighting, in houses and street lighting, can result in very large
reductions (50-75%) in energy consumption. Not only do the consumers save electricity
charges, the lights may also be cheaper. There also should be a change in behaviour that
uses excess resources, such as a reduction in the use of unnecessary lighting. Another
example is how we can reduce the human health damage caused by the increased UV
radiation. The quality of sunscreen lotions, the clothes that we wear, and changes in
people's behaviour are needed, what is called preventive medicine.
Birth control is essential, to reduce the numbers of humans. This is a medical and
political issue, and even some scientific academies of the world do not agree. In 1993 an
international gathering of scientific academies called for zero population growth,
however, the academies from Africa disagreed, saying overpopulation is not a problem
for Africa (65). Let us hope that in several generations time their children do not have to
face the dire consequences of ignoring population growth. In addition to growth in
population, other lifestyle factors are important. Fairness in the distribution of food and
materials would decrease the needs of the poor, an economic and political issue. More
efficient agriculture will also reduce the the land that is required for agriculture, a
scientific issue. Reducing consumption will aid this, an issue that the public as
individuals must change.
Ethically, one guiding principle is to try to pursue the greatest happiness for the greatest
number. However, happiness is not necessarily related to the consumption of energy and

goods, and creation of pollution. In fact, many people will admit that the most enjoyable
moments in their lives are times like being with their family, being on the beach or in a
forest, or playing sport; activities which are often compatible with very low levels of
consumption. Yet at the same time, driven by peer pressure, and advertising ideals
imposed by the media, people purchase expensive and large cars, pursue wasteful
pursuits, practicing high levels of consumerism. In addition, in industrialised countries,
especially in the USA or USSR, people's lifestyles are based on a false low cost of
energy. The energy prices need to be changed to reduce CO2 emissions, as a result of
change in lifestyles because of economic pressure. The increased cost of transport will
affect lifestyle in all industrialised countries, but especially in those that use the least
efficient energy conversion.
Generally, the real quality of life will not be decreased by decreased energy and resource
consumption. There should not be much debate on whether particular pursuits, such as
driving large high speed cars, really improves life, rather they may impose great costs on
society both in energy use, in potential medical costs, and in environmental damage. It is
symbolic that in the pictures of life in the surveys, a picture from Thailand had someone
riding a bicycle in the countryside, whereas in Australia or Singapore, for example, they
were driving a car!
How can we change these values? Respecting autonomy encourages free lifestyle choice,
and suitable environmental-"friendly" options could be promoted as "trendy" pursuits,
however, these are likely to be insufficient. One ethical possibility is personal
environmental quotas as an incentive to lifestyle change, which I suggested in 1991 (66).
These would be possible if people of the world believe that the environmental crisis is
important, and are prepared to change their lifestyles. These quotas would give every
person an equal quota of environmental currency. We could modify so that people could
trade these quotas with others for a regulated set cash price if they wanted to do so.
The image of a normal life has been changing throughout human history and especially
during this century. Quotas would provide encouragement, and some penalties for those
who can abuse the system. We could impose environmental sales taxes on luxury
products in money terms, but this would still allow the rich to purchase them and
continue their pursuits, while the middle class could not. This would be inconsistent with
our ethical principle of distributive justice. The consumption of all goods could be given
an environmental points value, and this could be summed for each person. The
consumption would be monitored, rather than the production (which would be subject to
government pollution emissions control). If a production facility uses a more polluting
method it would result in high demerit points, whereas if it was very clean and energy
efficient it would be given a low demerit point score. This would allow consumer
pressure to result in a change in production efficiency, and also would limit excessive
consumerism. The consumption would be assigned to the country of consumption, rather
than the country of production. There should also be production efficiency limits. This
would still allow free international trade, but would encourage the adoption of more
environmentally sustainable processes.

The main objection to this approach comes from the group who claim that the pursuit of
individual freedom is the most important ethical principle. If people cannot pursue their
freedom to consume as much as they wish, they call it a violation of individual liberty.
However, we also recognise limitations on individual liberty when activity prevents
others from pursuing the same amount of liberty. The actions of many people living in
industrialised countries today is resulting in environmental destruction which will prevent
others in the future from pursuing their liberty. Permitting humans to pursue their
unlimited selfish drives is not consistent with the goal of reaching a lasting earth. The few
percent of humanity that create the most waste, and pursue the most wasteful lifestyles
must not be allowed to sacrifice the whole planet.
Above all, the destruction of the environment, disregard for other people, ignores love.
Love has more claims to be the principle ethical ideal than desire coming from autonomy.
Bioethics does involve all of life, if we do not love all of life we cannot love other people.
We need to seek ways to balance need and desire, and just distribution of the freedom that
everyone is allowed. We should not only aim to give the greatest good for the most, nor
the greatest freedom for the most, but the greatest love for all.

Bioethical maturity
In order to have a sustainable future, we need to promote bioethical maturity, as I have
said elsewhere (67). We could call the bioethical maturity of a society the ability to
balance the benefits and risks of applications of biological or medical technology. It is
also reflected in the extent to which the public views are incorporated into policy-making
while respecting the duties of society to ensure individual's informed choice. Awareness
of concerns and risks should be maintained, and debated, for it may lessen the possibility
of misuse of these technologies. Other important ideals of bioethics such as autonomy
and justice need to be protected and included in the benefit/risk balancing which is
important for the ethical application of biotechnology in medicine. Concern about
technology should be valued as discretion that is basic to increasing the bioethical
maturity of a society, rather than being feared.
An important measure of the progress of society and cultural maturity is the degree of the
development of better ethical discretion in the personal and societal use of technology.
The criteria of technological progress as a measure of social progress is inadequate
because technology may be misused, or may be unavailable. Part of the maturity is
justice, to give everyone a fair chance. Methods to increase the ethical discretion and
maturity of individuals and social systems should be developed.
A lasting earth is possible only if we all share proper concern. Both social and technical
approaches are required to solve the environmental crisis. We should reduce pollution by
adaptive changes to our human society and system. Reducing consumption is something
that the public as individuals can already change and must. Birth control is essential, to
reduce the slowing but continuing population explosion, this is a medical and political

issue. Fairness in the distribution of food and materials would decrease the needs of the
poor, an economic and political issue. We should work towards life philosophies
emphasizing the shared earth that we live in.
Over the medium term the industrialised countries can switch to alternative energy
sources, and more efficient energy use, combined with more significant lifestyle change.
This would be aided by the early introduction of personal environmental quotas to ensure
people are conscious of the environmental costs of different products and behaviour. The
use of new technology will aid us in reaching a lasting earth. More efficient agriculture
will reduce the land and energy that is required for agriculture, and the pollution arising
from agriculture, a scientific issue. Changing the way human beings behave towards each
other is a supernatural task, that can be aided by all of us changing our attitudes. We must
ensure that sustainable living is encouraged, but recognise that it is only part of a broader
solution. Sustainable living involves not just efficient agriculture, but also minimising our
energy use and pollution. It involves changing public policy. It involves changing the way
people think. In developing countries the population growth rates must be decreased, and
economic pressures that lead to the destruction of the environment must be eliminated.
In the medium-long term the whole world can be using a large proportion of renewable
energy sources, such as biomass and solar energy, combined with efficient agriculture
using new varieties of crops. In the long term (50-100 years), the world could be living in
a stabilising earth, with a stabilising population. Improvements in lifestyle can be made
through the increase in energy efficiency brought about by technology, and by the
acceptance of more natural things that consume less energy, as the pleasures of life. Let
us hope that urbanisation does not mean that people lose the enjoyment from being able
to be in the presence of undisturbed nature under a blue sky.
We also need to change the philosophy of science to achieve such change. Francis Bacon
made knowledge out to be of great human and social value. Under Baconian philosophy,
the longterm aim of inquiry is to contribute to human progress, but the immediate aim of
inquiry is to produce objective knowledge, together with explanations and understanding.
The search for truth is considered to be of intrinsic human value when pursued for its
own sake, or of pragmatic or technological value when pursued as a means to the
realization of non-academic, human, social ends. The idea that the philosophy of science
should be based on the pursuit of wisdom rather than the pursuit of knowledge has been
put forward by various writers (68). The philosophy of knowledge would say that the
proper aim for rational inquiry is to acquire objective knowledge about the world. While
there may be secondary uses of this knowledge, the first priority is to achieve the purely
intellectual aim of acquiring objective knowledge of truth. The claim is that it must
dissociate itself from the goals and values of common social life, so that claims to
objective knowledge can be subjected to rational assessment. This is inconsistent with
bioethical decision-making.
Proponents of the philosophy of knowledge may acknowledge the importance of moral
and social problems associated with science, but seldom do they call into doubt the
integrity of science itself or their philosophy. As a human being they can be concerned,

but as a scientist their task is to concern themselves exclusively with problems of fact,
truth and knowledge. Instead of priority being given to the tasks of articulating problems
of the life, with problems of technology being secondary, it is the reverse. A philosophy
of wisdom is that it may avert further human disasters that have come about as science
has been used, if we can develop socially influential traditions of inquiry and education
devoted to the promotion of cooperative, rational problem-solving in life.
People make claims that science is ethically neutral. This implies that scientists do not
have responsibility for the production of knowledge. However, this belief confuses the
findings of science, which are ethically neutral, with the activity of science, which is not
(69). Some pursue the neutrality argument, by claiming that the moral burden lies with
those who choose to implement knowledge for all purposes. We may not be able to
predict the abuses of pure knowledge, however, scientists are still moral agents and must
think in advance of the possible abuses. They may not be solely responsible, but they
share responsibility with all of us. All human activity needs to be subject to ethical
discretion. Technology has been the most powerful agent of change in the recent past,
therefore, we can clearly see the need for universal ethical maturity, and understanding.
Similarly, economic growth is pursued for its own sake. Countries try to increase their
economies by a certain percentage every year, regardless of the environmental and social
consequences. There is only a limited correlation between economic growth in % terms
and increased living standard, other measures such as personal wealth and ease of living
are economically desired. Yet further measures are required for life goals of societies, for
sustainable living. There must be an end to consumer demand and increased economies or is this the only goal that people of the world have for themselves?
These questions need international and cross-cultural answers for the world we live in.
The questions need the perspectives of all, and some groups are represented in this book.
I certainly do not imply by the absence of a viewpoint or the inclusion of one, that this is
the only solution. Rather some papers illustrating approaches from different persons and
traditions are included, and other diverse views are found in some other recent
publications of Eubios Ethics Institute. The word "Eu-bios" means good-life, and such a
life must be sustainable. We are still at the synthesis stage for determining what bioethical
maturity is, and how it may be measured, but the comments from peoples in different
countries from the International Bioethics Survey is another necessary part of the total
picture needed to formulate any international measure of bioethical maturity, and to
develop approaches to improve maturity.

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41. Genesis 1:3; John 1:3; Colossians 1:16; Hebrews 1:2, 11:3.
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Macer, D. et al. "New frontiers", Hastings Center Report 21 (Jan 1991), 32-33.
54. Donnelley, S. "Speculative Philosophy, the troubled middle, and the ethics of animal
experimentation," Hastings Center Report 19 (Mar./Apr. 1990): 15-21.
55. Macer, D. "Genetic Engineering in 1990," Science and Christian Belief 2 (1990), 2540.
56. Goldberg, A.M. & Frazier, J.M. "Alternatives to animals in toxicity testing,"
Scientific American 261 (August 1989), 16-22; Zbinden, G. "Alternatives to animal
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58. Hauerwas, S. Suffering Presence (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark 1988).
59. Krupp, H. ed., Energy Politics and the Problems of Global Sustainability. The
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67. Macer, D.R.J. "Public acceptance of human gene therapy and perceptions of human
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Please send comments to Email < asianbioethics@yahoo.co.nz &gt.
To part 2 of Universal Bioethics
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pp. 39-40 in Bioethics for the People by the People, Darryl R. J. Macer,
Ph.D., Eubios Ethics Institute 1994.
Copyright 1994, Eubios Ethics Institute. All commercial rights reserved. This publication
may be reproduced for limited educational or academic use, however please
enquire with Eubios Ethics Institute.

International bioethics
Darryl R. J. Macer.
Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305, JAPAN
The second section of this book includes a variety of papers from colleagues and friends
which describe bioethical dilemmas in different countries. The first five papers come
from papers presented in Japan at the Annual Meeting of the Japan Association in
November 1993, when the participants came to the Tsukuba Bioethics (ELSI) Roundtable
and the Third International Bioethics Seminar in Fukui. The paper I presented at the
Bioethics meeting was modified from material presented elsewhere in this book, and
relates to the International Bioethics Survey data which is presented in the following
section of the book.
The Tsukuba Bioethics Roundtable, 12-18 November, 1993, was a meeting hosted by
myself, the Eubios Ethics Institute, with support from research funds of Prof. Hiroshi
Harada of the University of Tsukuba. Among the participants were: Dr Paul Billings
(USA), Dr Vijay Kaushik (Russia), Dr. Frank Leavitt (Israel), Dr Masahiro Morioka
(Japan), Dr Roxanne Mytikiuk (Canada), Dr Robyn Nishimi (USA), Prof. Shinryo N.
Shinagawa (Japan), Dr Yasuko Shirai (Japan), Prof. Kunihiko Shoji (Japan), Prof. Knut
Erik Tranoy, Mrs Eva Tranoy (Norway), Prof. Daniel Wikler (USA), Dr. Michael Yesley
(USA), and Shiro Akiyama, Yukiko Asada, Yuko Kato, and Miho Tsuzuki of the
University of Tsukuba. We were joined by the chairpersons of the University of Tsukuba
Medical Ethics Committee, the Gene Therapy Subcommittee, and the Animal Research
Ethics Committee.
Together we had an informal and lively discussion of some issues in international
bioethics, looking at cross-cultural issues. The conclusion of the roundtable was
enlightenment of some complexities of bioethics, and it was difficult to reach major
conclusions in the short time we had for discussion, but we all learned many things and
developed some friendships. The discussions were in useful when preparing a draft
conference statement for the Fukui Seminar, the final copy of that draft is included at the
end of this preface. One conclusion we all shared is the need to develop cross-cultural
bioethics, but we need more thought before looking at how much of bioethics can be
universal.

The first three papers in this section are from USA (Yesley, Wikler, Billings); followed by
papers from Norway (Tranoy); Israel (Leavitt); Europe (Byk) and a developing countries
perspective (Kaushik). In this section there is also paper from Judge Christian Byk
(France), a former advisor on bioethics to the Council of Europe, who was unable to
come to Japan at that time for health reasons. Following these mainly medical ethics
papers, there is a paper introducing some of the basic issues involved in scientific issues,
based on workshops in New Zealand. Following this are three papers by Prof. Jayapaul
Azariah from India on environmental ethics. These papers are particularly interesting for
the subject of universal and cross-cultural ethics, and return to the theme of global
bioethics, which must be based on the common hope of all.
These accounts of bioethics and medical care in different countries of the world, the
United States, France, India, Israel and Norway, make us look at similarities and
differences. Do individual people and families in each country make decisions
differently? If people are the same then the same standards of bioethics can be applied universal bioethics. We need to build a bioethics which includes the views of all people's
of the world. We need to add Asian and African perspectives to the debate. We must
remember that the debate about many issues has a long history, and often happened in
different places. Whatever, our approach we should desire understanding of local
cultures, and want to recognise the contribution of different peoples to bioethics. In fact
we cannot really develop a complete bioethics without including this contribution. In the
words of old prophet, "Listen, those of you that have ears to hear". This is cross-cultural
international bioethics.
Fukui Statement on International Bioethics
1. Bioethics should be viewed as an interdisciplinary field, not limited to any academic
speciality, and including debate among all people, i.e. not only academics.
2. International cross-cultural bioethics should be developed, including studies and
discussions, which respect individual cultures as long as they do not conflict with
fundamental human rights, as outlined in the United Nations Declaration of Human
Rights.
3. The methodology of bioethics should aim for cross-cultural understanding. Such
understanding is necessary to develop international cross-cultural bioethics.
4. Harmonisation of some international laws, guidelines and policies to restrict bioethical
"tourism" (e.g. resource-able persons buying organs from the poor; buying the products
of genetic technology for enhancement purposes; or using only the poor for medical
experiments) is important. The human body (DNA, genes, cells, tissues or organs) should
not be exploited as a source of profit.
5. Research on the thinking and reasoning of ordinary people should be more emphasised
in order to understand the diversity of people's thinking. This is necessary for determining

the degree of universality that is possible, and should be used to complement other
research approaches in bioethics.
6. The life and medical sciences, especially human genome research and the application
of genetic screening and gene therapy, present some important educational, ethical, legal
and social issues which need to be considered at local, national and international levels.
7. Somatic cell gene therapy for treatment of disease is a useful medical therapy and
should be used when needed and chosen by patients. However, germ-line gene therapy
should not proceed until it is both technically safe, and a truly international public
consensus has been sought. To achieve such a consensus first requires education which
will take several decades in most parts of the world.
8. In order to achieve the above goals greater effort is required to educate all members of
society about the scientific and clinical background, and the ethical principles and social
and legal problems involved, in the life and medical sciences. This will enable the active
collaboration of all individual members of society, many academic disciplines, and the
international community.
The free duplication and circulation of this statement is encouraged. To stimulate
international discussion, comments on this statement will be published in the Eubios
Journal of Asian and International Bioethics , send them to Dr. Darryl Macer, Editor,
P.O. Box 125, Tsukuba Science City, Ibaraki 305, JAPAN.
Please send comments to Email < asianbioethics@yahoo.co.nz &gt.
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http://www.eubios.info/NBB/NBBGMOS.htm (GMO)
Regulation & Field Trials of GMOs News; including Biowarfare
This file includes links to papers published by Eubios Ethics Institute, and some other
organizations, in the first section. Next it includes topical extracts from EJAIB and
EEIN between January 1994 - 2006 (older news items are in separate
files). Last date of updating is referenced in the main News page.
Latest news and papers is at the bottom of each of the two sections.
Back to main News index

Abbreviations for journals

Eubios Ethics Institute home page
Biosafety Information network and Advisory Service,
gopher://binas.unido.or.at/
USDA GMO permits at "http://www.aphis.usda.gov/bbep/bp/"
The Ethics and Deliberate Release of GMOs - Tade Matthias Spranger
EJAIB 11 (Sept. 2001), 144-146.
Re-Creation of Nature as an Appropriate Means for Biosecurity - Baby
Joseph and M. Selvanayagam EJAIB 11 (Nov. 2001), 191-5.
Commercial Introduction of Transgenics in developing countries - Some
points to ponder - S. Seshadri, K. Kathiravan, S. Ignacimuthu and S.
Janarthanan EJAIB 12 (March 2002), 57-59.
EJAIB 13 (2003), 11-15 The EU Regulation on GMOs, Multinational
Biotechnology Companies and their lobby group, EuropaBio- Dilek
Demirbas
EJAIB 14 (2004), 85-89 Reflections on Transgenics and Sustainable
Development - Lucas Moraes de Aguiar, Nilza Maria Diniz
EJAIB 14 (2004), 89 How much of this is Really Proven? Commentary Frank J. Leavitt
Declaration Of Gijn Against The Use Of Biological Weapons EJAIB 16
(Jan. 2006), 2-3.
K. K. Verma, Biotechnology and Soul, EJAIB 16 (Nov. 2006), 181-2.
Macer, DRJ. "Ethical Aspects of Introducing GMOs for Public Health
Purposes", pp. 69-85 in Matti Hyry, Tuija Takala and Peter HerissoneKelly, eds., Ethics In Biomedical Research International Perspectives
(Amsterdam: Rodopi 2007).
Macer, DRJ. (2006) " Ethics and community engagement for GM insect
vector release, in Genetically Modified Mosquitoes for Malaria Control
(edited by Christophe Bote), (Austin, Texas: Landes Bioscience).
Kurokawa, Glen & Macer, DRJ. (2005) "Biosafety Regulation Trends in
Southern and Southeastern Asia", J. International Biotechnology and
Law 2: 177-184.
Macer, DRJ. (2005) Ethical, legal and social issues of genetically
modifying insect vectors for public health, Insect Molecular Biology
and Biochemistry .
Discussion of the amendments to the German gene law are listed in
GEN (1 Oct 1993), 6-7, 16; New Scientist (16 Oct, 1993), 5. The

changes were made at the start of 1994; Science 263 (1994), 23-4.
Also in the UK a fast-track for field tests of some "nonrisky" GMOs has
been proposed by new guidelines. The UK Bioindustry Association has
endorsed the recommendations of the UK Select Committee Report on
Regulation of the U.K. Biotechnology Industry and Global
Competitiveness, (Paper 80, published 13 October 1993). The report
calls for amendments of the EC directives to promote the biotech
industry. Comments are also in Biotechnology 11 (1993), 1213; GEN (1
Oct 1993), 6-7; BMJ 307 (1993), 1025.
The Netherlands have also introduced a streamlined guideline for
GMOs, reducing the bureaucracy; Biotechnology 11 (1993), 1514. The
WHO is considering plans to introduce guidelines for general genetics
research; Nature 366 (1993), 500. Finland has drafted a general law
on many aspects of biotechnology, which is being debated now,
Biotechnology 11 (1993), 1515.
A general world overview of environmental release permits for GMOs is
in Biotechnology 11 (1993), 1524-8. For some reason it excludes New
Zealand, which has more releases than over half of the countries
included in the survey. Trials of a genetically engineered vaccine
against Rinderpest and capripox have begun in Kenyan cattle, New
Scientist (23 Oct, 1993), 18. A paper warning against using natural
insecticidal proteins in GMOs is New Scientist (28 Aug, 1993),), 34-7.
Risk assessment of genetically modified plants is discussed in
Biotechnology 11 (1993), 1323-4; and in general in Nature 366 (1993),
795; Biotechnology 11 (1993), 1204, 1496. A survey of how people
evaluate risk in their daily life is in SSM 37 (1993), 1557-64.
A paper that concludes that there is basically no way to prove someone
is researching into biological warfare is R.M. Atlas & M. Goldberg,
"Biological warfare: Examining verification strategies", Amer. Society of
Microbiology News 59: 393-6. See also a book review on p. 411; and
New Scientist (5 Oct, 1993), 5. The health effects of mustard gas are
discussed in Nature 366 (1993), 398-9. Comments on international
arms sales and the need for ethical restrictions and behaviour are in
Insights on Global Ethics 3 (11), 1, 4-5; and on nuclear war policy,
Nature 366 (1993), 189-90, 369.
A paper reviewing DNA repair in bacteria is in Amer. Society of
Microbiology News 59: 397-400. The rapid evolution of human induced
insect-host associations is described in Nature 366 (1993), 681-3.

The costs of foreign invading species is very high according to a recent

OTA study in the US, New Scientist (23 Oct, 1993), 9; Lancet 342
(1993), 942-3.
The Japanese Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries has
announced the approval of field trials of disease-resistant transgenic
rice in ordinary fields at 4-5 sites in Ibaraki prefecture around Tsukuba.
This is the first such trial in Japan.
The regulations for aquaculture and the general factors being
discussed in a US context from a conference report in GEN (15 Jan
1994), 32-3. Germany has eased controls on gene experiments, after
much debate over the last year or more, as reported before; Nature
367 (1994), 210; Science 263 (1994), 23-4. The changes lessens
paperwork for low-level risk experiments.
In early february in the UK there was controversy over research
conducted at the University of Birmingham, which was ordered to be
stopped by the Health and Safety Executive; Nature 367 (1994), 499.
The experiment was upgraded in category by inspectors, which meant
that insufficient approval had been obtained, and this must be
obtained before continuing.
A general discussion of risk in biotechnology from FDA regulators is
H.I. Miller & D. Gunary, "Serious flaws in the horizontal approach to
biotechnology risk", Science 262 (1993), 1500-1. They look at scientific
principles, and criticise the OECD approach. Another general discussion
is on the ecological risks of transgenic crops, Biotechnology 12 (1994),
127-8. A discussion of gene transfer is P. Capy et al., "The strange
phylogenies of transposable elements: are horizontal transfers the only
explanation?", TIG 10 (1994), 7-12. The interaction of genetic control
between parasite and hosts are described in C.H. Opperman et al.,
"Root-knot nematode-directed expression of a plant root-specific
gene", Science 263 (1994), 221-3. A general discussion of how
intracellular pathogens alter hosts is Science 263 (1994), 637-9.
A debate over the use of transgenic predators for biocontrol is in
Science 262 (1993), 1507. The research involves production of more
predatory mites and insects to be more effective against plant pests. A
paper on biological control is B.A. Hawkins et al., "Refuge theory and
biological control", Science 262 (1993), 1429-31. In the USA organic
farmers are debating their approach to genetically engineered
organisms, though many tend to be negative; Nature 367 (1994), 106.
However, some also consider that GMOs can reduce chemical pesticide
use and be more "natural".

More discussion on the future of the remaining stocks of smallpox virus

are in JAMA 270 (1993), 2908; American Scientist 81 (1993), 526-7.
Calgene's BXN bromoxynil resistant cotton varieties has been
given non-regulated status under the USDA regulations for genetic
engineering. This means they can be grown anywhere in the USA
without special approval, and unlike the tomato which needs FDA
approval for human consumption, cotton can be grown for use
immediately; GEN (1 March 1994), 1, 16. There had been about 100
field tests in 12 states over 5 years, and it was judged safe. US cotton
growers currently apply 20 million pounds of herbicide valued at
US$200 million annually, and this new variety may reduce the
herbicide use to one quarter of the current level. In 1994 season about
4000 acres will be planted, 3000 for seed production, and 1000 acres
divided among 30-50 cotton farmers for free use in return for data on
the herbicide usage and yield, etc. The US cotton industry is worth
about US$4 billion, and weed and pest loss is estimated to cost
US$600 million a year.
Monsanto has requested that its glyphosphate-tolerant soybean line,
40-3-2, be removed from regulation of the USDA, because they
consider soybeans pose no risk; Federal Register (Dec 6, 1993; Vol. 58
(No.232), p. 64287). Comments that were received earlier in this year
are being considered by the USDA.
The USDA Cooperative State Research Service is awarding grants for
US$1.7 million this year for research projects related to the safety of
introducing genetically modified plants, animals, and microorganisms
into the environment. Since the USDA introduced its notification
system for GMO release, the number of releases has increased. As of
Sept., 1993, 594 permits and notifications were issued or pending, at
1564 sites. In fiscal year 1994 they expect receiving 2000-3000
notifications. The most commonly tested crop is corn.
A debate calling for further review before widespread commercial use
of GMOs is made is GEN (1 Feb 1994), 4, 12; Biotechnology 12 (1994),
236-7; Science 263 (1994), 1395-6. It also reviews plants under
development. Letters on the risks of GMOs are in Biotechnology 12
(1994), 216-7. A book review of interest is TIBTECH 11 (1993), 529-30.
See also a general paper on hazardous waste cleanup, R. Zimmerman,
"Social equity and environmental risk", Risk Analysis 13 (1993), 64965.
A paper which finds survival of DNA in food, is R. Schubbert et al.,
"Ingested foreign (phage M13) DNA survives transiently in the
gastrointestinal tract and enters the bloodstream of mice", Mol. Gen.

Genet. 242: 495-504. About 0.01% to 0.1% of the M13 fed could be
found in the blood stream.
Comments on gene flow are in Science 263 (1994), 1157-8. A review of
plant oncogenes is V. Gaudin et al., "Bacterial genes modifying
hormonal balances in plants", Plant Physiol. Biochem. 32: 11-29.
Recombination between viral RNA and transgenic plant transcripts is
reported in Science 263 (1994), 1423-5. A discussion of the costs of
gypsy moth to forests in the USA is in Biotechnology 12 (1994), 234-5.
The problems raised by red ants in the USA, and the reduction in
biodiversity they bring, is Science 263 (1994), 1560-1.
The UK University of Birmingham study using disabled cancer viruses
that was stopped early in the year (see last issue), is discussed in
Science 263 (1994), 748; New Scientist (12 Feb 1994), 4-5. Efforts to
coordinate European biotechnology more are called for in
Biotechnology 12 (1994), 424.
The fate of the remaining Russian smallpox virus stock is uncertain,
despite the plan to destroy it; Lancet 343 (1994), 348-9.
The UK and the Netherlands have called for international biotechnology
guidelines, and are considering UNEP (UN Environment Programme) as
an administrator; Nature 369 (1994), 267. There are some international
codes, e.g. OECD, but they are guidelines only, and many countries of
the world may not have any. Another question is whether they should
be legal guidelines or not. Draft guidelines exist, but where should they
be. An interesting paper for the "Amateur Scientist" section of
Scientific American (June 1995), 108- 111; is a description of how to
do-it-yourself genetic engineering of E. coli. Let us hope the genes for
disease are more difficult to isolate... I wonder whether everyone
knows the guidelines?
A German researcher faces the possibility of fines after a sudden visit
to a lab found an experiment that was not approved; Science 264
(1994), 512. A letter on gene safety is in Nature 369 (1994), 436.
A release of GMOs, a modified baculovirus, in the UK has been
temporarily suspended after local protests, Nature 369 (1994), 348.
Letters on the risks of using transgenic plants are in Science 264
(1994), 489-90, 1649-52; New Scientist (2 April 1994), 15. European
countries have dropped many pellets containing rabies vaccines in
April, in efforts to stop rabies, New Scientist (30 April 1994), 6. A
conference report, including many abstracts, from the EC
Bridge/Biotech project is the Final Sectorial Meeting on Biosafety and
First Sectorial Meeting on Microbial Ecology, from a meeting held in

Granada, Oct 24-7, 1993. It is available from DG XII - E; BIODOC,

Commission of the European Communities, Rue de la Loi, 200, B-1049
Brussels, BELGIUM. The USDA has opened a database on the field test
information from GMOs. Contact Dr Ann Lichens-Park; Email:
Lichenspark@ darth.esusda.gov. (See also the on-line USDA field test
database) The number of field tests of genetically modified crops in
Canada, authorised by Agriculture Canada was 482 in 1993 at 87
locations.
Indians are upset over the release of an undescribed mix of 80
microorganisms in Indian farms that was developed by Japanese
researchers, and introduced without informing regulatory authorities
that it contained live organisms; Nature 368 (1994), 784.
The EPA in the USA has approved the marketing of a new alfalfa seed
that contains a genetically modified Rhizobium meliloti, for farmer
trials of performance. The seeds have been tested for 6 years inside a
greenhouse, and four years outside, by Research Seeds Inc., St. Joseph,
Mo., USA.
The payment of farmer subsidies for not growing plants can now be
checked by satellite monitoring, and this system is being most used in
Europe, Science 264 (1994), 656. A general editorial on the affect of
changing consumer preferences on agriculture is Science 264 (1994),
1383. A series of papers on biological control and alternatives to
pesticides in Asia are in New Scientist (7 May 1994), 22-27.
The USDA appears ready to exempt a further product from GMO
review, a transgenic variety of yellow crookneck squash, Biotechnology
12 (1994), 761-2. Some of the seeds have been made in Thailand,
after a Sept. 1992 approval was obtained. The USDA is also
considering public petitions on whether Calgene's laurate canola
should be deregulated. The EPA is discussing the law to allow
commercial release of genetically engineered microorganisms,
Biotechnology 12 (1994), 660-1.
Virginia has passed biotechnology legislation to help develop the
economy, GEN (15 June 1994), 24. The Virginia Biotechnology Act
became effective from 1 July, relies on existing federal regulations to
regulate biotechnology to try to encourage investment. The law
requires informing the state authorities, unless it is enclosed.
An update on the Dutch cow, Herman, and progeny that are designed
to produce lactoferrin in the milk, is BMJ 309 (1994), 148-9. A baby
milk producer has joined the research venture. The results of a field

trial are in J.S. Cory et al., "Field trial of a genetically improved

baculovirus insecticide", Nature 370 (1994), 138-40.
The June 1994 report of the New Zealand Ministry for the
Environment Interim Assessment Group reports the following approved
trials in the 12 months prior to then: Potato virus Y resistant potatoes;
transgenic goats on behalf of Genzyme (USA), modified maize (on
behalf of Ciba-Geigy). There were 151 approved contained
experiments. NZ is still waiting for the statutory authority to be
established.
Changes to make it easier to release GMOs in Europe are being
proposed, New Scientist (11 June 1994), 6. A discussion of EC
biotechnology product registration is in GEN (July 1994), 3, 23. A book
review is in TIBTECH 12 (1994), 144. Flemish biotech is discussed in
Science 264 (1994), 1851. Modified tobacco seeds which tolerate the
herbicide, bromoxynil, have been approved for European release, but
the decision when to market is still open, Biotechnology 12 (1994),
660.
A negative or cautious view on GMO regulation is New Scientist (25
June 1994), 47-8, and on the dangers of a released scorpion gene
spreading in the UK, New Scientist (25 June 1994), 14-5. The type of
assessment experiments applicable to GMOs and the risks are
discussed in TIBTECH 12 (1994), 292-5; see also a book review p. 334;
Science 264 (1994), 1649-52; Biotechnology 12 (1994), 577, 648-9;
664-5. A European group is aiming to protect wolves from genetic
pollution, Nature 370 (1994), 497.
Biological control and refuge theory is discussed in Science 265 (1994),
811-3. A bacterial experiment is R.E. Lenski & M. Travisano, "Dynamics
of adaption and diversification: A 10,000 generation experiment with
bacterial populations", PNAS 91 (1994),, 6808-14. A book review on
risk assessment in engineering is Nature 370 (1994), 607. A call for
better risk analysis in the US Congress is made in Risk Analysis 14:
139-42. On decisions about life threatening risks in general, NEJM 331
(1994), 194-8.
The reasons why Epstein-Barr virus stays in humans for a long period
often with no cancer is debated in Cell 77 (1994), 791-3. Biological
warfare among the Kurds is discussed in BMJ 309 (1994), 135.
UNIDO has introduced an on-line UNIDO Biosafety Information network
and Advisory Service, gopher://binas.unido.or.at/ providing electronic
access to databases; Nature 371 (1994), 94. A list of 12 releases of

GMOs in the UK since April 1994 appeared in GenEthics News 2

(1994), 12 (contact P.O. Box 6313, London N16 ODY, UK).
The EU plans to streamline the regulations on contained use of GMOs
and field releases, Biotechnology 12 (1994), 864-5. Changes will
include notification instead of review for low-risk trials, replacing
explicit consent with implicit consent, reducing time, and reducing the
differences between research and production. Since the October 1991
directive, there have been 250 field trials of GMOs, with only 5.5%
microorganisms; Biotechnology 12 (1994), 967-8. Oilseed rape has
been 30% of releases, maize 20%, and sugarbeet 15%; and 20% of the
releases have been directly linked to Plant Genetic Systems (Belgium).
As of October, the USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
was still examining the application for un-regulated status of the ZW20 virus resistant squash; Biotechnology Notes 7(10), 1-2.
The EPA in the USA has released two revised proposals for regulation
of modified microorganisms under the Toxic Substances Control Act,
and small scale field tests of certain pesticides under the Federal
Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act; Biotechnology 12 (1994),
967; Science 265 (1994), 1351. A letter claiming over-regulation of
biotechnology in the USA is Nature 371 (1994), 646.
As above, the USDA has approved a recombinant vaccine for chickens,
against Newcastle disease and fowlpox; Science 265 (1994), 1358-9;
Biotechnology 12 (1994), 962-3. A study of the infamous ice-minus
bacteria, that were the centre of a public opinion controversy in the
late 1980s is Wilson, M. & Lindow, S.E. "Ecological similarity and
coexistence of epiphytic ice-nucleating (Ice+) Pseudomonas syringae
strains and a non-ice-nucleating (Ice-) biological control agent", Appl.
Env. Micro. 60 (1994), 3128-37.
A letter on viral recombination is Biotechnology 12 (1994), 952. A
paper on gene transfer is Nikolich, M.P. et al. "Evidence for natural
horizontal transfer of tetQ between bacteria that normally colonize
livestock", Appl. Env. Micro. 60 (1994), 3255-60. The species transfer is
seen in are members of Bacteroides and Prevotella. A review on using
transposons in research is Genome 37: 519-25.
Biowarfare prohibitions in the USA are becoming stronger, Science 265
(1994), 1023. The WHO panel on smallpox has made the decision to
destroy the virus stocks, despite some scientific concerns, Science 265
(1994), 1647. A letter on medical wastes found on the UK coastline is
BMJ 309 (1994), 471. The European Parliament Recommendation 1225
(1993) on management, treatment, recycling and marketing of waste
is in IDHL 45: 239-41.

The prospects for a global biosafety agreement will have to wait until
the end of 1995, following the Biodiversity Convention meeting
decision in December, Nature 372 (1995), 492, 585. A call for the
establishment of a legal instrument for global regulation of GMOs was
made by Greenpeace writers in a paper circulated on Internet, Fogel C.
& Meister, I. "Biotechnology and the Convention on Biological
Diversity", 18 Oct. 1994. The call was to agree to abandon voluntary
guidelines that are being developed, and to set up the process to
develop a legal instrument on biosafety. One of the statements that
they made, that public support for genetic engineering is rapidly
declining is erroneous as shown from opinion surveys, except in
Switzerland and Germany. The conference decided to put off a decision
on GMO rules until next years meeting, New Scientist (17 Nov 1994), 5.
The New Zealand Ministry for the Environment has released a
discussion document with details on the forthcoming Hazardous
Substances and New Organisms Bill. It proposes making some
exemptions for certain GMOs, and includes many mentions of
consultations with Maori people (though not any other specific cultural
group). Comments can be made by 3 February, 1995 to Dr S.R.
Vaughan, Manager, Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Project,
Ministry for the Environment, P.O. Box 10362, Wellington, N.Z.
Calls for relaxed European guidelines are made in Biotechnology 12
(1994), 1144. Russia has produced a draft for GMO release based on
UK guidelines. UK releases are reported in GenEthics News 3 (1994),
12, there have been 37 in total approved as of late 1994. A report on
the controversy over a scorpion gene baculovirus trial in Oxford is New
Scientist (3 Dec 1994), 11.
The Calgene Laurate Canola, a canola with a thioesterase gene
inserted to enable laurate production (used for soaps) has been given
unregulated status by the USDA, as of 31 Oct. 1994. There are fears
that it will replace the imports of laurate from coconut and palm kernel
oils produced in Asia, product substitution, Ram's Horn (Nov), 7-8. The
USDA has called for public comments on a tomato with modified
ripening made by DNA Plant Technology Corporation, which seeks
nonregulated status.
Calgene applied for an experimental use permit from the EPA for
growing 164 acres of insect resistant cotton, a cotton combining the
herbicide tolerance gene for bromoxynil (the BXN cotton) and the
Bacillus thuriengensis insecticidal protein gene, GEN (15 Nov 1994),
26. The US EPA rules on small-scale microbial pesticide tests are
discussed in GEN (1 Oct 1994), 1, 21. The EPA rules would exempt

plants that express a pesticide used in plants before, which some

opponents are attacking, New Scientist (26 Nov 1994), 7.
The next phase of research into GMOs involves large scale releases
and these should still be monitorred, Science 266 (1994), 1472-3;
Biotechnology 13 (1995), 96. However, China has already some
experience with large releases, and has said it will open its biosafety
data, Science 266 (1994), 966-7.
A discussion of suicide microorganisms as a biological containment
mechanism is Biotech 13 (1995), 35-7. Laminar flow systems are
discussed in GEN (1 Oct 1994), 6. A study suggesting that more than
physical distances are needed to prevent gene flow in sunflower is
Arias, D.M. & Riesenberg, L.H. "Gene flow between cultivated and wild
sunflowers", Theor. Appl. Genetics 89: 655-60. An assexually
reproducing fish which possesses the natural ability to receive large
amounts of DNA is reported in Nature 373 (1995), 68-71.
There are fears that the parasite Schistomsoma mansomi may be
becoming resistant to the drug praziquantel, New Scientist (12 Nov
1994), 4. Antibiotic resistant genes in bacteria are discussed in New
Scientist (15 Oct 1994), 9, and on bacteria which may cause peptic
ulcers on pp.12-4.
A report on the consequences of a breach of biosafety measures is
Meselson, M. et al. "The Sverdlovsk Anthrax outbreak of 1979",
Science 266 (1994),1202-8. In October the Biological Weapons
Convention was strengthened with a verification system, New Scientist
(17 Sept 1994), 12-3, (24 Oct 1994), 7. Papers on toxins that could be
used for biowarfare are in Politics & Life Science 13 (Feb 1994),265-9.
The USDA deregulation of genetically engineered disease-resistance
squash, on 7 Dec 1994, is discussed in GEN (1 Jan 1995), 1, 39. The
company Asgrow Seed has also consulted with the FDA, and the
variety Freedom II, is being released to growers for this spring. It
carries resistance to watermelon mosaic virus 2 and zucchini yellow
mosaic virus. The seed company will label the seeds, but farmers will
not have to label the squash.
Monsanto has applied for unregulated status on 7 lines of Russet
Burbank potatoes, which are engineered to resist the Colorado potato
beetle. The count of the number of field release permits and
notifications received by the USDA in 1994 was 1803 sites, 220 of
these being permits. In 1993 the total was 867, in 1992, 371, in 1991,
153, and 1990, 75; 1989, 33; 1988, 16; 1987, 5. The number of
permits in 1993 was 556, so since 1993 when the notification system

was introduced the number of permits issued has fallen, with most
being notifications of low risk GMOs.
A review of 15 influential pieces of biotechnology law in the USA is in
GEN (1 Jan 1995), 16-7. There are chances of deregulation of
biotechnology with a Republican congress, Biotechnology 12 (1994),
1311. A critique of the EPA regulations is Miller, H.I. "A need to reinvent
biotechnology regulation at the EPA", Science 266 (1994), 1815-7. An
engineered bacteria for nitrogen fixation is being reexamined after EPA
committee questioned the ecological impact, Science 267 (1995), 163;
Biotechnology 13 (1995), 115-6.
The relaxation in the German GMO regulations is discussed in Science
267 (1995), 326. Strict laws are being discussed in Russia, Science
266 (1994), 1935. The Brazilian law discussed in the last issue (EJAIB
1: 10) has become law, Science 267 (1995), 451.
Stricter international laws on postage of infectious materials came
into affect in 1995, and a UN label certification of safe packaging is
needed for international post; Science 267 (1995), 29. The destruction
of the last stocks of smallpox virus appear to have been delayed yet
again, and indefinitely, Science 267 (1995), 450.
A case of natural genetic change is seen in a family of sponges found
in the deep sea, and in a cave in the Mediterranean, which have lost
the aquiferous system and feeding cells, and rather they trap small
animals with hooks; Nature 373 (1995), 284, 333-5.
The Australian Genetic Manipulation Advisory Committee has rejected
a proposal to introduce a genetically engineered bacteria designed to
protect animals from the poison, fluoroacetate, in leaves and seeds
pods of native trees, because of fears that the bacteria would be
transferred to pests such as rabbits, New Scientist (4 Feb, 1995), 5.
The poison does not have a strong taste and there have been cases of
20% of a flock dying from ingesting it. The researchers agreed with the
concerns and said they would try to devise a method to overcome this
danger. There has also been concern in the US over the release of a
genetically altered Rhizobium melilotoi that the EPA has passed, New
Scientist (14 Jan, 1995), 6.
The UK Health and Safety Executive Committee has suggested
relaxing the genetically modified organisms regulation dated 1992 to
implement the new European Directive 94/51 which revises the EU
directive governing use of GMOs; EBN 197 (1995), 5. The UK has also
just excepted persons being treated with gene therapy from the GMO
containment regulations!, New Scientist (23 Feb 1995), 7. Austria is

planning two field trials of modified potatoes, under the legal

procedures in effect since 1/1/95. A comment on the impact of
regulations on universities is Science 267 (1995), 1247.
Two companies have asked the USDA APHIS to deregulate modified
corn, one from Ciba-Geigy which is insect-resistant, and the other from
AvroEvo Company, which is tolerant to the herbicide glufosinate. The
public has until the last week of April to submit comments. The
information from the USDA APHIS is on World Wide Web. On the US
regulation of biotechnology, Science 267 (1995), 945. A comment on
the approval of a potato including a Bacillus thuringiensis insecticidal
protein gene is The Ram's Horn 124 (March 1995), 5-6.
A general comment on the increasing number of genetically modified
crops is Scientific American (March 1995), 38-9 (see also Safety of
Recombinant DNA Products section below). A review of a field trial
study on safety of a modified flax over 3 years is commended in
Biotechnology 13 (1995), 308; Transgenic Research 4: 3-11.
A conference report from the Third International Symposium on the
Biosafety results of field tests of genetically modified plants and
microorganisms is in the Center for Biotechnology Policy and Ethics
Newsletter 4(4): 1-2. Paul Thompson, a philosopher and director of that
center, criticizes the amateur philosophy of many of the scientists who
spoke about broader issues of biotechnology, not only the results of
field trials. A book review of Adams, J. Risk (UCL Press, 1995, 228pp.,
13) is in Nature 374 (1995), 507.
Sustainable agriculture and the 1995 US Farm Bill are assessed in an
editorial in Science 267 (1995), 943.
The EPA in the USA has approved several genetically modified crops for
pre-registration use, which include the Bacillus thuriengensis
insecticidal protein, Biotechnology 13 (1995), 434-5; NS (6 May, 1995),
9. They cover corn, potato and cotton, produced by Ciba Seeds,
Mycogen Plant Sciences and Monsanto, respectively. A letter defending
the EPA biotechnology risk management is Science 268 (1995), 786.
In the UK, the head of the Institute for Virology and Experimental
Microbiology in Oxford, Professor David Bishop, has been fired from his
job - and some speculate that it may be related to the experimental
data from the baculovirus field trials he has led for 8 years; GenEthics
News 6 (1995), 12; NS (25 March, 1995), 6. They also give a list of 17
recently approved GMO field trials in the UK.

A world-wide review of field trials of genetically modified plants is

Biotechnology 13 (1995), 454-8. Canada has approved the AgrEvo
canola plant which is tolerant to the herbicide "Liberty", GEN (15 May
1995), 26-7; EBN 201 (1995), 2. The approval is for 40,000 hectares,
and the seeds will keep for domestic crushing not for export.
The USDA's Agricultural Biotechnology Research Advisory Committee
has prepared voluntary performance standards entitled "Performance
Standards for Safety Conducting Research with Genetically Modified
Fish and Shellfish". Further details of the USDA GMO guidelines and
field trial release data are on line on the world wide web,
http://www.aphis.usda.gov/bbep/bp/ Since 1987, the APHIS of USDA
has approved or acknowledged 1,590 field trials at 6,133 field sites.
Derivatives of 39 different plant species have been field tested to date,
with corn the major crop being field tested. The past year saw the first
field trials involving barley, carrot, cranberry, eggplant, gladiolus, pea,
pepper, strawberry, sweetgum, wheat, watermelon and Arabidopsis
thaliana. In the past several months, they report an acceleration of
requests for determinations by APHIS that particular field-tested
organisms have no potential for plant pest risk and should no longer be
regulated. Five new products in four crop plants were the subject of
such determinations in the past 8 months: Oil-modified (lauratecontaining) canola, developed by Calgene, Inc.; Virus-resistant squash,
developed by Asgrow Seeds, UpJohn Company, December 1994;
Delayed-softening tomato, developed by DNA Plant Technology Corp.,
January 1995; Colorado potato beetle resistant potato, developed by
Monsanto Agricultural Company, March 1995; Insect-resistant corn,
developed by Ciba Seeds, May 1995.
Horizontal genetic transfer of DNA in short interspecific repetitive
elements (SINEs) is reviewed in Nature Genetics 10 (1995), 131-2. A
study of predator invasion in ecology using spiders on an island is
Science 268 (1995), 18-20. Adaptive mutation in E.coli involves
conjugation, Science 268 (1995), 418-20, 373-4; SA (May 1995), 23-4;
Newsweek (1 May 1995), 53.
A book review of Smith, B.D., The Emergence of Agriculture is in
Nature 375 (1995), 289. Two books that were not mentioned in EEIN or
EJAIB are Wohrmann, K. & Tomiuk, J., eds., Transgenic Organisms. Risk
Assessment of Deliberate Release (Basel: Birkhauser Verlag 1993, ISBN
0-8176-2834-7); Nazin, M.J. & Lynch, J.M. Environmental Gene Release.
Models, experiments and risk assessment (Chapman & Hall 1994, ISBN
0-412-54630-2).
The use of military research money and technology in farming is
criticised in The Ram's Horn 126 (May 1995), 1-2.

The European Commission has announced plans to change GMO crop

protection laws, by adoption of directive 90/220 and 94/15 on field
releases of GMOs. The new law plans include bans of some pesticides,
EBN 205 (1995), 1. On the difficulty of changing regulations in the USA
in general, Biotechnology 13 (1995), 721.
The USDA is asking for public comments on a proposal to amend the
regulations on genetically engineered plants introduced under USDA's
notification and petition regulatory processes, Federal Register (22
August, 1995) 43567-43573 (Federal Register Online via GPO Access
(wais.access.gpo.gov)). The proposed amendments would allow most
genetically modified plants that are considered regulated articles to be
introduced into the environment under the notification process, as long
as they meet certain eligibility criteria and performance standards. In
addition, under the notification process, the amendment would allow a
reduction in the field test reporting requirements when no unexpected
or adverse effects are observed. Under the petition process, the
proposed amendments would enable USDA scientists to extend an
existing determination for nonregulated status to certain additional
regulated articles that closely resemble an organism for which a
determination has already been made. Comments will be considered if
received on or before Oct. 23. An original and three copies of written
comments should be sent to Docket No. 95-040-1, Animal and Plant
Health Inspection Service, Policy and Program Development,
Regulatory Analysis and Development, 4700 River Road, Unit 118,
Riverdale, Md. USA.
The international efforts to further strengthen the biowarfare
regulations could allow routine inspections of facilities including
commercial and academic facilities; GEN (August 1995), 1, 35. The so
called VEREX proposals are being objected to by some industrial
biotechnolgists. However, it is for the good of all to ensure biowarfare
research does not occur, and there should be efforts made to
guarantee the confidentiality of such inspections (i.e. perhaps those
with no industry ties should be inspectors). Iraq has said it will give the
UN all data it has on its biowarfare programs... The publication of a
draft law that helps lead the way to realization of the chemical
weapons ban is applauded in Nature 376 (1995), 375.
A critique pointing out the dangers of the rabies vaccination releases in
Europe is McNally, R. "Genetic madness. The European Rabies
Eradication programme", The Ecologist 24 (1994), 207-12. The
regulation and affects of transgenic plants in the third world are
mentioned in Science 268 (1995), 1830-1. A new book on risk is von
Schomberg, R. ed., Contested Technology, Ethics, Risk and Public
Debate (International Centre for Human and Public Affairs, P.

Smitsstraat 25, 5014 RH Tilburg, The Netherlands, US$29 (Email:

RvonSchonberg@kub.nl),
The passage of Russia's law regulating genetic engineering is reported
in Science 268 (1995), 1558. Methods to safe costs and ensure safety
for barrier isolation are reviewed in Benborough, J.E. et al. "Barrier
isolation for clean drugs and safer workers", Biotechnology 13 (1995),
746-7.
On 9 August, 1995, Ciba Seeds received the US registration from the
EPA for the commercialisation of corn hybrids genetically modified for
protection against the European corn borer; EBN 206 (1995), 2; Nature
376 (1995), 544. The maize can be sold in the 1996 season, the FDA
also agrees as does the USDA. This pest causes losses of about US$1
billion a year, and it should lower pesticide use. The corn plantpesticide is
Bacillus thuringiensis
(Bt) CryIA(B) delta-endotoxin and the genetic material necessary for its
production (pCIB4431).
Strategies to lower chances of resistance to
Bacillus thuringiensis
insecticidal protein include the patchwork farming of treated and
untreated fields, and methods to reduce the amount of untreated fields
(that may suffer more insect attack!) by computer simulation are in
Alstad, D.N. & Andow, D.A. "Managing the evolution of insect
resistance to transgenic plants", Science 268 (1995), 1894+. Antibiotic
resistance is discussed in Fekete, T. "Bacterial genetics, antibiotic
usage, and public policy: The crucial interplay in emerging resistance",
Perspectives in Biology & Medicine 38 (1995), 363-82. See also,
Biotechnology 13 (1995), 628; Lancet 346 (1995), 132-3.
The USDA has removed a further Calgene tomato from regulatory
oversight, one containing a modified Cauliflower Mosaic Virus DNA with
altered ripening properties.
The New Zealand Interim Assessment Group on regulation of GMOs has
released their 1995 reports, and the total now stands at 33
applications for field trials, glasshouse trials and taste tests. The recent
trials include continued research into sheep with altered growth rates
and wool production; a modified clover with resistance to white clover
mosaic virus. A proposal to import semen to establish a breeding stock
of sheep with expression of the alpha-1-antitrypsin protein as a

"bioreactor" was declined, and the decision is being reviewed following

an appeal.
Strains of Rhizobium loti are shown to arise through chromosomal
symbiotic gene transfer in PNAS 92 (1995), 8985-9. Replicons are
discussed in Cell 82 (1995), 535-42. On GMO release monitorring using
novel RNA sequences, Pitulle, C. et al. "A novel approach for
monitoring genetically engineered microorganisms by using artificial,
stable RNAs; AEM 61 (1995), 3661-6. Bioaerosol monitorring using PCR
is described in AEM 61 (1995), 3639-44.
A Global Biosafety protocol was discussed in the Jakarta meeting of
signatories to the Biodiversity Convention which ended 17 Nov, 1995.
The decision was postponed to be made by 1998, and the developing
countries wanted to include internal guidelines as well as inter-national
movement of GMOs, whereas the EU wanted to only regulate the latter.
A background is Nature 377 (1995), 94; 378 (1995), 5. There are 168
signatories to the Convention now, and there is debate over how strict
and when a biosafety protocol under article 19 of the convention would
be. In September, Argentina adopted the UNEP guidelines which are
developed by the UK and Netherlands, as an alternative. A background
paper is Miller, H.I. et al. "An algorithm for the oversight of field trials in
economically developing countries", Biotechnology 13 (1995), 955-9.
A paper on a practical issue of bioweapons control is Zelicoff, A.P. "The
biological weapons convention: What is the role of sample collection in
a legally-binding regime?", Politics & Life Sciences 14 (1995), 79-86.
A Scottish Crop Research Institute (Dundee) study suggests gene
transfer is easier than thought. They used oilseed rape in a 4 hectare
area and found the density of airborne pollen from the GMOs was 69%
100m away, and they found significant pollen at 2.5km, EBN 212
(1995), 5; NS (11 Nov 1995), 10. A review of field trials between 19861993 is Dale, P.J. "R&D regulation and field trialling of transgenic
crops", TIBTECH 13 (1995), 398-403. The ecological issues are
reviewed in Keighery, G. "The ecological consequences of genetic
engineering", Search 26 (1995), 274-80. Plant-microbe interactions are
discussed in TIBTECH 13 (1995), 356-62.
Mycotech Corp. (Butte, Montana) is the first company to have a
biopesticide approved under the EPA new Biopesticides and Pollution
Prevention Division, GEN (15 Nov 1995), 15. The product is a fungus,
Beauveria bassiana, which kills certain insects. It is naturally occurring.
The EPA has also approved the commercialization of an insect
protection gene for cotton called Bollard, which will be marketed by
Monsanto under the name NuCOTN, GEN (15 Nov 1995), 32. A study

has found that rare British moths should be safe from the baculovirus
with a scorpion gene, NS (25 Nov 1995), 8.
A gene marker that allows bacteria to be fluorescent that contain it is
reported in NS (25 Nov 1995), 21. A gene reporter system in halophilic
bacteria is described in AEM 61 (1995), 3821-5. The use of direct DNA
extraction from soil for PCR to analyze soil bacteria is reported in AEM
61 (1995), 3972-6. The reported plasmid transfer in the soil in a test of
gene transfer is in Ogawa, N. & Miyashita, K. "Recombination of a 3chlorobenzoate catabolic plasmid from Alcaligenes eutrophus NH9
mediated by direct repeat elements", AEM 61 (1995), 3788-95.
Adaptive mutation in bacteria is reviewed in Trends in Microbiology 3
(1995), 291-3.
In New York state there is a large air drop of an oral vaccine to combat
rabies in raccoons, BMJ 311 (1995), 1184-5. A self-destructive vaccine
in a bacteria is reported in NS (21 Oct 1995), 25; Science 270 (1995),
299. The use of viral immunosterilisation is discussed in Search 26
(1995), 239-44.
In Australia biological control experiments with calicivirus have
resulted in the release of the virus in South Australia, with dramatic
killing of the rabbits. This has been welcomed by farmers, but has lead
to much debate on the suitability of virus control of pest rabbit
populations. New Zealand is considering introducing the virus, and the
government has approved the introduction of the virus for research,
but generally regulatory authorities are waiting for the results of
further tests. It is reported that a black market selling dead rabbits for
A$100 each is flourishing. There are concerns that calicivirus may
infect other species, including native animals or humans. See reports
in Time (11 Dec 1995), 50; Science 270 (1995), 583, 1123; NS (7 Oct
1995), 8, (21 Oct 1995), 3-4; (4 Nov 1995), 7; (11 Nov 1995), 50;
Nature 378 (1995), 531. Companies which export rabbit meat are
claiming compensation for lost earnings, NS (9 Dec 1995), 3-4.
A letter by H.I. Miller on the international biosafety protocols is in
Nature 379 (1996), 13; and on the background to the biosafety
protocols (discussed in the last issue) is Science 270 (1995), 723. A
critique of unscientific regulation of biotechnology is TIBTECH 13
(1995), 123-5. A review of Canadian regulation of biotechnology
suggests that Canadian bioindustry will be more competitive than that
in the USA, GEN (Dec 1995),30-1. Canada has a smaller regulatory
community and it is suggested that this means it is more flexible.
Monterey County has relaxed its local regulations that restricted GMO
field trials, in California, Nature 378 (1995), 758. A discussion of
European standards is TIBTECH 13 (1995), 239-42. From the USDA,

"Performance Standards for Safely Conducting Research with

Genetically Modified Fish and Shellfish, Biosafety 1: Paper 11 (1995)
On-line http://www.bdt.org.br/bioline/bin/by.cgi
Agricultural biotechnology in Vietnam: achievements, projects and
challenges, is in AgBiotech News & Reviews 7 (11, 1995).
Regulation of biological warfare is reviewed in M.I. Chevrier, "From
verification to strengthening compliance: Prospects and challenges of
the Biological Weapons Convention", Politics & Life Sciences 14
(1995),209-20. A series of 10 papers on the inspection of biowarfare
agents is in pp. 262. The use of enzymes in warfare is discussed,
including research, in GEN (15 Oct 1995), 7. A discussion on the
destruction of small pox virus is Razzell, P. "Should remaining stocks of
smallpox virus be destroyed?", Social History of Medicine 8 (1995),
305-7. The monitoring of chemical weapons is discussed in NS (25 Nov
1995), 10.
A review of antibiotic resistance is Science 270 (1995), 724-7. The use
of genetic engineering to make analogues to antibiotics is one method
that may increase diversity, AEM 61 (1995), 3894-903. The use of
conjugates may also aid combating drug-resistant Pneumococcus, with
about 25% of Streptococcus pneumoniae in the USA being antibiotic
resistant, JAMA 274 (1995), 1327-8.
Germany has simplified its rules for genetic engineering, with
tightened formal procedures for plants but less paperwork, Nature 379
(1996), 670. The European Science Foundation in Strasbourg has
drawn up a set of simplified guidelines for the use GMOs, EBN 215
(1996), 3. It includes 55 members research councils in 20 countries.
A study showing one month long effects on the phosphate metabolism
of a microbial ecosystem is Sobecky PA et al. "Impact of a genetically
engineered bacterium with enhanced alkaline phosphatase activity on
marine phytoplankton communities", AEM 62 (1996), 6-12. A study
finding that there would be no ecological disadvantage against a
herbicide resistance gene that escaped into wild species is Lavigne C
et al. "The cost of herbicide resistance in white-chicory: ecological
implications for its commercial release", Theor Appl Genet 91 (1995),
1301-8. Both these papers suggest survival of transgenes in the
environment, and ecological effects.
More comments on the calcivirus release that has killed many rabbits
in South Australia is in SA (Feb 1996), 24-6.

Increasing efforts are being made to combat drug resistant

microorganisms, SA (Jan 1996), 26; Goldmann DA et al. "Strategies to
prevent and control the emergence and spread of antimicrobialresistant microorganisms in hospitals", JAMA 275 (1996), 234-40. Also
on the subject of drug resistance, JAMA 275 (1996), 175, 206-9; Lancet
346 (1995), s1; 347 (1996), 252. The expression of the multidrug
resistance gene in cancer cells decreases survival chance of the
patients, NEJM 334 (1996), 231-8.
UK chemists have called for more involvement in policing the chemical
weapons ban, Nature 379 (1996), 473, 479.
Following results of gene transfer in Brassica reported in Nature (see
last issue), there have been calls in Germany for a total ban on field
releases of GMOs, EBN 219 (1996), 3; though the Green party may
review its position, Nature 380 (1996), 470. A paper showing some
there is very low level, or no, gene transfer from potato to bacteria is
Schluter, K. et al. ""Horizontal" gene transfer from a transgenic potato
line to a bacterial pathogen (Erwinia chrysanthemi) occurs - if at all - at
an extremely low frequency", Biotechnology 13 (1995), 1094-100. A
review on plant-pathogen interactions, Plant Cell 8 (1996), 133-5. A
model has been made to explain why bacteria retain strain structure
despite a high level of recombination, Nature Medicine 2 (1996), 43742: see also Trends in Microbiology 4 (1996), 69-72. Further data on
risks of transgenic crops is Nature 380 (1996), 31, 94, 487;
Biotechnology 14 (1996), 142-3. Flower genetic engineering in snap
dragons is reported in NS (2 March 1996), 19. A study of Charcot-Marie
Tooth disease has found that it may be linked to inclusion of a gene
from a fruit fly, called mariner, which has a signal for gene breakage
causing mutation, NS (9 March 1996), 16.
Discussion of moves to modify European directives on field release is
Biotechnology 14 (1996), 133-4. A report on the global biosafety
protocol is in Srinivas, KR. "Bio-safety protocol: Stumbling on",
Economic & Political Weekly (23 March 1996), 711. The design of
biosafe laboratories is reviewed in Biotechnology 13 (1995), 1068-70.
Cargill Hybrid Seeds will distribute insect-resistant seed corn of the
NatureGuard brand of Myogen Corporation, Ram's Horn 135 (March
1996), 5. The corn contains Bacillus thurigiensis genes to protect
against European corn borer, Biotechnology 13 (1995),1035-6. The
USDA has been forced to close the Office of Agricultural Biotechnology,
a year early due to budget cuts, Nature Biotechnology 14 (1996), 261.
On the oversight of biotechnology, Biotechnology 13 (1995), 1142.

Between 1980 to 1993 there was a growth in antibiotic prescribing in

England of 46%, less than 65% in France and 78% in Germany, BMJ
312 (1996), 613. Methods to control antibiotic resistance are discussed
in JAMA 275 (1996), 401-3. Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in
Australia is reviewed in MJA 164 (1996), 64-71.
In the USA there are increased fears of biological terrorism, Science
271 (1996), 1485. In May 1995 a white separatist ordered vials of
bubonic plague from a cell culture collection.
Field trials of oilseed rape (Brassica napus) with a chitanase gene have
been found to be more resistant to fungal pathogens in field trials,
Nature Genetics 14 (1996), 645+; EBN 223 (1996), 5. A review of a
biocontrol trial introducing an Australian fungal pathogen of
grasshoppers into North America is PNAS 93 (1996), 918-21. New
Zealand research in biocontrol of possum is being increased, NS (8
June 1996), 50. A discussion of whether escaped genes for GMOs could
enhance the spread of weeds is remaining one of the major concerns,
SA (May 1996), 33.
After many years of talking, New Zealand has a statutory committee to
oversee GMOs, called the Environmental Risk Management Authority,
NS (8 June 1996), 50. A book review of Wright, S., Molecular Politics.
Developing American and British Regulatory Policy for Genetic
Engineering, 1972-1982 (University of Chicago Press, 1994, 591pp.,
US$30) is in TIBTECH 14 (1996), 106-7. A more recent review is
Carmen, IH. "Washington politics and genetic engineering research:
When world's collide", Human Gene Therapy 7 (1996), 97-108. Calls for
relaxed regulations in Europe are being made on politicians, Nature
380 (1996), 656.
Smallpox stocks are now likely to be destroyed in 1999, later than
some experts had hoped, Science 272 (1996), 637, 1253-4. Also on the
function of watchdogs on chemical and biological warfare, Politics &
Life Sciences 15 (1996), 111-6. There has been some environmental
critique of the methodology of the US$12.4 billion US Army plan to
incinerate stockpiles of chemical weapons, EST 30 (1996), 247A. More
on the Tokyo Aum Shinrikyo cult trial, NS (11 May 1996), 3; and on the
dangers of bioterrorism, NS (11 May 1996), 32-7. In Delhi there is trade
in hospital waste cloth, a potential for spreading disease inadvertently,
NS (11 May 1996), 4.
A method using an antibiotic gene for control of Pseudomonas is
reported in Munthall, MT et al. "Use of colicin E3 for biological
containment of microorganisms", AEM 62 (1996), 1805-7. On the
production of safe gene therapy vectors see Amalfitano, A. et al.

"Improved adenovirus packaging Cell lines to support the growth of

replication-defective gene-delivery vectors", PNAS 93 (1996), 3352-6.
Possibilities for use of bacteriophages in disease control is discussed in
PNAS 93 (1996), 3167-8. The role of gene interaction in hybrid
speciation is examined in Science 272 (1996), 700-1, 741-5; and sexual
conflict may also fuel evolutionary change, Nature 381 (1996), 189-90.
A method by which an intron can insert itself into double-stranded DNA
has been described, Nature 381 (1996), 280-1.
After large scale field trials of the cotton made by Monsanto, cotton
bollworms were still found to have infected some of the cotton,
MacIlwain, C. Bollworms chew hole in gene-engineered cotton. Nature
382 (1996), 289.
There is controversy in the USA over the EPA proposals to extend its
cover to plants that are genetically engineered to produce toxic
substances, Nature 382 (1996), 485.
Austria has imposed a two year moratorium on the release of GMOs
because one company planted its potatoes before receiving formal
approval, GenEthics News (May/June 1996), 12. There has been a move
by the G77 group of countries to make internationally binding
regulations on the use of GMOs, and regulations on import and export
have been agreed upon. However some countries also want to include
handling and use of GMOs, and a clause on compensation for human
health or environmental damage, and a clause to assess and possibly
compensate for the impact of biotechnology on traditional agriculture,
Masood, E. Liability clause blocks talks on biosafety protocol. Nature
382 (1996), 384; NS (3 August 1996), 5; Biodiversity Bulletin 1 (1996),
4-5; and the USA has concerns it is too cautious, Science 273 (1996),
299. See also Tzotzos, GT. ed., Genetically Modified Organisms: A
Guide to Biosafety (CAB International, UK., 1995).
A few older references on the subject include: ECE, Economic
Commission for Europe, ECE Inventory of Safety Guidelines in
Biotechnology (Geneva: United Nations 1995), ECE/SC.TECH./47;
Horsch RB, Commercialization of genetically engineered crops.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London - Series B:
Biological Sciences 342 (1993), 287-91; Umbeck, PF. et al. Degree of
Pollen Dispersal by Insects from a Field Test of Genetically Engineered
Cotton.J. Econ. Entomology 84 (1991), 1943-1991; Harding, K.
Biosafety of selectable marker genes, AgBiotech News and Information
7 (1995), 47-52N.

Efforts to combat biowarfare are reviewed in JAMA 276 (1996), 346-51,

419-20. The US CDC has imposed stricter regulations to prevent
sabotage in the transport of pathogens, Science 273 (1996), 863; NS
(22 June 1996), 8; Lancet 348 (1996), 1759.
In Australia, the rabbit calcivirus that caused concern last year due to
accidental release is expected to be deliberately released over the
country in efforts to kill the rabbits, NS (7 Sept 1996), 6; Science 273
(1996), 16-7.
The question of whether transgenic supercrops could lead to
superweeds is discussed in Science 274 (1996), 180-1; and a real trial
suggesting gene flow will occur is Lefol, E. et al. "Gene dispersal from
transgenic crops. II. Hybridization between oilseed rape and the wild
hoary mustard", Sex Plant Reprod. 9 (1996), 189-96. The dangers of
mutation to pathogens is shown by the example, Palukaitis P &
Roossinck MJ., "Spontaneous change of a benign satellite RNA of
cucumber mosaic virus to a pathogenic variant", Nature Biotechnology
14 (1996), 1264-8. Monitoring of transgenic plants using in vivo
markers is discussed in Nature Biotechnology 14 (1996), 682; NS (12
Oct. 1996), 20. On Zurich hazard analysis in biotechnology, Nature
Biotechnology 14 (1996), 894-7. The impact of transgenic crops such
as potato upon biodiversity is reviewed in Biotechnology and
Development Monitor 28 (1996), 10-4; On ecological crops, NS (28
Sept. 1996), 50-1. On the invasions of alien species, NS (14 Sept.
1996), 48.
On the environmental transfer of genes from GMOs, GEN (1 Sept.
1996), 12, 37. This follows Calgene being given a patent on a seedspecific promoter, Bce4. They plan to use this so that only the seed
oils will be altered by the new gene, in their projects on altering seed
oil composition. A paper on the lower limits of transgene variability is
Plant Cell 8 (1996), 1589-99.
As reported last issue, Bt cotton has been eaten by the insects it is
meant to be resistant to. Monsanto has attributed the infestation of Bt
cotton by bollworms due to extremely hot and dry conditions in the
region; and they report there are no signs that the pest is developing
resistance, Nature Biotechnology 14 (1996), 1070-1; see also Science
273 (1996), 1641-2; SA (Oct 1996), 47-8. On the future of Bt and
insecticides, Nature Biotechnology 14 (1996), 697.
On the global biosafety protocol Nature Biotechnology 14 (1996), 803,
831-5; Nature 382 (1996), 384. Bulgaria has made a body to monitor
gene releases, Nature Biotechnology 14 (1996), 1212. The Canadian

regulation of biotechnology is discussed in Ram's Horn 141 (Sept

1996), 1-4.
There are some suggestions that the verification protocol for
biological warfare checks, under the Convention, may slow some
research, GEN (1 Sept. 1996), 7; Nature Biotechnology 14 (1996), 940.
In Australia there is a list of species which are restricted for information
exchange because of fears. Bacteria could destroy the chemical
weapons stocks, NS (5 Oct. 1996), 10. An editorial on the US Senate
refusal to ratify the Chemical Weapons Convention is Nature 383
(1996), 201. Meanwhile the US Army is considering vaccinating all its
troops against anthrax, which is raising fears that they may use it, NS
(12 Oct. 1996), 5. On the role of doctors in the introduction of a nuclear
weapons test ban treaty in the UN, Lancet 348 (1996), 884.
A study of maize found 10 families of retrotransposons in its genome, comprising
50% of the nuclear DNA of maize, Science 274 (1996), 765-8. A review of selfish
genetic elements is Nature 384 (1996), 317-8.

A condemnation of the US EPA's proposal to regulate plants that contain insect-killing

gene products as pesticides is in Nature 383 (1996), 756; GEN (1 Nov 1996), 4, 39.
11 scientific societies representing 80,000 biologists have condemned the proposal.
Concerns over the build up of insect resistance to Bt toxins if their levels are lower
than expected, as in the cotton crops in the USA in summer 1996, are voiced in
Science 274 (1996), 701. The importing and exporting of GMOs is one of the issues
over the European protests against Monsanto's herbicide resistant soybeans, NS (30
Nov 1996), 51.
Biowarfare is the subject of book reviews in NS (9 Nov 1996), 42-3, of Cole, LA The
Eleventh Plague: The Politics of Biological and Chemical Warfare (WH Freeman, 1996,
US$23, ISBN 0-7167-2950-4), and Brackett, DW. Holy Terror: Armageddon in Tokyo
(Weatherhill, 1996, US$25, ISBN 0-8348-0353-4). A series of papers commenting on
Tucker, JB., "Chemical/biological terrorism: Coping with a new threat", Politics & Life
Sciences 15 (1996), 167-84, are in pp. 185-248. Cole also writes an article, Cole LA.
"The specter of biological weapons", SA (Dec 1996), 60-5. The subject of mandatory
inspections under the bioweapons convention is in NS (23 Nov 1996), 11; Lancet 348
(1996), 1183.

A discussion of transgenic crops in Central America is Biotechnology

& Development Monitor 29 (Dec 1996), 7-9; and on developing
countries, pp. 16-18. In France the chairman of the GMO panel
resigned over the importation of maize from GMOs (see Recombinant
DNA section below), Nature 385 (1997), 667. The safety of corn is
defended in Nature 385 (1997), 109, 290. On the production of wines
from GMOs, NS (4 Jan, 1997), 19. In India, the destruction of an
eggplant containing a Bt gene has been ordered after was found to
have failed to obtain permission, Nature 385 (1997), 4.
The rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus has been reported as having
good effects on native species in Australia, so far, Science 275

(1997), 154; NS (Jan, 1997). A study finding nontransgenic seed had

better survival when buried than transgenic is Hails, RS. et al. "Burial
and seed survival in Brassica napus subsp. oleifera and Sinapis
arvensis including a comparison of transgenic and non-transgenic lines
of the crop", Proc. Roy. Soc. London B 264 (1997), 1-7. Monitoring the
survival of GEMs is discussed in EST 31 (1997), 68A; Appl. Environ.
Microbiol. 62 (1996), 3486-8. On plant-microbial interactions, Nature
385 (1997), 26-7.
A number of research projects to protect soldiers against biological
weapons are being funded in the US Defense Advanced Research
Projects Agency (DARPA), NS (18 Jan 1997), 9. A book review of Parker,
J., The Killing Factory: The Top Secret World of Germ and Chemical
Warfare (Smith Dryphon 1996, 230pp., 17pds) is in Nature 385 (1997),
216-7. The USA is being urged to ratify the Chemical Weapons
Convention, Nature 385 (1997), 664.
The European Commission is proposing to lessen the bureaucracy
imposed by EU directive 90/220 on field trials and marketing of GMOs.
A call for more discussion of plant modification is Nature 386 (1997),
111; and on how risks can be estimated, TIBTECH 14 (1996), 449-50. A
review is Miele, L. "Plants as bioreactors for biopharmaceuticals:
regulatory considerations", TIBTECH 15 (1997), 45-9. A discussion of
biosafety guidelines in India reporting from a Nov. 1996 conference is
Biotechnology & Development Monitor 30 (March 1997), 10-13.
There is expected to be 10 million acres of Roundup Ready soybeans
grown in the USA this season, ten times the 1996 level There is also
expected to be several million acres of Bt corn, also increased from
500,000 acres in 1996. The seeds will be available from a number of
companies. There will also be corn resistant to the herbicide Liberty
from AgrEvo, called Liberty Link corn. There is a ban on a certain type
of Bt cotton, made by Northrup King, in cotton growing states of the
USA, because it is against both corn earworm and European corn borer,
whereas Ciba Seeds and Mycogen have more selectivity. This is in
efforts to prevent insect resistance evolving, but the data is unclear
(Progressive Farmer on-line, Jan 1997). On the development of
resistance to BT, NS (8 March 1997), 3, 5. The French government
decided to prohibit the cultivation of Bt corn, a week after approving
corn for human and animal consumption, Science 275 (1997), 1063.
A critique of the Australian government lack of regulation of
biotechnology is in Nature Medicine 3 (1997), 256-7. It comes from
industry and researchers, who have cases where the marketing of
products has been held back by the lack of guidelines or provisions to

export transgenic pork, for example. Quarantine guidelines in Australia

are also being reviewed, NS (8 March 1997), 48.
Book reviews of Cole, LA., The Eleventh Plague: The Politics of
Biological and Chemical Warfare (WH Freeman 1996, 284pp., US$23)
are in Nature 386 (1997), 342; Nature Medicine 3 (1997), 463.
European biotechnology companies have protested the idea that
inspections of fermentation facilities will begin under the Bioweapons
Treaty, as it may compromise their commercial secrecy, NS (8 March
1997), 8. The US Senate ratified the Chemical Weapons Treaty before
the deadline at the end of April, 1997, joining over 70 countries who
have done so.
The European Commission is proposing to lessen the bureaucracy
imposed by EU directive 90/220 on field trials and marketing of GMOs.
A call for more discussion of plant modification is Nature 386 (1997),
111; and on how risks can be estimated, TIBTECH 14 (1996), 449-50. A
review is Miele, L. "Plants as bioreactors for biopharmaceuticals:
regulatory considerations", TIBTECH 15 (1997), 45-9. A discussion of
biosafety guidelines in India reporting from a Nov. 1996 conference is
Biotechnology & Development Monitor 30 (March 1997), 10-13.
There is expected to be 10 million acres of Roundup Ready soybeans
grown in the USA this season, ten times the 1996 level There is also
expected to be several million acres of Bt corn, also increased from
500,000 acres in 1996. The seeds will be available from a number of
companies. There will also be corn resistant to the herbicide Liberty
from AgrEvo, called Liberty Link corn. There is a ban on a certain type
of Bt cotton, made by Northrup King, in cotton growing states of the
USA, because it is against both corn earworm and European corn borer,
whereas Ciba Seeds and Mycogen have more selectivity. This is in
efforts to prevent insect resistance evolving, but the data is unclear
(Progressive Farmer on-line, Jan 1997). On the development of
resistance to BT, NS (8 March 1997), 3, 5. The French government
decided to prohibit the cultivation of Bt corn, a week after approving
corn for human and animal consumption, Science 275 (1997), 1063.
A critique of the Australian government lack of regulation of
biotechnology is in Nature Medicine 3 (1997), 256-7. It comes from
industry and researchers, who have cases where the marketing of
products has been held back by the lack of guidelines or provisions to
export transgenic pork, for example. Quarantine guidelines in Australia
are also being reviewed, NS (8 March 1997), 48.
Book reviews of Cole, LA., The Eleventh Plague: The Politics of
Biological and Chemical Warfare (WH Freeman 1996, 284pp., US$23)

are in Nature 386 (1997), 342; Nature Medicine 3 (1997), 463.

European biotechnology companies have protested the idea that
inspections of fermentation facilities will begin under the Bioweapons
Treaty, as it may compromise their commercial secrecy, NS (8 March
1997), 8. The US Senate ratified the Chemical Weapons Treaty before
the deadline at the end of April, 1997, joining over 70 countries who
have done so.
Rapeseed oil is preferable to mineral oils used for lubricating drill bits
used for oil drilling, and biodegradable, NS (19 April 1997), 23. About
250 tonnes would be required to drilling a typical well, and there are 50
new wells a year sunk in the North Sea. One hectare of rape makes
about 1 tonne, so there could be more rapeseed fields.
At the May meeting of the UN Biological Diversity Convention 15
African countries led by Ethiopia tabled detailed proposals calling on
all signatories to accept tougher regulations on the use of GMOs,
Nature 387 (1997), 326. The proposals are opposed by the EU and the
USA, who said only cross-border movement should be controlled.
Germany's research minister has promised to make more proposals to
stimulate genetics research, Nature 387 (1997), 7. Comments on foods
from GMOs are in the Recombinant DNA Products section below. The
companies making the GMOs estimate that 12% of US soybeans and
6% of maize in 1997 is GMO, Nature 387 (1997), 221.
Flexibility in DNA recombination can result from the way that integrase
enzymes are constructed, Science 276 (1997), 126-31. A case of gene
transfer is reported in Herrick, JB. et al. "Natural horizontal transfer
of a napththalene dioxygenase gene between bacteria native to a coal
tar-contaminated field site", AEM 63 (1997), 2330-7. It is suggested to
be common from the way pollutants are degraded in the environment.
On transkingdom gene movement, Gueiros-Filho, FJ. & Beverley, SM.
"Trans-kingdom transposition of the Drosophila element mariner within
the Protozoan Leishmania", Science 276 (1997), 1716-9. Interactions
between epithelial cells and bacteria are reviewed in Science 276
(1997), 964-5. On the way species evolve, Nature 387 (1997), 551-2;
and evolutionary ecology, Nature 387 (1997), 351-2; and genetic
redundancy, Nature 388 (1997), 167-71.
A book review on The Eleventh Plague is Lancet 349 (1997), 1332-3. A
National Academy of Sciences (USA) report on whether the biowar
modeling experiments to release powdered zinc cadmium sulphide into
the atmosphere over the USA 33 times in the 1950s and 1960s caused
health effects, said they would not have, NS (24 May 1997), 6.
However the ethical question of whether they should have done the
experiments to mimic the spread of bacterial agents, of a similar size,

was not addressed. A conference review is Dando, MR. & Pearson, GS.
"The Fourth Review Conference of the Biological and Toxin Weapons
Convention: Issues, outcomes, and unfinished business", Politics & Life
Sciences 16 (1997), 105-126.
Bt is becoming more important, Roush RT & Shelton AM, "Assessing
the odds: The emergence of resistance to Bt transgenic plants", NatBio
15 (1997), 816-8. They suggest that of the $8.1 billion spent annually
on insecticides worldwide, nearly $2.7 billion could be replaced with
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) biotechnology applications At least 16
companies are presently involved in developing transgenic crops with
Bt genes. In the United States, in 1996, Bt transgenic crops were
already grown on more than 3 million acres, a figure that includes the
1.7 million acres of Monsanto's transgenic cotton. The area for 1997 is
expected to be over 20 million acres for all crops. A review in general is
Snow, AA. & Palma, PM. "Commercialization of transgenic plants:
Potential ecological risks", BioScience 47 (1997), 86-96.
There is a range of opinions on the International Biosafety Protocol,
Biotechnology & Development Monitor 31 (June 1997), 16-9; NatBio 15
(1997), 694. See a proposal in, Barton, J. et al. "A model protocol to
assess the risks of agricultural introductions", NatBio 15 (1997), 845-9.
On the role of EuropaBio in regulations, NatBio 15 (1997), 693. On US
EPA and USDA regulations, NatBio 15 (1997), 503; NS (26 July 1997),
24. The US EPA was thought to not be adding more regulations on Bt
resistant cotton, NatBio 15 (1997), 409; but it now may regulate as
pesticides. A review on bioreactors is Miele, L. "Plants as bioreactors for
biopharmaceuticals: regulatory considerations", TIBTECH 15 (1997),
45-9. A new report on the subject is Conner, AJ. Genetically engineered
crops. Environmental and food safety issues (Royal Society of New
Zealand, 1997, ISBN 0-908654-72-3, 34pp.). A call for scientists to
inform the public on the risks of transgenic experiments is BMJ 315
(1997), 255. A Queensland University senior lecturer was suspended
for carrying out experiments with Japanese encephalitis in a laboratory
below standard for it, and in early July 45 people were ordered to take
tests and the laboratory animals were destroyed.
The New Zealand Ministry of Agriculture has decided against the
import of rabbit calcivirus disease which is killing rabbits in Australia,
Science 277 (1997), 321; NS (12 July 1997), 12. There is much
uncertainty as the insects thought to be spreading it in Australia are
not present in New Zealand. On biocontrol, Persley, GJ., ed,
Biotechnology and Integrated Pest Management (CAB International,
1996, ISBN 0-85198-930-6, 469pp.).

A review of plasmid transfer and bacterial evolution is PNAS 94 (1997),

5501-3; and on transposable elements in plants and animals, PNAS 94
(1997), 7704-11. An analysis of a recombination hot spot in E.coli is
Cell 90 (1997), 205-6. The advantages of sex in evolution in yeast is
seen in Nature 388 (1997), 465-8.
On biowarfare and genetic engineering, GenEthics News 18 (June/July
1997), 4-5; NatBio 15 (1997), 611; Nature 388 (1997), 317.
The progress toward standard European guidelines on GMO release
and biotechnology safety are discussed in GEN (15 Sept. 1997), 4, 34.
A coalition of organic farmers and consumers is suing the US EPA for
approving the release of Bt crops (see Plant Genetic Engineering
section), because of fears of resistance to Bt toxin by insects, Nature
389 (1997), 317. There are re-emerging concerns over virus resistant
plants and second thoughts about large commercial releases in the
USA, NS (16 Aug. 1997), 4. The EPA may exempt closely related
pesticides to naturally occurring ones, from extensive review, EST 31
(1997), 350A. On the complexities of bacterial mutation, SA (Sept.
1997), 15, 18. Sugar beet resistant to the herbicide roundup has been
sabotaged in Ireland, Nature 389 (1997), 534.
Genetic engineering using external guide sequences can make
antibiotic resistant bacteria susceptible, PNAS 94 (1997), 8468-72;
BMJ 315 (1997), 385; Science 277 (1997), 905; NS (9 Aug. 1997), 4.
The transfer of antibiotic resistance genes in ruminant bacteria was
calculated to be from0.1 to 1 in ten million, AEM 63 (1997), 3405-11. In
general on the problem, NS (27 Sept. 1997), 18; Science 277 (1997),
1437; Lancet 350 (1997), 569; NEJM 337 (1997), 441-6, 491-2. A
plague case that has signs of multidrug resistance is reported in
Madagascar, BMJ 315 (1997), 623; Lancet 350 (1997), 788; NEJM 337
(1997), 702-4. MRSA seems to be increasing in the UK among S. aureus
bacteraemia, Lancet 350 (1997), 323-5; and tuberculosis is increasing
drug resistant, JAMA 278 (1997), 833-7.
A study of the weevil Rhinocyllus conicus which spread host range from
pest thistles to native thistles is Louda, SM. et al. "Ecological effects of
an insect introduced for the biological control of weeds", Science
277 (1997), 1088-90. Some farmers in New Zealand have deliberately
released rabbit calcivirus in the South Island, and dead rabbits have
been found in many places NS (6 Sept. 1997), 10; Science 277 (1997),
1441. A legal loophole means spreading is not illegal, although
introducing it was. Some farmers admit liquidising liver, and
inoculating vegetables and spreading the bait.

A series of papers on biowarfare are in JAMA 278 (1997), 351-75, 3878, 412-39; Nature 388 (1997), 703. Laser sensors to detect biological
diseases are being developed to protect food from poisoning, NS (20
Sept. 1997), 16. A book review on The Chemical Weapons Taboo, is
Nature 389 (1997), 346-7; and biosensors to detect such chemicals, NS
(16 Aug. 1997), 7.
Monsanto has bought a number of smaller companies involved in
agricultural biotechnology, as has Novartis, GEN 17 (1 Nov 1997), 1,
10, 34. There is debate from many angles on how small companies can
be involved in development of biopesticides, GEN 17 (15 Nov 1997), 4,
33. The estimated arable land sowed in GMO crops in the USA is 1012m hectares and 1m in Australia. The UK may introduce commercial
rapeseed crops in 1998. A more specific breakdown of soybean
suggests 5.3 million hectares worldwide, 4.4m for maize, 0.5m for
tomato and potato, 1.6m for rapeseed, and 1.2m for cotton in 1997,
FoodToday 1 (Nov 1997), 1 <http://www.eufic.org> The Global
Biosafety Protocol was discussed in October, 1997 in Montreal, which
will involve Advance Informed Assent, which allows importers to review
data provided by exporting countries.
Intergenic gene flow from transgenic oilseed rape to wild radish has
been assessed in a French study, Nature 389 (1997), 924. DNA
shuffling of a family of genes from diverse species accelerates directed
evolution, Nature 391 (1997), 288-91. A series of papers on the impact
of transposable elements is Genetica 100 (1997), 1-309. On efforts to
eradicate rabies, NS (8 Nov 1997), 24-5; JAMA 278 (1997), 889-90.
A resistance gene to Bt toxin has been found in diamondback moth,
PNAS 94 (1997), 12780+; NS (6 Dec 1997), 7. The US PA has been
called to monitor this more closely, EST 31 (1997), 550A. On reported
problems with cotton balls falling off plants after the second
application of Roundup to herbicide tolerant cotton in USA, Ram's
Horn 153 (Nov 1997), 6; GeneWatch 10 (Dec 1997), 12-4. More than 40
US cotton growers in the Mississippi Delta region had filed complaints
with the state agriculture commission,. claiming heavy losses, NatBio
15 (1997), 1233.
A new book is Altman, A., ed., Agricultural Biotechnology (Marcel
Dekker, Inc. 1997, 792pp, US$195, ISBN 0-8247-8980-6). It includes a
chapter on ethical aspects by D. Macer. On biological control, SA (Nov
1997), 36-7. Swiss farmers are paid 800SF per hectare for crops they
grow without fungicides, insecticides or growth regulators, and this
may become a model in the EU, NS (15 Nov 1997), 55.

In New Zealand farmers illegally imported the rabbit calcivirus, and

it spread out of control, but the local Councils are restricted from
planned use because it is still illegal to spread it, Christchurch Press
(27 Nov 1997), 5. The major vectors appear to be insects, bush flies
and blowflies, in Australia, Science 278 (1997), 229.
The Russian parliament has ratified the chemical weapons treaty,
which means that the weapons must now be destroyed. In addition
Iran, Jordan, and Pakistan and India have also ratified it, Nature 390
(1997), 214. The US NAS has proposed a joint research program with
Russia on dangerous pathogens, Nature 390 (1997), 106; Science 278
(1997), 1222.
UK nature conservation groups have called for a moratorium on
herbicide-tolerant crop use, GenEthics News 21 (Jan 1998), 1. Officials
at the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA; Washington, DC)
announced late in 1997 that the registration for the herbicide
bromoxynil would not be extended, and thus it may not be used for
treating transgenic cotton plants during the 1998 growing season. The
decision affects not only bromoxynil manufacturer Rhne-Poulenc
(Lyon, France) but also Monsanto (St. Louis, MO), which owns Calgene
(Davis, CA) and its Stoneville (Memphis, TN) subsidiary, the producer
and distributor of bromoxynil-tolerant transgenic cotton seeds, NatBio
16 (1998), 132; NS (10 Jan 1998), 3.
A review is Miller, RV. "Bacterial gene swapping in nature", SA (Jan
1998), 67-71. Conjugative transfer by the virulence system of
Legionella pneumophilia is reported in Science 279 (1998), 873-6. On
genetic recombination, Nature 391 (1998), 335-6; and on homeo
boxes, Cell 92 (1998), 153-5. Viruses can overcome stress in various
ways, Science 279 (1998),40-1.
PCR has identified there were various strains of Bacillus anthracis in
the victims of the 1979 Sverlovsk anthrax outbreak, PNAS 95 (1998),
1224-9. The outbreak is thought to have been the result of a leak from
a biowarfare research facility. Russia may help Japan in the disposal
of chemical weapons left in China after WWII, it said on 11 February,
1998. In the USA in February two persons were held in Nevada for
possession of anthrax, Reuters, 21 Feb., 1998. On the roles of
physicians in biowarfare agent research, JAMA 279 (1998), 273-5; and
a book review is JAMA 279 (1998), 164-5. Bioethics and biowarfare is
discussed in an editorial in Science 279 (1998), 635.
In January, 1998, 120 members of a French peasant farmers union
entered a Novartis warehouse in Norac, France to destroy transgenic
maize seeds, Ram's Horn 156 (Feb. 1998), 1-2. In March four new GMO

crops were approved into EU, Novartis Bt- and herbicide-resistant

maize, AgrEvo herbicide resistant oilseed rape and maize, and
Monsanto Bt maize. On the South African guidelines and use of
GMOs, South African Food Review (Jan 1998), 26-8. A comment against
use of herbicide tolerant plants is GeneWatch 11 (1998), 8-10. Officials
at the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, Washington, DC) are
considering an EPA-commissioned report on insecticide-resistance
management strategies for crop plants genetically engineered Bt
insecticidal toxins, NatBio 16 (1998), 324.
On 1 July, 1998, the new procedures for review of GMOs in New
Zealand will go into effect, under the Environmental Risk Management
Authority (ERMA on Internet www.ermanz.govt.nz), and the ERMA has
started issuing a newsletter. The UK Nuffield Council has started an
inquiry into the social, ethical and regulatory issues raised by
genetically modified crops, Nature 392 (1998), 534. Comments on the
global biosafety protocol are in Nature 392 (1998), 221; GeneWatch 11
(1998), 18.
Methods to reduce the escape routes for transgene escapes are
reviewed in Nature 392 (1998), 653-4. But engineering resistance into
the chloroplast genome can reduce risks of escape, Nature
Biotechnology 16 (1998), 345-8. A book review of Kjellson, G. et al.
Methods for Risk Assessment of Transgenic Plants. II. Pollination, Gene
Transfer, and Population Impacts (Birkhauser Verlag, 1997, ISBN 37643-5696-0) is Genetical Research 70 (1997), 267-8. General
comments on the development of GMOs is in an editorial in Science
279 (1998), 2019; and risks assessment methods, EST 32 (1998), 1168A; Nature 392 (1998), 751. The following STOA (Scientific and
Technological Options Assessment Unit of The European Parliament)
Report is now available "An Appraisal of the Working in Practice of
Directive 90/220 concerning the Deliberate Release of Genetically
Modified Organisms into the Environment" by Rene von Schomberg. To
order the Report send a fax to: STOA, European Parliament, Batiment
Schuman 4/82, L 2929 Luxembourg (Fax+352-4300 22418 or email:
RHOLDSWORTH@europarl.eu.int)
Ethanol-induced switches may be used for turning on expression of
transgenes, NS (7 Feb. 1998), 14. On the use of quarantine for animals,
NS (14 Feb. 1998), 48. A review of the way bacteria mutate is NS (14
Feb. 1998), 38-42.
Japan has been taken to court by families of victims of the biowarfare
research conducted in China in world war II, Lancet 351 (1998), 657.
On the reality of research in biowarfare see GEN 18 (1 March, 1998),
1, 31. Methods for monitoring protocols for biological weapons are also

discussed in NatBio 16 (1998), 309-10. Arguments for random

inspections of possible bioweapon production facilities are in NS (28
Feb. 1998), 3, 16-7. There continue to be fears of biowarfare, Lancet
351 (1998), 658. There are doubts on the effectiveness of anti-anthrax
vaccine, that is being given to all US soldiers, Daily Yomiuri (16 March,
1998), 10; Lancet 351 (1998), 657. Sarin gas may have more long-term
effects on women than men after the recovery of persons in the Tokyo
attacks, NS (14 Feb. 1998), 16.
Across Europe there have been increasing numbers of attacks on field
tests of GMOs, with 11 attacks reported in May, which has led some
companies to request secrecy on the exact location of the trials. Most
targets are oilseed rape, GenEthics News 24 (June/July 1998), 1; Nature
393 (1998), 726. There are numerous sites, in the UK there were 309
sites testing GMOs in a recent count; Splice 4 (May/June 1998), 1. A list
of some breaches of the GMO rules in UK is NS (4 April 1998), 4.
Comments on the European directives on genetic engineering and
GMOs are in TIBTECH 16 (1998),150-1.
A discussion of the strategy to lower development of resistance to Bt
by refuges of unaltered plants is NS (21 Feb. 1998), 20.
Monsanto (St. Louis) is still involved in arbitration's that aim to
compensate farmers who planted Roundup Ready cotton (recombinant
varieties resistant to the herbicide glyphosate) last year, but the
amounts of the settlements remain unclear, NatBio 16 (1998), 414. A
paper on integrated fertilizer management, Science 280 (1998), 112-5.
There have been fears expressed that the bacterial Burkholderia
cepacia that is being used for pest control may cause a lung infection
in patients with cystic fibrosis, NS (23 May 1997), 5. Non-CF patients
can carry the infection, passing to patients.
A study on a herbicide tolerant tobacco plant suggests it does not
release genes outside, NatBio 16 (1998), 347; NS (4 April 1997), 16. A
report from Brassica napus (oilseed rape) suggests that transgene
recruitment into wild relatives would be very slow and uncertain,
Nature 393 (1998), 320. Letters on gene flow from chloroplasttransgenic plants are in NatBio 16 (1998), 401, 602. A discussion of
transposons is Nature 393 (1998), 22-3. A new book is Mae-Wo Han,
Genetic Engineering: Dream or Nightmare? (Gateway Books 1998).
Some South African doctors were involved in the countries biowarfare
program, BMJ 316 (1998), 1852; Nature 393 (1998), 724. The leading
doctor in the program was the personal physician of the former prime
minister Botha. Canadian sailors in the Gulf have been vaccinated
against anthrax because of fears of use of biological weapons, CMAJ

158 (1998), 1123. One of the fears of biowarfare is that they are so
cheap to produce, discussed in, Lancet 351 (1998), 1340; 1641; NS (21
March 1998), 3-4. The E.coli strain O157 is now regarded as the
highest level of danger for biological research in the UK, similar to
anthrax and rabies, NS (23 May 1998), 26. Also on E. coli linked
disease, Science 280 (1998), 2048. Glowing bacteria are being used to
monitor weapons, NS (16 May 1998), 16.
In the UK there is concern over the legality of 163 trials of GMOs
because of a failure on the regulation of new variety tests by the
Ministry of Agriculture, NS (1 August 1998), 5. They have approved
1200 new variety trials including 163 GMO trials since 1995 when new
regulations were introduced, but they have not required data from
preparatory trials to be submitted. A world-wide status report on
transgenic crops in 1997 is Biotechnology & Development Monitor 35
(June 1998), 9-12. Many trials are being attacked in the UK, Nature 394
(1998), 212, 608. It suggests in 1996 there were 2.8 million ha and in
1997 12.8 million. The risk of transgenes may be too low to be tested,
Nature 394 (1998), 715. A call for agricultural research to use genetics
is Nature 394 (1998), 207. A discussion of socioeconomics and the
protocol on biosafety is NatBio 16 (1998), 697-8.
A description of the kitchen tools necessary to isolate DNA is SA (Sept.
1998), 96-7. A research study on iridoviruses as possible biocontrol
agents for cane toad has found that they might infect native amphibian
species and therefore they cannot be used in Australia to control the
pest cane toad, NS (1 August 1998), 13.
Methods to combat MRSA and other resistant bacteria are being
developed, Lancet 352 (1998), 462. An Australian laboratory to cover
Asia and Southern industrialized countries has been added to the
SENTRY program to track resistance, Lancet 352 (1998), 1864. Also on
resistance, NEJM 339 (1998), 53. A survey has found widespread
resistance to TB drugs, Science News 153 (1998), 359.
In July there was difficult progress in the inspection requirement
documents to add to the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention, Lancet
352 (1998), 209. The regulations may include inspections in
universities and biotech companies, Science 281 (1998), 29-30.
Discussion of protection against biowarfare is Lancet 352 (1998),
491; and on the outbreaks of monkeypox in Congo, and relationship to
small pox vaccination which used to be given and protected people,
NEJM 339 (1998), 556-9. Efforts to make microbes safer are reviewed in
Nature 394 (1998), 217-8.

The USDA also issued a memorandum that all research into "terminator
technology" should be vetted by senior managers, NS (10 Oct. 1998),
21. India banned the import of seeds with any terminator genes.
Discussion of the possibility of superweeds is GenEthics News 25 (Aug.
1998), 1-2; Nature 395 (1998), 25-6; and on viral resistance to
engineered plants, NS (12 Sept. 1998), 21. The Consultative Group on
International Agricultural Research has banned the use of terminator
genes (that prevent plants making fertile seeds) in Africa, following
India's decision to ban import of any seeds containing the genes,
Nature 396 (1998), 11. A report on that subject is Qaim, M. Transgenic
virus resistant potatoes in Mexico. Potential socioeconomic
implications of North-South Biotechnology Transfer (ISAAA: Ithaca NY,
1998, 48pp.).
Plants that are resistant to the herbicide Roundup made by Monsanto,
are also resistant to the herbicide Touchdown made by Zeneca, and the
companies are in legal battle over whether they can be used by
farmers - who may want to break the control of seed and pesticide by
the companies, NS (12 Sept. 1998), 5. There is discussion of UK GMO
policy and openness in Nature 395 (1998), 823, 830. The European
Commission has advised France that the two year ban on
commercialization of certain GMO crops is contrary to European laws,
Nature 395 (1998), 633.
A review of how cities can prepare for bioterrorist attacks is NS (19
Sept. 1998), 42-6. The US government's multimillion dollar
antibioterrorism plan to stockpile vaccines and/or antibiotics at
strategic locations around the country in order to protect civilian
populations in the event of a bioweapons attack won't work according
to many, NatBio16 (1998), 793, 825. The use of a sniffer plane
controlled by radio control for detecting biowarfare agents has been
developed, NS (12 Sept. 1998), 11. A legal discussion of right to
protection from searches is Greenlee, RF. "The fourth amendment and
facilities inspections under the chemical weapons convention",
University Chicago Law Review 65 (1998), 942-74. An editorial in
Nature argues that intrusiveness is the price of protecting us from
bioweapons, Nature 391 (1998), 823, 831. There is evidence that there
was a German attempt at biological warfare against reindeer used to
transport weapons in World War I, using anthrax and glanders, Nature
395 (1998), 213. On medical aspects of chemical and biological
weapons, JAMA 280 (1998), 1199. Japan has delayed disposal of its old
chemical weapons in China, Japan Times (23 Nov. 1998), 2.
Ending quarantine in the UK for animals from EU, and rabies free
islands like Australia, Hawaii and New Zealand is expected soon,
despite some concerns, NS (10 Oct. 1998), 13. Israel is introducing a

law to require all pet dogs and cats to be vaccinated against rabies
and to have a microchip inserted under their skin, BMJ 317 (1998), 766.
A new DNA vaccine against rabies has been reported, NatMed 4
(1998), 949-52.
India has announced its support for using GMOs in agriculture, Nature
397 (1999), 188. However, some farmers had burnt trials of GMO
cotton. It also blocked import of terminator technology, Science 282
(1998), 2183. Monsanto is thought to be delaying the introduction of
terminator techniques into seeds, Nature 396 (1998), 503. The
Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) has
decided not to allow its members to use terminator technology to
prevent seed germination, GenEthics News 26 (Oct/Nov 1998), 9;
Science 282 (1998), 850-1. France has set up an Agriethics Committee
to consider biotech issues and GMOs, Nature 397 (1999), 192.
The first approval under the newly established New Zealand HSNO
process for GMO approval is for a field trial of Kimihia Research Centre
to field test genetically modified sugarbeet; see www
<www.ermanz.govt.nz>. The UK has announced a one year delay in
the full scale commercialization of GMO crops, which will end at the
end of the summer of 1999. Farm-size trials of herbicide tolerant crops
continue, GenEthics News 26 (Oct/Nov 1998), 1-2; Splice 5 (No. 2, Jan
1999), 8-9. They have created an environmental stakeholders forum to
discuss broad issues associated with GMO crops. Studies on the
indirect effects of GMO crops will also be extended. Monsanto has
requested farmers who buy its Bt corn to grow plots with 20% nonGMO corn next to them, Nature 397 (1999), 98. This is an attempt to
slow insect resistance to Bt. Organic agriculture is discussed in Nature
396 (1998), 211-2; and a review on long-term sustainability of
agricultural systems, Science 282 (1998), 893-6. On pesticide resistant
mites, NS (28 Nov. 1998), 20.
On 26 September 1997, the Danish Minister of Environment and
Energy approved genetically modified fodder-beet in Denmark.
However, on 26 November 1998, the Association of the Danish
Industry, the Agriculture Advisory Committee, Danish Danisco (the
company that has been researching on transgenic sugar/fodder beet
for the last 15 years and the company that got the above market
approval) made an agreement with the Danish Minister of Environment
and Energy - for a one year agreement NOT to market genetically
modified crops in Denmark. Similarly, Monsanto, AgrEvo and Novartis
have informed the Danish Minister of Environment and Energy that
they also DO NOT INTEND to market genetically modified crops or
products in the next one year.

Natural genetic exchange between Haemophilus and Neisseria, both

pathogens, is reported in PNAS 95 (1998), 12381-5. On gene exchange
between archael and bacterial hyperthermophiles, TIG 14 (1998), 4424. Mass migration of a group I intron is reported in PNAS 95 (1998),
14003-5; and on horizontal transfer between vertebrate classes, PNAS
95 (1998), 10704-9. Comments on invasive species are in EST 32
(1998), 531A; Science News 154 81998), 310, 332; NS (7 Nov. 1998),
58-9.
Methods to strengthen the biowarfare convention are discussed in
Science 282 (1998), 1423-4, 2194. One should not forget that the
December 1998 attack on Iraq by US and UK was said to be a response
to development of biowarfare agents.
A call for a strong Biosafety Protocol is in GenEthics News 27 (Jan.
1999), 6-7. Delegates faced many challenges negotiating Biosafety
Protocol, NatBio 17 (1999), 123; Nature 397 (1999), 548; however
there was not agreement because it was considered a potential barrier
to trade, EST 33 (1999), 150-1A; Nature 398 (1999), 6. In the
controversy over GMO foods (see later section), there has been
growing use of environmental arguments against chemical pesticides
to support use of GMOs, NS (27 Feb. 1999), 3; and the UK government
resisted making a ban on sowing seeds, Nature 397 (1999), 286, 547.
The US may put the issue of GMOs on the agenda at the next round of
global trade talks at the World Trade Organization, while continuing its
bilateral talks with the EU to speed up EU approval of genetically
modified corn developed by Monsanto, Novartis and Hoechst Schering.
A report on the large-scale introduction of transgenic cotton from
Monsanto in China is Biotech & Development Monitor 37 (March 1999),
14-17. A report from a meeting of New Zealand Institutional biosafety
committee representatives is Perspective (ERMA) 5 (March 1999), 6.
The Council for Responsible Genetics has publicly said they oppose
terminator gene technology, GeneWatch 11 (Jan 1999), 2. The
European Parliament is reconsidering release of GMOs, NatBio 17
(1999), 321; and the EPA biotech rules are being reviewed yet again,
NatBio 17 (1999), 415; after a lawsuit from environmental groups,
Nature 397 (1999), 636-7. In Spain the transgenic crop producers
have had to pay into an insurance fund in case of environmental
accidents, Nature 397 (1999), 636. See also, Science 283 (1999), 327.
A letter criticizing the lack of investment in sustainable agriculture is
Science 283 (1999), 1115-7. A series of short papers on the long-term
effects of GM crops is Nature 398 (1999), 651-6.
Plant geneticists have suggested that farmers from 5000 years ago
were genetically selecting grass to make maize by selecting a gene

tb1 that makes branches grow fat ears of corn rather than thin tassels
of seed, Nature 398 (1999), 236+; NS (20 March 1999), 23. Gene flow
from crops to weeds, and transgene escape is discussed in NatBio 17
(1999), 318, 330-1; Scott SE. & Wilkinson MJ., "Low probability of
chloroplast movement from oilseed rape (Brassica napus) into wild
Brassica rapa" , NatBio 17 (1999), 390 - 392, 330. In Switzerland a
field trial of AgrEvo herbicide tolerant T25 maize has been blocked by
the Swiss office for environment, forestry and agriculture (BUWAL)
because it was considered to close to organic farms in case pollen
spread, Nature 398 (1999), 736. Measures of gene flow are reviewed in
Heredity 82 (1999), 117-25; and Quarterly Review of Biology 74
(1999), 21-44. Molecular determination of species boundaries in corals
is reported in Biol. Bull. 196 (1999), 80-93. On a new plan from industry
to preserve Bt crops, NatBio 17 (1999), 117. A study of using
formaldehyde to decontaminate biosafety cabinets is AEM 65 (1999),
873-6. Methods to contain GEMs are discussed in Ford, CZ. et al.
"Containment of a genetically engineered microorganism during a
field bioremediation application", Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 51
(1999), 397-400.
The global situation of transgenic crops in 1998 is reviewed in ISAAA
Briefs No. 8, on-line at <www.isaaa.org> or <agbio.cabweb.org>. A
book review of Bright, C. Life out of Bounds: Bioinvasion in a
Borderless World (WW. Norton, 1998, 287pp.) is in Nature 397 (1999),
665-6. A plague of fire ants across the world is altering ecological
balances, SA (Feb. 1999), 26, 28. The 3rd largest US corn processor,
A.E. Staley Company of Decatur, Illinois, has decided to reject all of the
GMO corn varieties not already approved for use in the EU. These
include all of the Round-up Ready varieties and those Bt corn varieties
not yet approved. A. E. Staley is a subsidiary of Tate and Lyle, a UK
food processor. In the US this spring an estimated 30 million acres will
be planted to GMO corn (40% of the total area).
The UK government has announced three major trials (and a total of
about 20) of genetically modified crops will go ahead on UK farms this
year to assess the impact of GM crops on farmland wildlife, under
3.3m contracts. The Co-operative Wholesale Society pulled out of the
government's trials after concerns were expressed by
environmentalists.
There has been mixed support over the US decision to keep some stock
of smallpox virus as a tool for research, Nature 398 (1999), 733, 741.
There have been increased fears over use of bioweapons, and Clinton
asked the US Congress for US$1.39 billion for defense against them,
SA (April 1999), 19-20; Lancet 353 (1999), 734; JAMA 281 (1999), 7879, 1071-3; Science 283 (1999), 611-2, 1234-5, 1279-82; NS (30 Jan.

1999), 10; (20 March 1999), 12; (27 March 1999), 20; GenEthics News
27 (Jan. 1999), 9. A review of Pugwash and WHO efforts to eliminate
chemical and biological weapons is Bulletin WHO 77 (1999), 102-3,
149-55. Also on bioweapons, Politics & the Life Sciences 17 (1998),
119-32; Nature 397 (1999), 311-2. Adjusting FDA policies to address
bioterrorist threat, NatBio 17 (1999), 323-324. More on the fears of
terrorism after the Tokyo gas attack, Lancet 353 (1999), 569. Venter
has called for sequencing of potential bioterrorism genes to allow for
rapid detection of them, Nature 397 (1999), 281. BMA has warned that
within five years there could be genetic weapons targeting different
ethnic groups, BMJ 318 (1999), 283.
The stability of transgenes is affected by the surrounding genes, Vain,
P. et al. "Matrix attachment regions increase transgene expression
levels and stability in transgenic rice plants and their progeny", The
Plant Journal 18 (1999), 233-42. The question whether buffer zones will
prevent genes from leaving GMO crop fields is discussed in NS (17 April
1999), 25. There is evidence for lateral gene transfer between Archaea
and Bacteria from the 1.8Mb genome sequence of Thermotoga
maritima, Nature 399 (1999), 323-7. A review of marine viruses is
Nature 399 (1999), 541+. On the evolution of recombination and
meiosis, Genetical Research 73 (1999), 119-31.
A study in Cornell University has found that Monarch butterflies are
harmed by pollen from some Bt corn, and there are urgent calls for
further verification of the results and studies on possible impacts of Bt
toxin, Nature 399 (1999), 214. Resistance to Bt appears to be inherited
as an incompletely dominant autosomal gene, Huang F. et al.
"Inheritance of resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis toxin (Dipel ES) in
the European Corn borer", Science 284 (1999), 965-7; see also NatBio
17 (1999), 531-2.
A new book is Ad van Dommelen, Hazard Identification of Agricultural
Biotechnology. Finding Relevant Questions (Utrecht: International
Books, 1999, ISBN 90-5727-034-X, 238pp.). It is a thorough analysis of
some issues of identifying hazards of GMOs, and includes a chapter
looking at hazards of herbicide resistant plants. It challenges scientific
experts to have moral responsibility also, and examines how familiarity
affects the setting of criteria for asking what is safe. Cynicism and
politics dominate UN biotechnology deliberations, as discussed by
Watanabe in this issue of EJAIB 9 (July 1999), also NatBio 17 (1999),
515-6.
The US decision not to destroy smallpox is discussed in Science 284
(1999), 718-9; NatMed 5 (1999), 474; Lancet 353 (1999), 1539. A book
review of Alibek, K. Biohazard (Hutchinson, 1999) is in NS (29 May

1999), 46-7. Methods to prevent bioterrorism are discussed in GEN

19 (1 June 1999), 6, 31, 45. A review is Inglesby, TV. et al. "Anthrax as
a biological weapon. Medical and public health management", JAMA
281 (1999), 1735-45. The plan to import Chinese leaf-eating beetles
into the US as a biocontrol agent is being criticized, Science 284
(1999), 1255. Exotic species are affecting Baltic Sea ecology also, NS
(24 April 1999), 18-9. A review on plant disease, also related to
biowarfare is Rogers, P. et al. "Biological warfare against crops", SA
(June 1999), 70-74.
A review of some of the research being conducted to investigate the
safety of Bt crops for lepidopterans over a long term is GEN 19 (15
June 1999), 1, 27, 48; Science News 155 (1999), 324. There have been
a number of questions asked about the paper that reported the
possible impact on Monarch butterflies, NatBio 17 (1999), 627. Brazil
has approved 5 varieties of Monsanto soybeans, GenEthics News 28/29
(1999), 12. Against Bt crops, Biotechnology & Development Monitor 38
(June 1999), 24. Parasitoid behavior and Bt plants is discussed in
Nature 400 (1999), 825. On Bt in general, NS (19 June 1999), 14. A
report from the 1999 annual conference on the New Zealand ERMA
on hazardous substance regulations is reported in Perspective 6 (July
1996), 1. The price of safety assessment for new organism applications
must be met by the submitting group. On the use of insect refuges for
Bt crops, NS (19 June 1999), 24; Nature 400 (1999), 519. Secondary
metabolism and fears of GMOs is discussed in Nature 400 (1999), 13.
Japan tightened regulations on Bt crops, although none have yet to be
planted, Nature 399 (1999), 719; 400 (1999), 7; 401 (1999), 3. The EU
tightened regulations on GMO release also, NS (3 July 1999), 12. The
case of a Canadian farmer sued by Monsanto because he had seeds of
their rapeseed which he claims blew into his field, may affect the
future of the seed business in Canada, NS (14 August 1999), 18-9. One
UK farm site in the planned 63 site trial over the next 4 years on safety
had to be destroyed as the land trustees changed their mind and
decided not to join the study, NS (12 June 1999), 12. The UK
government has the policy to publicize the locations of GMO field trials,
Nature 400 (1999), 697. But in the UK an attack on Zeneca poplar
trees that were GMOs occurred on 12 July, 1999; and there have been
several other attacks, NS (24 July 1999), 25; (14 August 1999), 46-7.
Farm-scale testing of GM crops is ongoing in the UK, Nature 399
(1999), 727-8. A new book is Michael W. Fox, Beyond Evolution. The
Genetically Altered Future of Plants, Animals, the Earthc and Humans (The
Lyons Press, 1999, 256pp., US$25). It has 11 chapters looking at nonhuman genetic engineering, with several on the issue of coorporate
control. It also includes a chapter on food safety. The final chapter is
titled "Saving the seeds of humanity from spiritual corruption", which is

one of the themes of the book. It generally focuses on the negative

side of genetic enginering, and is against the new imperalism.
A general paper with many interesting photos is Shreeve, J. "Secrets of
the gene", National Geographic (Oct. 1999), 42-75. Anti-GM crop
protesters have increased activity in the US Nature Biotechnology 17
(1999), 1053\4. A negative advert on genetic engineering is New York Times (26
Oct. 1999), A15 (www.turnpoint.org). Negative reactions in Europe
have made US farmers wonder how they can segregate their crops,
Nature 401 (1999), 107; NS (25 Sept. 1999), 18-9; Nature
Biotechnology 17 (1999), 941. Poor harvesting is causing many losses
(about 10%) in India, Financial Times (19 Oct. 1999), 26. On the GMO
debate in Japan Nature Biotechnology 17 (1999), 939. On the future of
sustainable agriculture with GE, Nature 401 (1999), 829; 402 (1999),
231-2. The Global Biosafety talks have stalled again, Nature
Biotechnology 17 (1999), 1047.
Biosafety and the WTO are discussed in GeneWatch 12 (Oct. 1999), 89; and developing countries are seeking guidance, Nature 401 (1999),
831-2. New Zealand is being open to more international GM trials,
Fitzsimons, J. "Genetic engineering: the view from new Zealand", The
Ecologist 29 (August 1999), 294-7. There is a criticism of AgrEvo as it
promotes biotech in Splice 6 (Nov. 1999), 10-1. Book reviews of Alibek,
K., Biohazard (London: Hutchinson 1999, 18 pds, 340pp.) are BMJ 319
(1999), 1077; Lancet 354 (1999), 1568-9. On the risks of Bt resistance
emerging, Nature 401 (1999), 207; NS (9 Oct. 1999), 22-3; Renner, R.
"Will Bt-based pest resistance management plans work?", EST 33
(1999), 410-5A. The risks of TMV spread are debated in Science 286
(1999), 903; as are resistance genes spread, NS (4 Sept. 1999), 20;
Trends in Plant Science 4 (1999), 247-8, 339. Certain sequences are
easier for trans species movement, Flavell, AJ. "Long terminal repeat
retro-transposons jump between species", PNAS 96 (1999), 12211-2.
UK government mistakes may result in some crop plantings being
ploughed up in technicalities, NS (25 Sept. 1999), 5. Overall the 1999
year saw a 44% increase in area of GM crop plantings in the world,
Nature 402 (1999), 10.
A review paper on economic issues is Qaim, M. "The economic effects
of genetically modified orphan commodities: Projections for
sweetpotato in Kenya", ISAAA Briefs No. 13 - 1999 (32pp.). Generally
there are positive projections suggested. Monsanto company
announced that it will not sell terminator technology in plants, Nature
Biotechnology 17 (1999), 1054; Japan Times (6 Oct. 1999), 12. The
GMO panic has also affected drugs Nature Biotechnology 17 (1999),
939. On biological invasion, Science 285 (1999), 1834-6. Mosquito fish
that were introduced to eat larvae are having negative impact on
amphibians, NS (28 Aug. 1999), 14.

Biowarfare research in World War II is discussed in JAMA 282 (1999),

822. Efforts are being made to combat bioterrorism, AJPH 89 (1999),
1629-31. Confidentiality is important for bioweapons control, Nature
401 (1999), 424. A report from Canada's only level-4 containment
laboratory is CMAJ 161 (1999), 1171-2.
The dangers of gene transfer from GM fish is discussed in NS (4 Dec.
1999), 4. A letter on the possible positive use of terminator technology
is Nature 402 (1999), 457; The Economist (9 Oct. 1999), 108-9. The
technology would seem to be useful in fish farms. Novartis has
developed a sugar-based replacement as a gene marker instead of
antibiotic resistance, NS (20 Nov. 1999), 10.
A report that the Bt toxin is released into the rhizosphere soil is
Saxena, D. et al. "Insecticidal toxin in root exudates from Bt corn",
Nature 402 (1999), 480. They however have no idea if this affects the
root communities, but it is now a subject for research. The risks of Bt to
Monarch butterflies does not appear to be high after experiments,
Probe VIII (1 Jan. 2000), 1-3; GEN 19 (Dec. 1999), 1, 12, 62; Science
286 (1999), 1662-6.
A review on lateral genomics is TIG 9 (1999), M5-8. Highlights from
the 9th International Congress on Molecular Plant-Microbe interactions
are in The Plant Cell 11 (1999), 2063-9. The complete genome
sequence of Thermotoga maritima has revealed lateral gene transfer is
common, Current Biology 9 (1999), 747-51. The retrotransfer of genes
in plasmids is reviewed in Microbiology 145 (1999), 3321-9. The
efficiency of rabies control using a GM vaccine is assessed by computer
simulation in Ecological Modelling 124 (1999), 221-32.
The safety of GM crops is discussed in Outlook (Lincoln University)
(Sept. 1999), 18-23; TREE 15 (2000), 14-7. A report on the use of
papaya is Hautea, R. et al., "The Papaya biotechnology network of
Southeast Asia: Biosafety considerations and papaya background
information", No. 11, 2000 (ISAAA Briefs 2000, 108 pp.). Crops that are
made resistant by genetic engineering can still do better by chemical
additions, NS (18 Dec. 1999), 5.
There is still impasse in the regulation of GMOs, seen in the WTO
trade talks in Seattle, NS (11 Dec. 1999), 12; Nature 402 (1999), 348.
For biosafety regulation in the European Union see
http://www.icgeb.trieste.it/biosafety/bsfeurop.htm and each directive /
decision / regulation is linked to its full-text page on the European
server. The ICGEB also is adding monthly new links to official
databases for environmental releases of GMOs at
http://www.icgeb.trieste.it/biosafety/bsfrel.htm They provide links to
OECD (BioTrack); Australia (GMAC); Argentina (CONABIA); Brazil

(CTNBio); Canada (CFIA); EU (JRC); Germany (RKI) and USA (USDA/ISB).

They welcome linking new available databases.
The US still expects to increase its agricultural exports a further
US$500 million in the year 2000, Agricultural Outlook (Oct 1999), 10-1.
The OECD is holding a conference in Edinburgh in early 2000 on the
safety of biotechnology, Nature 402 (1999), 338. The UK farming
industry costs almost 2.3 billion pounds a year in environmental and
health damage, almost equal to the income, NS (18 Dec. 1999), 10.
Concerns over biowarfare are still high, but research is called for to
prevent terrorism, Science 286 (1999), 1677, 2241; NS (18 Dec. 1999),
36-9. The safety of the vaccine against inhalational anthrax is reviewed
in JAMA 282 (1999), 2104-6. A book review is JAMA 282 (1999), 1877-8.
Lab safety lapses have lead to the licenses for radioactive chemical
experiments being suspended in the Toronto University Health
Network, Science 286 (1999), 2253.
Agreement on a global biosafety protocol by 130 countries
including the USA will govern international trade in GMOs, once 50
countries have ratified it. Reports include: Nature 403 (2000), 467,
473-4; NatBio 18 (2000), 239, 253; GEN 20 (15 Feb. 2000), 1, 56;
Ram's Horn 177 (2000), 5-7; Science 287 (2000), 782-3. The new
treaty does not cover pharmaceuticals, but agricultural commodities.
There was a large struggle between the US and African countries and
some active NGOs, NS (15 Jan. 2000), 14-5; (5 Feb. 2000), 3, 5. Marine
biotechnology is discussed in Balint, PJ. "Marine biotechnology: A
proposal for regulatory reform", Politics & Life Sciences 18 (1999), 2530.
A report from the USA is Falck-Zepeda, JB. Et al. "Rent Creation and
Distribution from the First Three Years of Planting Bt Cotton", ISAA
Briefs No. 14, 1999, 18pp. It studies the 48 commercially introduced
transgenic cotton varieties introduced to the USA since 1996, which
now make up over 45% of the cotton varieties in the USA. The amount
of insecticide applied has fallen significantly, by several times since
1994. The US EPA has announced new rules to force larger amounts of
non-Bt corn to be planted with Bt corn to delay resistance, Nature 403
(2000), 238. On the study of insects, Shelton, AM et al. "Field tests on
managing resistance to Bt-engineered plants", NatBio 18 (2000), 33942, 266-7. Portugal has banned large scale planting of Bt corn, beyond
the 0.5% of corn currently in tests that is GM, Nature 403 (2000), 10.
A report on protests in India over GMOs, Splice 6 (No. 2, 2000), 6-7.
There is still an indefinite delay in EU GMO applications NatBio 18
(2000), 253-4. A report on field trials of baculovirus pest control is
Splice 6 (No. 2, 2000), 8-9. A letter on herbicide use on roundup ready

crops is Science 287 (2000), 803-4. A letter arguing that plant genetic
engineering is not so different to natural gene transfer is Nature 403
(2000), 12. Genetic control and clocks is discussed in NS (22 Jan.
2000), 11. The question of whether escaped salmon from fish farms
damage native populations is discussed in NS (5 Feb. 2000), 12. On
horizontal gene transfer, BioScience 50 (2000), 85-7. On GM crops and
equivocal environmental benefits NatBio 18 (2000), 242. A review is
Pimentel, D. "Environmental and economic costs of non-indigenous
species in the United States", BioScience 50 (2000), 53-64. Also on
alien invaders, Nature 403 (2000), 492-3; Hamilton, G. "When good
bugs turn bad", NS (Jan. 2000), 30-3.
A paper that is available on the Internet is DaSilva, EJ. "Biological
warfare, bioterrorism, biodefence and the biological and toxin weapons
convention", Electronic Journal of Biotechnology 2 (15 Dec. 1999). A
series of 10 papers on biowarfare control is Politics & Life Sciences 18
(1999), 55-118. It will be difficult to cope with bioterrorism, BMJ 320
(2000), 71-2. In general on the lack of preparatedness for weapons of
mass destruction, JAMA 283 (2000), 242-9, 252-4.
Germany has decided to halt the commercial cultivation of Bt maize
developed by Novartis, Nature 403 (2000), 821. The US EPA is
reconsidering guidelines for Bt crops, EST 34 (2000), 119-20A. A corn
modified to be resistant to corn root worm is discussed in Science 287
(2000), 1390. A report from a case study for the usefulness of
transgenic potatoes in Mexico is Biotechnology & Development
Monitor 41 (2000), 6-10; Science 287 (2000), 1399. The need to stop
GM cotton weeds growing in other crops to avoid the re-emergence of
cotton boll weevil is being shared with farmers, NS (15 April 2000), 17.
The EU has formalized use of the precautionary principle, EST 34
(2000), 166-7A.
New Zealand is preparing for a royal commission on genetic
engineering, Christchurch Press (4 March 2000), 10. The Japanese
MAFF has announced it will set up an expert panel on the
environmental risks of GMOs, Nature 403 (2000), 697.
On organic agriculture standards, Ram's Horn 178 (2000), 4-7.
Organic farmers now have a new broad spectrum herbicide, NS (4
March 2000), 15. The rules of food webs are discussed in Nature 404
(2000), 180-4. The possibility of DNA mixing in viruses is discussed in
NS (March 2000), 16; J. Molecular Evolution 50 (2000), 82+. The
ecological costs of sex are discussed in Nature 404 (2000), 281-5. A
tool to remove markers is Zubko, E. et al. "Intrachromosomal
recombination between attP regions as a tool to remove selectable
marker genes from tobacco transgenes", NatBio 18 (2000), 442-5.
Experiments to attempt to get gene transfer out of GM maize found it

did not transfer, NS (25 March 2000), 4. The dangers of CaMV promoter
in plants are discussed in NatBio 18 (2000), 363-4.
A comment on why the USA agreed to the Cartegena Biosafety
Protocol is Splice 6 (March 2000), 6-7; and a criticism of the protocol is
NatBio 18 (2000), 360. A call for a permanent international forum for
debate of GM foods was called for after a OECD meeting in March,
Nature 404 (2000), 112 (see Food section). On gene transfer, Science
287 (2000), 1927-8; and Bt crops debate, GeneWatch 13 (Feb. 2000),
3. On African biosafety, NS (19 Feb. 2000), 54. A review of issues is
Paarlberg, R. "Genetically modified crops in developing countries:
Promise or peril?"", Environment 42 (2000), 19-27. There is a need to
have the debate for developing countries priorities, EST 34 (2000),
166A.
The control of biowarfare agents is discussed in NS (8 April 2000), 3;
JAMA 283 (2000), 2035-7. Several book reviews on an anthrax
outbreak in Russia related to biowarfare research are Nature 404
(2000), 543-4; NatMed. 6 (2000), 245. The US pentagon has defended
its anthrax vaccination program, Lancet 355 (2000), 910. A sensor has
been developed that can detect potential biological warfare attacks in
seconds, SA (March 2000), 35. The WHO wants to set up labs to
monitor new diseases to check whether they are result of biowarfare,
NS (March 2000), 16-7. During World War II Cambridge University
chemists volunteered for chemical war agent trials on themselves,
Nature 404 (2000), 428-9. A bioweapon in the form of a fungi against
cocoa, the source of cocaine, may be released in Colombia, NS (11
March 2000), 5.
A report from New Zealand on 100+ possible unauthorized releases
of GMOs involving researchers, ERMA Perspective 10 (June 2000), 1. In
general, New Zealand has established a Royal Commission for a one
year wide investigation of the future of GM there, Nature 405 (2000),
914-5. In Europe there was much debate over the inadvertent
contamination of rapeseed by GM pollen that led to the planting of
rapeseed containing GM varieties in some areas, Int. Herald Tribune
(20 May 2000), 2; Daily Telegraph (20 May 2000), 4; Times (20 May
2000), 1, 21.
On the future of agbiotech., Science 288 (2000), 615. A panel of US
and European scientists to monitor environmental risks of GMOs has
been set up, Nature 405 (2000), 608. A US National Academy of
Sciences report on GM plant research supported it but called for
tightened regulations, Genetically Modified Pest-Protected Plants:
Science and Regulation (NAP 2000); Science 288 (2000), 245-7; GEN
20 (15 April 2000), 24, 29. The possibilities for strict segregation of

GM seeds are discussed in NS (27 May 2000), 4. A review of the

Cartegena Protocol is Gupta, A. "Governing trade in GMOs. The
Cartegena Protocol on Biosafety", Environment 42 (May 2000), 22-33.
A UK court jury failed to reach a verdict on what to do with protestors
who caused criminal damage on a GM crop field, Nature 404 (2000),
916. A report on Plum Island in New York which hopes to be given a
P4 level biosafety rating so it can study diseases which transfer from
animals to humans is SA (June 2000), 22-3. In general on biosafety
labs, Science 288 (2000), 1320-2.
A review is Ochman, H. et al. "Lateral gene transfer and the nature of
bacterial innovation", Nature 405 (2000), 299-304. Horizontal gene
transfer means bacterial genomes are quite dynamic. There is
molecular evidence for genetic mixing of Arctic and Antarctic subpolar
plankton, Nature 405 (2000), 43-7; 23-4. An ancient mariner gene may
help genes move between species, NS (24 June 2000), 5. The genetic
legacy of Quaternary ice ages is discussed in Nature 405 (2000), 90713. Colonizing species often lose their genetic variation, but in
Argentine ants this had led to formation of supercolonies which
overwhelm native species, Nature 405 (2000), 519-20. In general on
biological pest control, Science 288 (2000), 1969-70.
A book review of research on biological warfare, Plague Wars, is
Nature 404 (2000), 812-3. A review on the use of plague as a biological
weapon is Inglesby, TV. Et al. "Plague as a biological weapon: Medical
and public health management", JAMA 283 (2000), 2281-90. A call for a
verification procedure for the Convention against biological weapons is
BMJ 320 (2000), 1089-90. The US is planning to stockpile drugs ready
against bioterrorism, BMJ 320 (2000), 1225; www.bt.cdc.gov. A book
review on the USSR anthrax outbreak is NEJM 342 (2000), 1373. A
survey of adverse reactions to the anthrax vaccine used in the US
military 1998-2000 is JAMA 283 (2000), 2648-9.
The problems of antibiotic contamination from farming are discussed
in Science 288 (2000), 792-3. FDA has approved Zyvox (linezolid) as
the first of a new class of antibiotics, Lancet 355 (2000), 1523. WHO
has warned against the threat of superbugs, BMJ 320 (2000), 1624. A
review of antibiotic resistance mechanisms is FEMS Microbiology
Reviews 24 (2000), 251-62.
A review of the safety of farming GM salmon is Nature 406 (2000), 102. A critique is GeneWatch 13 (July 2000), 1, 4_5. A genetic system to
make transgenic insects suitable for field release that is repressible
sterility is PNAS 97 (2000), 8229-32. Use of an algorithm to improve
oral immunization of foxes is reported in Ecological Modelling 129
(2000), 297-305. Papers on genetic engineering in Chinese and English
are in Chinese Bioethics Newsletter 3 (Summer 1998), 1-4. On the risks
of GMOs, SRT Bulletin 22 (June 2000), 1; Splice 6 (July 2000), 8-9, 14-5.
The precautionary principle is discussed in Lancet 356 (2000), 265;
Nature 406 (2000), 234; and a report in French with regard also to

medicine, by the French National Ethics Committee is Les Cahiers du

CCNE 24 (2000), 18-45. Over-regulation of GM research in New
Zealand is criticized for being too costly for universities, Nature 406
(2000), 8; NatBio 18 (2000), 810; also the EPA in the USA, Nature 406
(2000), 560. There have been calls for better regulation of GMO field
trials in Australia, Australasian Science (May 2000), 17, 37-8. Evolving
European GM regulation is discussed in TIBTECH 18 (2000), 325-6.
Rabobank Group has published a code of conduct regarding genetic
modification (www.rabobank.com). On risks of recombinant animal
cells, TIBTECH 18 (2000), 277-8.
A study suggesting Bt toxin is not toxic to black swallow tail larvae is
Wraight, CL. Et al. "Absence of toxicity of Bacillus thuringiensis pollen
to black swallow tails under field conditions", PNAS 97 (2000), 7700-3,
8198-9; Science News 157 (2000), 372-3. Retrotransposons can
mediate genome evolution, PNAS 97 (2000), 6250-2; Genetica 107
(1999), 1-295. On mutation and sex, Nature 406 (2000), 399-404. The
calcivirus release in Australia is discussed in Australasian Science
(May 2000), 44-5. In general on biotic invasions, Ecological
Applications 10 (2000), 689-710. Organic agriculture is debated
Biotech. & Development Monitor 42 (June 2000), 24.
The Royal Society has urged calm over biological weapons, Nature
406 (2000), 109, 117. The impact of the bioweapons convention on
bioindustry is discussed in NatBio 18 (2000), 806. The debate in the US
over anthrax vaccinations for military personal is in Lancet 356 (2000),
491; Science 289 (2000), 382-3; NS (29 July 2000), 7. A letter
discussing civilian protection against bioterrorism is AJPH 90 (2000),
1325-8. The amount of smallpox vaccine stockpile needed to combat
terrorism is discussed in NS (29 July 2000), 14. Letters on biowarfare in
the 1940S and 1950S are in JAMA 284 (2000), 561. The use of food in
biowarfare is discussed in Env. Health Perspectives 108 (2000), A1269. A paper that shows farmer use is important is Watkinson, AR. Et al.
gPredictions of biodiversity response to genetically modified herbicidetolerant cropsh, Science 289 (2000), 1554-7, 1481-2. The question of
whether GM crops can be made more acceptable by modifying genes
within the same crop is discussed in Science 290 (2000), 253-4. There
is still much questioning of the precautionary principle, Nature 407
(2000), 551. The recent claim in the UK is that skylarks are being
affected by herbicide tolerant crops, however their numbers have been
declining for decades so it is not clear it is related, NS (9 Sept. 2000),
3.
Herbicide tolerant sugarbeet have accidentally acquired genes for
resistance to another, showing that genes can move, NS (21 Oct.
2000), 6. Discussion of the issues of growing GM crops is in NS (21 Oct.
2000), 66-9; (28 Oct. 2000), 4-5. A crop of maize that will not breed
with others may be useful for organic farmers who wish to avoid
crossing with GM varieties, NS (21 Oct. 2000), 6. One step to overcome

fears against GM plants is Iamtham, S. & Day, A. gRemoval of antibiotic

resistance genes from transgenic tobacco plastidsh, NatBio 18 (2000),
1172-6. Critics slam new Monarch Bt-corn data, NatBio 18 (2000),
1025, 1030; Tul, J. et al. gField performance of transgenic elite commercial hybrid
rice expressing Bacillus thuringiensis \endotoxinh, NatBio 18 (2000), 110812.
A GM virus that infects rabbits in the second generation has been
made in Spain, NS (Sept. 2000), 21. The global spread of
microorganisms by ships is discussed in Nature 408 (2000), 49.
Microbes exchange many genes, Science News 158 (2000), 60-1.
Transposons help reshape genomes, Science 289 (2000), 1455-7. On
the value of sexual reproduction, NS (9 Sept. 2000), 51; Science 290
(2000), 331-3. A selfish gene repetitive element has been found in
Rickettsia, Science 290 (2000), 347-50.
Discussion on biowarfare defense is in JAMA 284 (2000), 945-8;
Lancet 356 (2000), 1128-9, 1179-82. Also on bioweapons, NatBio 18
(2000), 1125. Colombia is considering using a fungus as a tool against
coca, New York Times (6 July 2000). There have been threats from drug
cartels who suffered loss of poppies in Afghanistan that new fungi that
kill Western crop plants are being developed in retaliation, Science 290
(2000), 246.
A review of insect resistant plants has been published in Regulatory
Toxicology and Pharmacology (Dec. 2000), Plant Biotech Week (25 Nov.
2000), 16. The Irish government committee has supported developing
GM techniques, BMJ 321 (2000), 1368. A comment on the safety of
using Neurospora species for research is AEM 66 (2000), 5107-9. On
use of a GM rabies vaccine to control rabies in raccoons is PNAS 97
(2000), 14041-3. In the year 2000 about 45 million hectares are grown
in GM crops worldwide, according to a new report, James, C. Global
Status of Commercialized Transgenic Crops: 2000, ISAAA Briefs No. 21,
2000. A Wisconsin study has found that smaller farms often see
smaller profits from GM crops, Plant Biotech Week (23 Dec. 2000), 6.
An OECD report has also reached that conclusion,
http://www.oecd.org/media/release/agriculture1200.htm.
The submissions and papers relating to the New Zealand Royal
Commission on Genetic Modification are on-line. The closing sessions
of that Commission will be in March 2001. In NZ Agresearch as been
given permission to genetically engineer 100 sheep for double
muscling, for medical research. They have also approved GM cattle
release in a trial, Perspective 11 (Dec. 2000), 4.; AustralianSA<(Jan
2001), 12-3; and the Cartegena Protocol, Biotechnology &
Development Monitor<43 (Sept. 2000), 2-10. There has been debate
over the Indian plan to develop vitamin A enriched rice, BMJ<322
(2001), 128.

In Europe the Greens are aiming to seek to keep a moratorium on

GMOs, European Voice (14 Dec. 2000). On 18 December, 2000, an
Agreement between the European Parliament and the Council was
made on the revision of the directive on voluntary dissemination of
GMOs to the environment becomes official. It will make more
information open to the public, create a register of places where GMOs
are grown, phase out antibiotic resistance markers. The initial period of
consent will be for ten years from approval, with a subsequent review.
There is still some delay in the approval of GM crops, however, it will
allow GM crops in the coming year or so, AgraFood Biotech (10 Jan.
2001), 11. On the approval of GM grapevines in the EU, NatBio 19
(2001), 15. Italian scientists are disturbed at the restrictions in Italy on
GM field trials, Science 290 (2000), 2046; NatBio 18 (2000), 1137-8. In
Scotland 4 persons who destroyed a GM trial have been convicted of
vandalism and fined, Plant Biotech Week (13 Jan. 2001), 1.
A general review is Borch, K. and Rasmussen, B. An analytical
approach to the implementation of GM crops, TIBTECH< 18 (2000),
484-6. A review paper is Wolfenbarger, LL. & Phifer, PR. The ecological
risks and benefits of genetically engineered plants, Science 290
(2000), 2088-93; also on gene transfer, EST 39 (2001), 20-2A. Better
efforts to monitor US GM fields are called for in NatBio 19 (2001), 3.
The USDA has reported that Monarch butterflies are safe from GM Bt
maize, AgraFood Biotech 45 (13 Dec 2000), 21. On the management of
resistance to Bt crops in developing countries, AgraFood Biotech 43
(2000), 8.; Aventis is not likely to have its request for Starlink corn to
be temporarily approved for human consumption, as there are
questions on whether the corn is allergenic, Nature 408 (2000), 395.
Aventis is selling its agriculture unit. See the Food Safety section.
Australian researchers accidentally made a fatal animal virus, NS (13
Jan. 2001), 3-5. They spliced IL-4 gene into mousepox virus in a
medical trial but all the mice died. A new bio-terrorism institute
program has been established in the USA, NatMed. 6 (2000), 1304. On
reducing the risks of biowarfare, Lancet 356 (2000), 2104. There have
been revelations in a book Gassed<, NS (11 Nov. 2000), 11; that 40
deaths were from mistakes in chemical weapons tests on 20,000
soldiers in the UK. On non-lethal weapons, NS (16 Dec. 2000), 3-5.
Site specific DNA excision of transgenes in plants is discussed in
NatBio 19 (2001), 115-6, 157-61. On GM crop data, NatBio 19 (2001),
3.
The UK has announced sites for transgenic crop trials, Nature 409
(2001), 753. A report that found releasing transgenic crops in natural
habitats did not result in their survival is Nature 409 (2001), 682-3.

On the use of GM crops in poor countries, NatBio 19 (2001), 93. On the

alternatives for sustainable agriculture in Africa, NS (Jan. 2001), 16-7.
India has supported use of the GM Golden Rice (see Plant Genetic
Engineering Section), but it is controversial, BMJ 322 (2001), 126. GM
poplars have been developed that grow well in saline soils, AgraFood
Biotech 47 (24 Jan. 2001), 20.
The European Parliament voted through reforms in the approvals
process for GMOs, AgraEurope (16 Feb. 2001), 4; Nature 409 (2001),
967-8. However, France, Italy, Austria, Denmark, Greece and
Luxembourg have said that they want additional laws on tracking of
food to be introduced before they remove their block on GMOs,
Financial Times (16 Feb, 2001). The EU Greens want to have GM free
zones, AgraFood Biotech. 47 (2001), 2.
A report on the Australian mousepox virus that was accidentally
created is BioCentury (5 Feb. 2001), A12; NS (13 Jan. 2001), 3-5. There
have been continued calls for monitoring bioterrorism, JAMA 285
(2001), 30-2; NatMed. 7 (2001), 9. China is still exposed to Japanese
biological weapons at were released from Unit 731 in World War II, NS
(Jan. 2001), 5. For discussion of the ethics of that biowarfare research
on human subjects see EJAIB 10 (Nov. 2000), 11 (Jan. 2001).
There has been continued controversy over the false statements of a
witness used by the green lobby to the New Zealand Royal
Commission, who claimed that a GM bacterium would kill all plants in
the world, NatBio 19 (2001), 292; NS (3 March 2001), 11. At the same
time as the Royal Commission hearings approvals of GM research has
been continuing as announced in the ERMA Bulletin 21 (also on
www.ermanz.govt.nz) contrary to what some protest organizations
wanted. There has been controversy in Tasmania, Australia as
beekeepers were paid to pollinate GE canola plants, although a 100m
buffer zone had been recommended in the study, Food Chemical News
(12 March 2001), 30. A report from the Canola Council of Canada on
the benefits of GE canola is on the www, at www.canolacouncil.org/manual/GMO/gmo main.html. On the precautionary
principle in the regulation of GMOs, Health Law Review 9 (2000), 2733; Campbell, FT. "The science of risk assessment for phytosanitary
regulation and the impact of changing trade regulations", BioScience
51 (2001), 148-53.
Italy has approved a GM field trial, but there is still much opposition to
GM research, NatBio 19 (2001), 293; NatMed 1 (2001), 388. In Europe,
Austria, Denmark, France, Greece, Italy and Luxembourg have
continued a virtual moratorium on GMO release for new trials, despite
the 16 Feb. 2001 directive from the EU, Research Europe (1 March
2001), Nature 409 (2001), 967-8. The European Commission sent a
second warning letter to ten countries for their failure to implement
laws on laboratory use of GM microorganisms, on 26 February, 2001
(IP/01/251). Biotech. and seed breeding companies in the UK have

agreed not to expand trial site for GMOs until some farm-scale studies
are released, AgraFood Biotech 49 (21 Feb. 2001), 8. Bt resistance is
not apparently seen in GM cotton in the USA, AgBiotech Reporter
(March 2001), 3; AgraFood Biotech 49 (21 Feb. 2001), 12. The question
of the economics of Bt is discussed in AgraFood Biotech 51 (March
2001), 23. On Bt uptake from soil by plants, NatBio 19 (2001), 199.
Voices against the regulatory scheme in the USA are in GeneWatch 13
(Sept. 2000), 1, 4-7. A Canadian judge has fined a farmer Can$15,450
for growing GM seed that he claimed drifted into the field by the wind,
Nature 410 (2001), 615; NS (7 April 2001), 13.
The first GM insect field trial in the USA will be in Arizona on pink
bollworm, NatBio 19 (2001), 297; Nature 410 (2001), 3. On how the US
presidential transition affects biotechnology policy, NatBio 19 (2001),
183-4. The EPA is expected to complete its review of GM crops, Int.
Herald Tribune (9 March 2001). An analytical approach to GM crops is
presented in TIBTECH 18 (2000), 484-6. On US approaches to the
precautionary principle, Food Chemical News (26 Feb. 2001), 8. Rubber
trees in Malaysia may soon be producing albumin, AgBiotech Reporter
(March 2001), 26. A discussion of retrotransposons as epigenetic
mediators of phenotypic variation in mammals is NatGen 27 (2001),
361-6.
A book review of Manning, R. Food_fs Frontier. The Next Green
Revolution is Science 291 (2001), 1707-8.A paper arguing for GM crops
with a poverty focus is TIBTECH 19 (2001), 91-6. Also on GM crops for
developing countries, TIBTECH 18 (2000), 404-5. Green biotechnology
and European competitiveness is discussed in TIBTECH 19 (2001), 1359. A critique of organic farming is Nature 410 (2001), 409-10;
AgBiotech Reporter (March 2001), 4. A 5 year US study suggests
organic farming may protect the soil better than conventional
agriculture, NS (21 April 2001), 15. On the increasing affects of
invading species in ecosystems, in particular black carp, Science 292
(2001), 169, 203. The problem is global EST 34 (2001), 142A;
BioScience 51 (2001), 92-147. In Japan one of the scientists at the
National Institute for Infectious Disease has made a legal suit claiming
researchers do not follow safety guidelines, Science 291 (2001), 2081.
Efforts to deter biowarfare are called for in Science 291 (2001), 2089.
The impact of foot mouth disease is very severe, raising fears that
someone may use it as biowarfare, NS (21 April 2001), 3. On the
management of botulinum toxin should it be used as a biological
weapon, JAMA 285 (2001), 1059-70. There is a web-based resource for
smallpox research, JAMA 285 (2001), 872-3. Surplus skin from cosmetic
surgery in the UK was sold without consent for chemical warfare
research, BMJ 322 (2001), 384. A former Russian biowarfare research
laboratory may be transformed into a center for research on emerging
diseases, including upgrading its level 4 containment facility, Science
291 (2001), 2288-9. Further on the dangers of accidents creating

pathogenic animals like the Australian mouse, GeneWatch 14 (March

2001), 1, 15.
In New Zealand GM potatoes and carrots that express possum
contraceptive antigens have been allowed for field trials and import,
AgraFood Biotech 53 (18 April 2001), 16. In another case, the High
Court ruled that cows with GM fetuses for multiple sclerosis trials had
to be slaughtered, although their release had been approved by the
responsible agency, Nature 411 (2001), 402. A survey of Irish farmers
found that they trust universities, consumer and farm groups, and the
medical profession for information about GM crops, Farm & Food
(Spring 2001), 38-39. Comments on the production of GM animals are
in NS (26 May 2001), 3. On the genetic origin of goats, which is
different to other domestic animals, PNAS 98 (2001), 5382-4.
Argentina ended a ban on Roundup Ready soybean in May 2001, and
many farmers are now using it, Plant Biotech Week (8 May 2001), 9-10.
Argentina may also be testing GM strawberries, AgraFood Biotech 53
(18 April 2001), 16. On the 2001 FDA revised rules on GM crops,
Current Biology 11 (2001), R201. Monsanto has asked for the location
of most of its field trials in Australia to be kept secret to avoid
troubles, whereas Aventis made its sites public, Nature 412 (2001),
110. There have been vandal attacks on GM trials in the UK in midJune, Nature 411 (2001), 984. Controversies over transgenic trees and
vandalism are discussed in Science 292 (2001), 34-6. A discussion of
free trade and industrial forestry in developing countries with GM trees
is GeneWatch 14 (May 2001), 1, 11-13.
As discussed in the Food Safety section, an investigation has found
Starlink corn is not responsible for human allergic reactions,
Washington Post (13 June 2001). A Belgium report has found GM crops
on the market in Europe are safe, AgraFood Biotech 57 (2001), 15-6.
Europe has decided to allow further commercial growing of GM crops,
Current Biology 11 (2001), R199-200. The EU Scientific Committee on
Plants has questioned whether a 1% labeling cut off for GM plants is
feasible, AgraFood Biotech 52 (4 April 2001), 11-2. Friends of the Earth
has called for an EU ban on the Aventis pest resistant maize that has
been approved for animal feed, Plant Biotech Week (27 April 2001), 1.
GM grapes are expected to be on trial soon after researchers clarify
the safety, NS (26 May 2001), 6. However some winemakers are
against this and have formed a group Terre et Vin du Monde, AgraFood
Biotech 53 (18 April 2001), 10. Starbucks has said that they will not
reject GM products, AgraFood Biotech 52 (4 April 2001), 6.
China is planning to increase its cotton growing area by 17%. China
has new rules on the import of GM products, Plant Biotech Week (22
June 2001), 7. However China recently banned use of GM rice, wheat,
maize, tomato, cotton and soybeans for fear other countries may not
buy them, AgBiotech Reporter (May 2001), 1. China has also said it is
against human cloning, APBN 5 (2001), 125. India has blocked sale of

transgenic cotton seeds, Nature 411 (2001), 983. A new protein rich
GM potato is reported in India, AgBiotech Reporter (May 2001), 16.
Thailand has stopped all GMO releases while a law is developed (3
April 2001). In Malaysia researchers are using GM to make papayas
that ripen more slowly for export, AgraFood Biotech 53 (18 April 2001),
17.
The UN Human Development Report, Making New Technologies Work
for Human Development, has called for use of GM crops for poorer
nations, Nature 412 (12 July 2001). There is debate over the extreme
view of Greenpeace against GMOs because it is holding back
development of GMOs for third world farmers, NS (9 June 2001);
Guardian (18 April 2001). There has also been discussion that GM
animal technology has focused on varieties for rich countries not poor,
Nature 411 (2001), 403. On UNESCO programmes for developing
capacity in biotechnology are reviewed in Agrofood-industry Hi-Tech
(Jan 2001), 38-40. Another issue is the scarcity of water, Science 292
(2001), 2217.
A critique of the precautionary principle is in NatBio 19 (2001), 302-3.
See also The Ecologist 31 (May 2001), 9. Italian police have seized
seeds from Monsanto for checks that it does not contain GMOs, Plant
Biotech Week (6 April 2001), 4. There has been much debate over
GMOs in Italy, NatBio 19 (2001), 293. A monitoring plan for German
GM crops has been announced, Nature 405 (2001), 986. A court in
Japan has dismissed a case against genetic engineering dangers at
the National Institutes of heath in Tokyo, Science 292 (April 2001).
A study has found that corn pollen itself may affect Monarch butterfly,
whether or not it is Bt, Tschenn, J. et al. gEffects of corn plants and corn
pollen on Monarch butterfly oviposition behaviourh, Environmental
Entomology 30 (2001), 495-500. A review article is Marvier, M. gEcology
of transgenic cropsh, American Scientist 69 (2001), 160-7. The Ecological
Society of America has called for more study of GMO release, Nature
411 (2001), 626.
A study of Roundup Ready soybeans questions their use because they
increase the amount of herbicide used, glyphosate, Benbrook, CM.
Troubled Times amid Commercial Success for Roundup Ready
Soybeans, AgBioTech InfoNet Technical Paper 4 (3 May 2001). On GM
crops and pesticide use, Science 292 (2001), 637-8; EST (2001), 2767A; AgraFood Biotech 55 (15 May 2001), 2-3. The safety of organic
farming is debated because of the toxicity of some of the allowed
pesticides, AgraFood Biotech (12 June 2001), 9. Ways to manage insect
diversity in grasslands are reviewed in J. Applied Ecology 38 (2001),
310-9.
A field release of GM sterile cotton bollworm is being tested in the USA
under USDA rules, AgraFood Biotech 55 (15 May 2001), 11. Farmers in
the Philippines are asking for a change in policy to allow GMO
release, AgBiotech Reporter (April 2001), 25. A dual system to

reinforce biological containment of recombinant bacteria designed for

rhizoremediation, AEM 67 (2001), 2649-56. A study has found that
bacterial genes do not cross to humans easily, although there are
about 40 bacterial genes only shared by humans they are probably the
result of gene loss, Science 292 (2001), 1903-6; Nature 411 (2001),
940-4; NS (23 June 2001), 15; TIG 17 (2001), 235-7. A review of sex
and transposons is Current Biology 11 (2001), R296-9; also Nature 411
(2001), 146-8. The dynamics of hobo transposable element in
transgenic Drosophila is reviewed in Genetic Research 77 (2001), 13542. On sexual selection and sex, Nature 411 (2001), 689-91. The
question of whether organisms can speed up their own evolution is
discussed in Science 292 (2001), 1824-6. The mechanism of
homologous recombination is conserved from bacteria to humans,
Current Biology 11 (2001), R278-80.
Invasive species and black carp are discussed in Science 292 (2001),
169, 203. On an invasive flower from Asia, Impatiens glandulifera,
Nature 411 (2001), 653. Control of predators of invasive species is
discussed in Nature 412 (2001), 115-6. A study of agriculture in
MesoAmerica finds a variety of cultivated pollen from 6000 years ago,
Science 292 (2001), 1370-3.
A book review discussing transfer of bacterial virulence genes is
Quarterly Review of Biology 76 (2001), 207-9. On recombination in
Wolbachia, Current Biology 11 (2001), 431-5. On the evolution of
bacterial pathogenesis, Science 292 (2001), 1096-8. A discussion of
whether Plum Island in the USA is a biowarfare lab is GeneWatch 14
(May 2001), 3-4.
New Zealand's Royal Commission on Genetic Modification (see also
Biotechnology and the Public section) has supported continued use of
GMOs, Nature 412 (2001), 569, 573; seeing through some false
evidence presented by opponents of GMOs, NatBio 19 (2001), 292. A
report on a 20 year GM tree field trial in New Zealand is NZ BioScience
(Feb 2001), 3-4. Brazilian policy on GM crops is discussed in Splice 7
(No. 5 2001), 12; AgBiotech Reporter (July 2001), 19. The EU
procedures on GMO releases are discussed in EJAIB 11 (July 2001);
AgraFood Biotech. 56 (29 May 2001), 10-14; . Italy has allowed trial
GMO planting, AgraFood Biotech. 50 (7 March 2001), 3-4; and the
government has changed, NatBio 19 (2001), 603-4. Monsanto asked
the Australian government to keep the location of its GM trials in
Australia secret, Nature 412 (2001), 110.
UNDP supports use of GMOs, Nature 412 (2001), 109; Current Biology
11 (2001), R584-6. Decision making under the Cartegena Protocol on
Biosafety is outlined in TIBTECH 19 (2001), 194-7. The question of risk
assessment is discussed in TIBTECH 19 (2001), 124-5. A report from
those who protest GMO trials is Splice 7 (No. 5 2001), 4-5; TIBTECH 19
(2001), 164-5. The area of GMO field trials in UK is expanding,
AgraFood Biotech. 49 (21 Feb 2001), 8; despite protests that saw 6 of

13 transgenic rape trials uprooted, AgBiotech Reporter (July 2001), 14;

Nature 412 (2001), 760-3. One protest group in the UK called the
Cultural Terrorism Agency is selling mixed GM and non GM plants that
it claims will lead to superweeds, AgBiotech Reporter (June 2001), 10111 [www.irrational.org/cta/superweed/].
The question of release of transgenic salmon is debated in NS (7 July
2001), 16-7. Issues in benefit-risk assessment of agricultural projects
are discussed in Aust. J. Agri. & Resource Economics 45 (2001), 195213. Advantages to farmers of GM rapeseed in Canada is reported in
AgraFood Biotech. 52 (4 April 2001), 7. Claims that RoundupReady
sugar beet helps biodiversity are discussed in AgraFood Biotech. 52 (4
April 2001), 22. Potential failsafe methods are discussed to stop spread
of transgenic biocontrol fungi, TIBTECH 19 (2001), 149-54.
A study of Bt corn is Obrycki, JJ. et al. "Transgenic insecticidal corn:
Beyond insecticidal toxicity to ecological complexity", BioScience 51
(2001), 353-61. Papers on the genetic mechanisms of Bt resistance are
in Science 293 (2001), 778, 857-63. On biohazards in the future, Splice
7 (No. 5 2001), 6-7. Reviews include Kovalchuk, I. Et al. "Biomonitoring
the genotoxicty of environmental factors with transgenic plants",
Trends in Plant Science 6 (2001), 306-10; Migheli, Q., "The deliberate
release of genetically modified biocontrol agents. II. Survivial,
establishment, and ecological effects", AgroFoodIndustry Hi-Tech
(March 2001), 31-33. The Ecological Society of America has called for
better studies of GMOs, Nature 411 (2001), 626.
Prediction of invasive species behaviour is discussed in BioScience 51
(2001), 363-71; Nature 412 (2001), 115-6. On invasive carp in the
Mississippi river basin, Science 292 (2001), 2250-1. Removal of
invasive species needs to consider the whole ecosystem, Trends in
Ecology & Evolution 16 (2001), 454-9. The European beaver is being
reintroduced to the Scottish highlands in a controversial plan, Science
292 (2001), 2422-3.
Imperial College in the UK has been fined US$65,000 for risking the
release of a potentially deadly hybrid virus, picked up in a routine
inspection, Science 293 (2001), 779-81. Glanders has been reported
in a microbiologist in a US Army Medical research facility, NEJM 345
(2001), 256-7.
The failure of the US to ratify the Biological Weapons Convention is
criticized in Nature 411 (2001), 223; 412 (2001), 365, 463; NS (12 May
2001), 4-5; (4 August 2001), 17; Lancet 358 (2001), 389. The question
of verification of UN weapons controls is reviewed in Nature 411
(2001), 23-4. A new system for monitoring is discussed in Nature 411
(2001), 228. Threats of genetically modified biowarfare agents are
discussed in Nature 411 (2001), 232-5; 412 (2001), 15; Science 293
(2001), 414-6; NS (14 July 2001), 42-5. The state of hospital readiness
for victims of biowarfare in the USA is surveyed in AJPH 91 (2001), 7089, 710-6, 716-20, 721-6. A routine test in New Mexico found 4 labs

failed to pick up anthrax bacteria sent as a test sample, Nature 411

(2001), 514. Possible use of tularemia as a biowarfare agent is
discussed in JAMA 285 (2001), 2763-73. Socioeconomic biowarfare is
discussed in Science 293 (2001), 425-6. Fears of creation of pathogens
in research is discussed in Nature 411 (2001), 727; 412 (2001), 470;
NEJM 345 (2001), 256-9. The US Army is continuing research in
biotechnology, Nature 411 (2001), 981. On biosensors for detecting
pathogens, EST 35 (2001), 187-8A. The question of abuse of military
research is discussed in Science and Engineering Ethics 7 (2001), 34764; and a book review in JAMA 285 (2001), 3091-2. A book review on
Fredrickson, DS., The Recombinant DNA Controversy: A Memoir.
Science, Politics and the Public Interest 1974-1981 (Amercian Society
of Microbiology Press 2001, 408pp.) is in Nature 412 (2001), 378-9.
EU plans for GM labeling is discussed in NatBio 19 (2001), 795. A
comparison of US and European responses to biotechnology is Issues
in Science and Technology (Summer 2001), 37-42. The Bush
administration has been criticized for increased regulation of GM
plants, NatBio 19 (2001), 807-8. The EU is progressing the resumption
in GMO crop release this year, Nature 413 (2001), 661. The president
of Gers in southwest France has rejected GM crop trials, AgraEurope
(21 Sept 2001), N3-4. On the progress in global use of GM crops,
NatBio 19 (2001), 797-8. Transgenic corn has been found growing in
Mexico, Nature 413 (2001), 337. While GM corn is widely sold as food,
since 1998 there has been a moratorium on growing it in Mexico for
ecological concerns. The issue of contamination by GM crops in centres
of biological diversity is discussed in Ram's Horn 194 (Sept. 2001), 3-4.
The use of biotechnology by Latino farmers in the USA is discussed in
GeneWatch 14 (Sept. 2001), 1, 3. Ten thousand hectares of
unauthorized transgenic cotton have been found in Gujarat, India,
Nature 413 (2001), 555. China has tightened its restrictions for
imported cereals to control GM products, AgraFood Biotech 65 (2 Oct.
2001), 15-6.
A discussion of the environmental impact of GM soybean is NatBio 19
(2001), 700-1. Monsanto is conducting field trials of rootworm-resistant
maize, under the name YieldGuard. Discussion of BT resistance is in
EST 35 (2001), 395-6A. A report from the Australian debate over
whether to start using GM canola is AgraFood Biotech 62 (21 August
2001), 2-3. The UK Friends of the Earth has proposed increased
separation distances for GM and certified seed, AgraFood Biotech 62
(21 August 2001), 3. They have also called for disclosure of GM crop
trial data, NatBio 19 (2001), 699-700. The issue of making hardy weeds
is discussed in Science 293 (2001), 1425-6. The biosafety issues from
the use of plants to manufacture pharmaceuticals and industrial
enzymes is discussed in GeneWatch 14 (Sept. 2001), 9-11. For those
that want a method for detecting GMOs, see www.genescan.com which
makes GMOScreen.

A case of human infection due to recombinant vaccinia-rabies

glycoprotein virus is reported in NEJM 345 (2001), 582+. Infiltration of
a Hawaiian community by introduced biological control agents is
reported in Science 293 (2001), 1314-6. Mutualism is important in
biological communities as shown from invasion, Nature 413 (2001),
635-9. Invasive species have various affects on the soil, discussed in
Ecological Applications 11 (2001), 1259-35.
In order to provide wide-ranging access to the latest scientific
information about anthrax and other potential bioweapons, Nature
has put together a special online focus on this issue. There are two
papers about the bacterial toxin that causes anthrax-the first giving its
structure, and the second identifying the human receptor for anthrax.
Nature will be publishing these papers in its 8 November issue. Due to
heightened interest in the papers, from both the scientific community
and the general public, they are immediately pre-publishing them, and
making them freely available on our web site at:
http://www.nature.com/nature/anthrax. These papers are accompanied
by a range of material from our electronic archive, including research
papers from Nature and Nature Biotechnology and an in-depth news
feature on bioterrorism. The growing number of cases of anthrax in
the US media and post office workers caused by apparent terrorism
has been widely reported in the news media, Time (29 Oct. 2001), 1833; Newsweek (29 Oct. 2001), 36-41. The fine particle nature of the
anthrax that has killed several persons in the USA, and scarred many
with contamination in some post offices, suggests it is made in either
USA, Russia or Iraq. At the end of October there are numerous articles
in newspapers on the anthrax scare. The main therapy is antibiotic
treatment, and Bayer cut the price of Cipro, one of these, in a deal with
the US government, Financial Times (25 Oct. 2001), 4.
Some of the discussion of biowarfare is in Asian Wall Street J. (12 Oct.
2001), 9; Nature 413 (2001), 441, 657-78; New Statesman (8 Oct.
001), 18-9; NS (1 Sept. 2001), 3, 6; (6 Oct. 2001), 6-7; Science 293
(2001), 2349; BMJ 323 (2001), 768. On the science of anthrax, Current
Biology 11 (2001), 1503-11. A case of human anthrax associated with
an epizootic in livestock in 2000 is reported in JAMA 286 (2001), 13078. The CDC and EPA have closed down outside internet use of sites that
might be useful for bioterrorism, Nature 413 (2001), 558. In general on
medicine and terrorism, BMJ 323 (2001), 700; Lancet 358 (2001), 895,
1071; Nature 413 (2001), 655. Waterborne pathogens are discussed in
EST 35 (2001), 396-7A. Methods to detect bioweapons are being
improved, NS (1 Sept. 2001), 20.
Biowarfare/bioterrorism concerns have taken centre stage in the global
media in recent months. These resulted from at least five deaths in the
USA from what appears to be anthrax spores produced in an
advanced laboratory in the USA, and whose source is still being
investigated. Reports include: Time (22 Oct. 2001), 42-7; (29 Oct.

2001), 18-33; (5 Nov. 2001), 22-9; (19 Nov. 2001), 34-6; NS (20 Oct.
2001), 3-5; (27 Oct. 2001), 3-7, 56; (15 Dec. 2001), 7; (22 Dec. 2001),
5; Nature 414 (2001), 3, 5, 570; Science 294 (2001), 278-9, 759-62,
971-3; BMJ 323 (2001), 951, 1022; NEJM 345 (2001), 1423-4, 1607-10,
1621-6; JAMA 286 (2001), 2086-90, 2226-32, 2392-7, 2549-53, 2554-9;
Lancet 358 (2001), 1435, 1520; NatMed 7 (2001), 1163, 1167.
Contingency plans for bioterrorism have been discussed in many
countries, Newsweek (5 Nov. 2001), 32-9; Network 16 (Dec. 2001), 8;
NatBio 19 (2001), 993; NS (10 Nov. 2001), 6; (15 Dec. 2001), 6; Time
(12 Nov. 2001), 52; Science 294 (2001), 490-1 498-501, 1254-5, 127980, 1437-8, 1810-4; BMJ 323 (2001), 711, 1017-8, 1086, 1321-2, ;
NEJM 345 (2001), 1423; Nature 414 (2001), 160-1; Lancet 358 (2001),
883, 1283, 1386-8, 1434, 1703; Bulletin WHO 79 (2001), 1094; JAMA
286 (2001), 2536-7, 2340-1, 2595-7, 2662-4, 2711-7; NatMed 7 (2001),
1257, 1271-3; FDA Consumer (Nov. 2001), 8-9.
The US has proposed new ideas to allow it to ratify the 1972
Bioweapons Convention, which it refused to do and then blocked
ratification of the treaty by the rest of the world, NS (10 Nov. 2001), 5;
(29 Nov. 2001), 479; Nature 414 (2001), 675; Lancet 358 (2001), 2058.
General comments on the implications for research in general include:
NatGen 29 (2001), 253-6; Lancet 358 (2001), 1657; Nature 414 (2001),
235, 237-8, 836-7; 415 (2002), 6; Science 294 (2001), 1266-7, 1417;
SA (Dec 2001), 10-3; (Jan. 2002), 12-3; JAMA 286 (2001), 2081-3. The
question of how much immunity people have from smallpox
vaccinations is discussed in Science 294 (2001), 985; NS (3 Nov. 2001),
6; Lancet 358 (2001), 1708; NatMed 7 (2001), 1265. One of the main
impacts of the terrorist attacks in the USA is stress, NEJM 345 (2001),
1507-12; BMJ 323 (2001), 878-9; and the media has generated some,
BMJ 323 (2001), 942.
Papers discussing the issues in a more general sense include: Vogel,
KM. "Pathogen proliferation: Threats from the former Soviet
Bioweapons Complex", Politics and Life Sciences 19 (2000), 3-16. On
biowarfare research in the USA, GeneWatch 14 (Nov. 2001), 3-5; and
on a former USSR research facility in the Aral Sea, Time (12 Nov.
2001), 51. A paper that looks at the impact of chemical warfare with
Agent Orange on lives of persons in Vietnam today is Reproductive
Healthcare Matters 9 (Nov. 2001), 156-64.
The area of commercialized GM crops in 2001 was 53 million
hectares, up from 44 million hectares in 2000; James, C. Preview.
Global review of commercialized transgenic crops: 2001 (ISAAA Briefs,
No. 24, 20pp., 2001); James, C. Global review of commercialized
transgenic crops: 2000 (ISAAA Briefs, No. 23, 110pp., 2001). In 2001
61% of canola in Canada was GM, up from 55% in 2000. More than one
quarter of these GM crops are in developing countries. Also on GM
expansion, SA (Dec 2001), 80-1; Nature 414 (2001), 1.

A description of the legal case in India over use of Bt cotton is NatBio

19 (2001), 1090. The field of ten thousand hectares of unauthorized Bt
cotton has been burnt, Nature 413 (2001), 555; NS (10 Oct. 2001), 19;
Science 294 (2001), 991. A discussion of the Indian regulatory system
is in Biotechnology and Development Monitor 47 (Sept. 2001), 19-21;
48 (Dec. 2001), 19-21; and in Kenya, Biotechnology and Development
Monitor 48 (Dec. 2001), 6-9. On GM soybeans in Brazil, Plant Biotech
Week (2 Nov. 2001), 5-6; AgraFood Biotech 70 (13 Dec. 2001), 5. A
discussion of whether GM is useful in Africa is Lancet 358 (2001), 1970,
2056. A series of papers on alternatives to GM are in LEISA, Magazine
on Low External Input and Sustainable Agriculture 17 (Dec. 2001), 130.
. A paper looking at the US Federal system in release of GMOs and
environmental risk is Politics and Life Sciences 19 (2000), 77-88; and in
the Canadian system, Biotechnology and Development Monitor 48
(Dec. 2001), 2-5. Switzerland has rejected an application for an 8
square meter field trial of GM wheat, Science 294 (2001), 2067, 9.
Wales is also restricting GM trials, European Voice (29 Nov. 2001), 4.
Several countries are still blocking GM trials in the EU, AgraEurope (19
Oct. 2001), 3; Nature 414 (2001), 572. New Zealand is continuing GM
trials.
A study has shown transgenic DNA has entered traditional maize
landraces, Quist D. & Chapela, IH. gTransgenic DNA introgressed into
traditional maize landraces in Oaxaca, Mexicoh, Nature 414 (2001),
541-3; EST 35 (2001), 472-3A; 36 (2002), 8A.. A series of papers
showing that Bt corn does not harm Monarch butterflies is PNAS
98 (2001), 11908-42, 12328-30. The rationale for use of Bt corn is in
BioScience 51 (2001), 900-6. On sexual recombination and natural
selection, Science 294 (2001), 555-9. On the use of GM mosquitoes for
malaria control, NS (1 Dec. 2001), 19.
A new book is Maat, Harrow. Science Cultivating Practice: A History of
Agricultural Science in the Netherlands and its Colonies, 1863-1986.
Kluwer Academic Publications 2001. 249pp. A report from a farmer
whose soybean was contaminated by GM crops losing him a contract
with Japan for GM free soybean is in Splice 8 (Jan. 2002), 8-9. Artificial
cows are being used in Africa as decoys with insecticides to kill insects,
Science 294 (2001), 45; BMJ 323 (2001), 711. On the release of GM
biocontrol agents and risk assessment, AgroFood Industry HiTech (May
2001), 23-7. Host range testing of insects for biological weed control is
discussed in BioScience 51 (2001), 951-9. Invasive carp are posing a
threat to Chinafs plateau lakes, Science 294 (2001), 999-1000. A Dutch
study has fund birds are not attracted to so called green farming areas,
NS (20 Oct. 2001), 11.
Methods to delete foreign DNA after transfer have been developed,
Environmental Health Perspectives 110 (2002), A88-91. Flaws in a
paper on gene transfer frequency have been alleged, Nature 415

(2002), 948. The issue of boundaries on the spread of genes and the
integrity of organisms is Ram's Horn 199 (2002), 1-2.
India has approved GM Bt cotton for 3 years of commercial trials. On
the farm impact of Bt cotton in South Africa, Biotechnology and
Development Monitor 48 (Dec. 2001), 15-21. On the risks of Bt maize
in Kenya, Biotechnology and Development Monitor 48 (Dec. 2001), 6-9.
The NAS Panel has suggested tighter monitoring of GM releases,
Nature 415 (2002), 948; Science 295 (2002), 1619-20. The UN is
attempting to boost biosafety in developing countries, Nature 415
(2002), 353.
The WHO has put off the destruction of smallpox virus in case it is
needed for future vaccine research, Science 295 (2002), 598-9; BMJ
324 (2002), 69. Also on the reasons to delay destruction, SA (March
2002), 12-3; NS (26 Jan. 2002), 3, 12; Nature 415 (2002), 356. Several
papers on biowarfare are in GeneWatch 15 (March 2002), 3-11;
Science 295 (2002), 44, 1464, 1467-8; NatMed. 8 (2002), 6. On the
anthrax outbreak and investigation, NS (9 Feb. 2002), 8-10; (2 March
2002), 11; Nature 415 (2002), 719-20; Science 295 (2002), 43, 1425,
1447, 1861. The genomics of anthrax is discussed in Nature 415
(2002), 373-4, 396-402; Science 295 (2002), 1442. Better vaccines are
sought, Nature 416 (2002), 116; Science 295 (2002), 427-8; SA (March
2002), 36-45. Access to agents and risk is discussed in Nature 415
(2002), 364.
The question of whether regulation of biotechnology in Denmark
hindered biotechnology industry is discussed in New Genetics and
Society 20 (2001), 255-72. Discussion of the National Academy of
Sciences report, Environmental Effects of Transgenic Plants: The Scope
and Adequacy of Regulation (Feb. 2002) are in AgraFood Biotech. 80 (7
May 2002), 5. Utilitarianism and the GM crop debate is discussed in
New Genetics and Society 20 (2001), 75-84. Most EU countries ar late
to comply with the Biotech Directive (98/44/EC), SCRIP 2733 (29 March
2002), 3. The USA and EU differ on biotechnology regulation, Food
Chemical News (18 Feb. 2002), 5-6. The variety of regulations on GM
crops is discussed in NS (9 Feb. 2002), 3.Claims that UNEP is buying
support for Cartegena have been made, NatBio 20 (2002), 205.
There have been claims that the Mexican transgene results that
suggest GM contamination are artefacts, Nature 416 (2002), 600-2;
Science 296 (2002), 236-7; NS (13 April, 2002), 10. Some
contamination of organic food by GM crop derived genes is probably
inevitable given that plants exchange genetic material, Splice 8 (March
2002), 4-5; SA (April 2002), 18. A survey found most organic farmers
do not know about GM crops, AgraFood Biotech. 74 (12 Feb. 2002), 11.
Gene flow and limits to natural selection are reviewed in Trends in
Ecology & Evolution 17 (2002), 183-9. Risks of gene flow from some
crops are high, AgraFood Biotech. 77 (26 March 2002), 18. A report

from a UK meeting on approval of Aventis T25 GM maize is reported in

Splice 8 (March 2002), 8-10. Production of nontransgenic plants from
transgenic ones is described in NatBio 20 (2002), 215-6. A review is
Senior, IJ. & Dale, PJ., "Herbicide-tolerant crops in agriculture: oilseed
rape as a case study", Plant Breeding 121 (2002), 97-107.
China has been gaining money and reduced pesticide poisoning cases
from the use of Bt crops, NS (2 Feb. 2002), 12. India has accepted
transgenic cotton, Nature 416 (2002), 468; NS (6 April 2002), 14. The
debate on commercialisation of GM crops in Brazil is discussed in
AgraFood Biotech. 80 (7 May 2002), 11; Leisa Magazine (Dec. 2001),
19-20. The benefits of GM crops to farmers ar discussed in AgraFood
Biotech. 78 (9 April 2002), 5. The Thai senate urged the lifting of the
ban on GM crops, AgraFood Biotech. 77 (26 March 2002), 21-2. GM
crops in South Africa are discussed in AgraFood Biotech. 72 (15 Jan.
2002), 10. The risks and benefits of Bt maize in Kenya are discussed in
Biotechnolgoy & Development Monitor 48 (Dec. 2001), 6-9. The way
that pink bollworm mines into cotton bolls in Bt and non-Bt cotton is
reported in J. Econ. Entomol. 95 (2002), 143-8. The sustainability of
agriculture is discussed in TIBTECH 20 (2002), 193-6; NS (5 Jan. 2002),
25-7.
Australian researchers are considering when to introduce transgenic
European carp species with a daughterless gene to stop the invasion
of the carp in the Murray River and other rivers in Australia, NS (11
May 2002), 3, 6. In Scotland recently 100,000 farmed salmon escaped
from farms, Nature 416 (2002), 571. A new transposon in Drosophila is
reported in Genetics 92 (2002), 375-81.
On the US anthrax bioterrorism in 2001, JAMA 287 (2002), 34-5,
858-62, 863-8, 869, 898. Countering bioterrorism is discussed in
Human Genome News 12 (Feb. 2002), 1-2; Food Chemical News (25
Feb. 2002), 8; JAMA 287 (2002), 573-6, 898-9; Lancet 358 (2001),
2137; 359 (2002), 239, 771; BMJ 324 (2002), 336-9, 362-5, 370. The
CDC view on risks of biowarfare on the US food supply is Lancet 359
(2002), 874-80. Changes in medical curriculum are being made to
include risks of terrorism, JAMA 287 (2002), 1099-100. Smallpox
vaccination is discussed in NatMed. 8 (2002), 428; Science 296 (2002),
25-6; JAMA 287 (2002), 575-6, 706. Discussion of whether Iraq is
making camelpox a biological weapon is NS (6 April, 2002), 5; General
Virology 83 (2002), 855. A better anthrax vaccine has been
recommended by the US Institute of medicine, JAMA 287 (2002), 15167; Science 296 (2002), 639-40. A method to use Siamese fighting fish
chomatophores as a detection for toxins is discussed in NS (30 March
2002), 20. International law on biowarfare is discussed in Science 295
(2002), 2325. The control of the chemical weapons inspectorate was
disputed recently, NS (20 April, 2002), 16; BMJ 324 (2002), 332-5.
Censorship of science to prevent war is discussed in Science 296
(2002), 617.

Discussion of whether genes for drugs from pharmaceutical

producing plants could leak into the food chain in the USA is in NS (6
July 2002), 3-5. The question of gene flow is discussed in NatBio 20
(2002), 527. Australian studies have suggested that large buffer
zones around GM crops may not be necessary, AgraFood Biotech. 84 (2
July 2002), 5. However, Australia has allowed states to introduce GM
free zones, AgraFood Biotech. 82 (4 June 2002), 14. Discussion of the
alleged genetic contamination of Mexican maize by GMOs is in NS (15
June 2002), 14-7. Mexico may be relaxing its GM ban, NatBio 20
(2002), 416-7. Discussion of the scientific validity of UK field trials of
herbicide tolerant crops is in AgraFood Biotech. 84 (2 July 2002), 6. The
benefits of GM crops are debated in NS (22 June 2002), 11.
India approved GM cotton for commercial use, NatBio 20 (2002), 415.
China continues to grow GM cotton, AgraEurope (7 June 2002), N3-4.
Discussion of Australian plans to kill off invasive carp by GM are
discussed in NS (11 May 2002), 3, 6.
Agribiotechnology in the Philippines is reviewed in Asian
Biotechnology and Development Review (May 2002), 27-40. Different
GM crops could be better suited to Europe, AgraFood Biotech. 84 (2
July 2002), 7; BioCentury (28 May 2002), A13. Discussion of whether
GM crops will really feed the poor is in NS (15 June 2002), 3. A series of
articles on the future of agricultural biotechnology and GM is NS (18
May 2002), 31-47. GM crops are said to help Egyptian agriculture
according to a recent report, AgraFood Biotech. 82 (4 June 2002), 10.
Law and bioterrorism, are discussed in JLME 30 (2002), 254-66. An
Iraqi defector revealed a number of biowarfare sites in Iraq, The Times
(12 July 2002), 17. There are claims that the US knows who is the
anthrax killer in the USA, NS (22 June 2002), 12. A smallpox
vaccination received in the 1970s will not protect most people against
the disease, NS (1 June 2002), 7; Science 296 (2002), 1592-5. The USA
may have enough vaccine soon to protect against smallpox, NatMed. 8
(2002), 428. Vaccinating all the US citizens may be more riskier than
the risk of an outbreak, NS (29 June 2002), 11. A letter saying that the
restriction of genomic sequence data will not stop bioterrorism is
Nature 417 (2002), 379. The USA is attempting to develop a vaccine
against Ebola because of terrorism fears, NS (25 May 2002), 17. In
general on US bioterrorism plans, Nature 417 (2002), 773.
Australia has approved the idea of local areas including states deciding
to be GM free, AgraFood Biotech 82 (4 June 2002), 14. The question of
when to release GM viruses to control rabbits in Australia is discussed
in NS (10 Aug., 2002), 4-5. Paper in Spanish on genetic modification
are in Revista Latinoamericana de Bioetica 2 (2002), 22-69. On
agrobiotechnology in the Philippines, Asian Biotechnology and
Development Review (May 2002), 27-40. Genetic studies suggest the
farmers from the Middle East came to Europe about 10,000 years ago,
NS (10 Aug. 2002), 17. Soil fertility and biodiversity are benefited in an

organic farming trial, Science 296 (2002), 1694-7, 1589. Pesticide

(1080) resistant rabbits are emerging, NS (17 Aug. 2002), 13.
Three cases of companies breaching GM release regulations in the
USA and UK have highlighted how difficult it is to have compliance, NS
(24 Aug. 2002), 11. There has been renewed discussion of the use of
terminator genes to prevent spread of transgenes, SA (Sept. 2002),
16. Tough restrictions on biotechnology in Mexico are criticized in
Science 296 (2002), 1591.
There are fears that pharmaceutical producing plants may not be
regulated sufficiently, NS (6 July, 2002), 4-5. Studies have found that
GM pollen can travel a long way, Rieger, MA. Et al. "Pollen-mediated
movement of herbicide resistance between commercial canola fields",
Science 296 (2002), 2386-8, 2314. A letter suggesting lateral gene
transfer occurred from cannabis to humans is AJMG 114 (2002), 512-5.
Gene swapping may have occurred through time, NS (31 Aug., 2002),
38-41. On the potential for environmental impact of GM animals,
Science 296 (2002), 1257.
There are claims that a 1971 outbreak of smallpox in Russia was from
a bioweapon trial, Science 296 (2002), 2116-7. Britain's smallpox
vaccine is expected to work as well as the US one, NS (10 Aug. 2002),
8. Risks of smallpox vaccination are discussed in NEJM 347 (2002),
689-90; NatMed. 8 (2002), 428; and of an attack, Science 296 (2002),
1592-5; 297 (2002), 50-1. In general on bioterrorism research, Science
296 (2002), 1613; NatMed. 8 (2002), 770; NS (20 July 2002), 5-7; JAMA
288 (2002), 689. On the metal effects of terrorism, JAMA 288 (2002),
581-8, 611+, 633-6. Further papers discussing the anthrax containing
letters in the USA are AJPH 92 (2002), 705-6; Newsweek (12 Aug.
2002), 28-33. There is still debate on how much a bioattack would
affect US food supply, Lancet 359 (2002), 261. On Iraq and biowarfare,
Science 297 (2002), 1110-1. The question of sharing of data is raised in
Science 297 (2002), 749-51.
Genetic pollution is discussed in AIBA Newslink 5 (Oct. 2002), 1-3; NS
(23 Nov., 2002), 7. Agricultural biowarfare is also a danger, Science
297 (2002), 1974-5. US federal agencies have added extra steps for
handling GM plants, NatBio 20 (2002), 862. US regulation of GM
animals may not be adequate because of fears over the environmental
safety that are not addressed by the FDA in approval of GM animals for
consumption, NatBio 20 (2002), 959; NRC, Animal Biotechnology:
Science-based Concerns (NRC 2002). After controversy much of the
approved GM cotton in India has not been so successful, Nature 418
(2002), 716; NatBio 20 (2002), 1069; AgraFood Biotech 94 (26 Nov.
2002), 8. A French farmer was sentenced to jail for attacks on GM
fields, AP (21 Nov 2002). Southern African countries may create their
own GM committee, Nature 419 (2002), 661. On GM seed trade,
Nature 419 (2002), 9. A tough law in Swtizerland makes it difficult for
GM trials, Nature 419 (2002), 547; Science 298 (2002), 343.

The possibility for malaria control with GM insect vectors is raised in

Science 298 (2002), 119-21; and on their ecology, Science 298 (2002),
117-9. A trial of superweeds has stopped due to access to the GM seed
being limited, Nature 419 (2002), 655. Saltwort has been found to be
nutritious to eat, NS (28 Sept., 2002), 17. Sterile GM fish are discussed
in NS (14 Sept., 2002), 12-3. Terminator genes may be useful to
control gene spread, SA (Sept. 2002), 16. The environmental concerns
of GM animals are discussed in Nature 418 (2002), 805.
The relation between SV40 and polio cases is discussed in Science 298
(2002), 725-6; JAMA 288 (2002), 1337-8. Lateral DNA transfer is
discussed in Nature 418 (2002), 589-90; Cell (Nov 2002), 464. On the
precautionary principle, NatBio 20 (2002), 1075-8.
Dangers from production of biological weapons are discussed in
Genewatch 15 (Sept. 2002), 13-5. A paper looking at how to combat
terrorist smallpox is Science 298 (2002), 1428-32, 1342-4. In general
on preparing for such a defense, Nature 419 (2002), 1; Modern
Healthcare (28 Oct. 2002), 10. The US plans to vaccinate all its soldiers
against smallpox, USA Today (29 Nov. 2002), 4A. There have been
suggestions to vaccinate everyone, BMJ 325 (2002), 794-5; Lancet 360
(2002), 732; SCRIP 2785 (27 Sept. 2002), 18. In the UK key health
officers will also be vaccinated, BMJ 325 (2002), 855. There have been
denials from France that it had stocks of smallpox, Science 297 (2002),
1313-5. There has been much criticism of the plan to test smallpox
vaccine on children in the USA, Nature 420 (2002), 110. There are
however concerns about the efficacy of the vaccine stocks, also in the
UK, NatBio 20 (2002), 859-60. There may be some protection from old
vaccinations, BMJ 325 (2002), 513. On European preparations, Lancet
360 (2002), 733-4.
A rumour that the USA was planning to conduct a biowarfare test using
a GM mosquito has been denied, Nature 419 (2002), 867. There has
been suspicion over the FBI search for the anthrax terrorist, Nature
418 (2002), 808; NS (26 Oct., 2002), 48-51. A virus to kill anthrax has
been found, Nature 418 (2002), 825-6; JAMA 288 (2002), 1848-9.. A
company is attempting to make a universal biosensor for bioweapons,
SA (Nov. 2002), 20-1.
Japan has formally admitted that it used biological weapons in World
War II, Nature 419 (2002), 8; Lancet 360 (2002), 857. There has been
debate over the degree to which the government should restrict
access to research results that could be misused for biological
weapons, Science 298 (2002), 753-4, 1135; NatMed. 8 (2002), 899,
905; NEJM 347 (2002), 856-7.The Red Cross has also called for care in
protecting persons, NS (28 Sept., 2002), 4. In general on weapons of
mass destruction, SA (Nov. 2002), 58-63. A code of conduct has been
suggested for the bioweapons treaty, Nature 420 (2002), 112; NS (23
Nov., 2002), 9. There is still a lack of laws to protect against
bioweapons in many countries, BMJ 325 (2002), 727-8. Food vendors

should have greater security now, Food Chemical News (26 August
2002), 5-6.
The Russian tragedy involving use of a knockout gas to stop terrorists
which killed about 20% of the captives as well, partly because details
were not revealed to doctors early enough for treatment, is criticized in
NS (2 Nov., 2002), 5-7; Science 297 (2002), 1150-1.
Discussion of the risks of GM plants producing pharmaceuticals is in
GeneWatch 15 (Nov. 2002), 7-8. Discussion of the BIO strategy is in
AgraFood Biotech 95 (9 Dec. 2002), 1-2. Transgenic drug production is
discussed in GEN 22 (15 Oct. 2002), 1, 70-1. There have been several
instances of corn DNA entering soybean DNA in following crops and
these crops being destroyed by the USDA, Ram's Horn 207 (Dec.
2002), 7. Gene crosses between GM rape and a wild relative are
reported in NS (30 Nov., 2002), 7. A discussion of the alleged Mexican
maize contamination by GMOs, Nature 420 (2002), 730-1. On the
hazards of GM salmon, Food Chemical News (2 Sept. 2002), 10-1.
Chinese regulation of GMOs is discussed in the New York Times (22
Oct. 2002). There are GM debates in developing countries, NS (21 Dec.,
2002), 25. Zambia has adopted the EU GM policy, AgraFood Biotech 93
(12 Nov. 2002), 2. The UK needs to decide if they will allow GM crops
following their trials, NS (26 Oct., 2002), 27; Nature 420 (2002), 453.
Monsanto claims that 82% of soybean in USA are their GM seeds,
AgraFood Biotech 93 (12 Nov. 2002), 15. The benefits of ethanol fuel
are debated in EST 36 (2002), 405A. A discussion of organic farming is
in Science 298 (2002), 1889-91.
The possibility of bioterror against agriculture is discussed in Nature
421 (2003), 106-8. Bioterrorism defense in the Netherlands is
discussed in Network 3 (Dec. 2002), 13; and in Europe, Nature 420
(2002), 450. There is debate over whether ring vaccination for
smallpox will actually work based on new analysis of the old data,
Science 299 (2003), 181. Some persons will die after the vaccinations
from side effects, NS (21 Dec., 2002), 8; Newsweek (23 Nov. 2002), 467. There are plans for smallpox vaccination in the USA and some other
countries, Lancet 361 (2003), 95, 97-8; NEJM 347 (2002), 1300-8; NS
(21 Dec., 2002), 22; JAMA 288 (2002), 2530; BMJ 325 (2002), 1371-2.
Anthrax toxin has been x-ray analysed, Trends in Pharmacological
Sciences 23 (2002), 539-40. On anthrax vaccine guidelines, JAMA 288
(2002), 2681-2. The tough laws on possession of pathogenic bacteria
may be leading some researchers to dump valuable samples, Nature
421 (2003), 4. Early warning of infectious agents is necessary,
NatMed. 8 (2002), 1183. On research in general, Nature 420 (2002),
736; Lancet 360 (2002), 1699.
The Philippines has allowed Bt corn planting for commercial purposes,
APBN 7 (2003), 14. Uganda is encouraging more research into GM
crops, Lancet 361 (2003), 500. A book review of genes for Africa is
Nature 421 (2003), 478-9. Chinese are showing more cautious

attitudes towards GM crops, Science 298 (2002), 2317-8; 299 (2003),

1013. The results of Indian GM cotton harvest are discussed in Nature
421 (2003), 681. Poor farmers have been warned against making deals
for GMOs over the Internet, Nature 421 (2003), 776. 12 GMOs have
been registered for growth in Russia, AgraFood Biotech 95 (9 Dec.
2002), 6. There is some concern in Japan over the unclear
biotechnology regulations, Nature 421 (2003), 689.
There may be a further 18 months before transgenic salmon are
approved for commercial farming in the USA, Nature 421 (2003), 304.
European responses to biotechnology regulation are discussed in
Issues in Science and Technology (Summer 2001), 37-42. The
European Commission has told EU governments to stop delaying new
GM reviews, Financial Times (4 Feb. 2003). French experts on GMOs
have been subject to threats and slander from protest groups, Nature
421 (2003), 775. Education in biosafety is needed for the public also,
Science 299 (2003), 25. On GMOs in Australasia and rabbit control,
NS (4 Jan. 2003), 29. In general on GMO risks, Nature 421 (2003), 675.
A study of GM mosquitoes is Catteruccia, F. et al. "Impact of genetic
manipulation on the fitness of Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes",
Science 299 (2003), 125-7. Trials of gene transfer suggest weeds that
receive genes from GMOs are not strong, Nature 421 (2003), 462. GM
sugarbeet in the UK seem to be good for wildlife, NS (18 Jan. 2003), 6.
Design of biosafety labs is discussed in Science 299 (2003), 812-5.
The precaution necessary to handle possible life from other plants is
discussed in Discover 24 (March 2003), 60-5.
Challenges of biowarfare are discussed in Meslin, EM. "Bioterrorism
and bioethics: Challenges for industry, government and society", J.
Commercial Biotechnology 9 (2003), 101-10; Nature 421 (2003), 787.
Preparation for biological and chemical weapon attacks is discussed in
Lancet 361 (2003), 786-7; Nature 421 (2003), 564. The statement on
the consideration of biodefence and biosecurity reached by a number
of editors is in Nature 421 (2003), 771. Tighter controls on biological
research have appeared in the USA, Science 298 (2002), 2304; NS (18
Jan. 2003), 10. There is debate over smallpox vaccination plans, and
over interpreting old data, Science 298 (2002), 2312-6; 299 (2003),
181, 486-7; BMJ 326 (2003), 179; NEJM 348 (2003), 426-32, 460-6.
Fears of agroterrorism, The Scientist (13 Jan. 2003), 54; Nature 421
(2003), 106-8.
A warning against poor farmers entering Internet transgenic crop deals is in
Nature 421 (2003), 776. On adoption of agricultural technology in Kenya, Agricultural
Economics 28 (2003), 151-64. Liabilities and economics of transgenic crops are
discussed in NatBio 20 (2002), 537-41. In general on GM crops, NS (5 April 2003), 447. A Danish study suggests some benefits from transgenic crops for biodiversity,
Nature 422 (2003), 250; NatBio 20 (2002), 1183. The UK is now analyzing the results
of the GM trials, NS (29 March 2003), 12-3; (19 April 2003), 47. Canola pollen from
GM canola does travel, NatBio 20 (2002), 793.

A review of environmental impact of transgenic crops is Nap, J.N. et al. "The

release of genetically modified crops into the environment. Part 1. Overview of
current status and regulations", The Plant J. 33 (2003), 1-18; Conner, AJ. et al. " The
release of genetically modified crops into the environment. Part II. Overview of
ecological risk assessment", NatBio 20 (2002), 567-74. On gene flow and weeds,
Nature 421 (2003), 785-6. Removal of foreign DNA after gene transfer is possible,
Environmental Health Perspectives 110 (2002), A88-91; NatBio 20 (2002), 575-80,
581-6. Also on GM safety, NatBio 20 (2002), 527, 542, 548-9, 775-6, 871, 975, 1075.
A new Swiss law (March 2003) calls for protection of agriculture from GMOs, Ram's
Horn 210 (April 2003), 5.
In the USA, experts who advised the EPA on strategies to lower risk of insects
developing resistance to Bt say that the EPA guidelines do not go far enough to avoid
this risk, Nature 422 (2003), 5. The USDA said that GM corn to produce
pharmaceuticals should be grown at least one mile away from other corn, Nature
422 (2003), 103; NS (22 March 2003), 15. Also on regulations, NatBio 20 (2002), 3223, 862. Some GM corn may have been mixed in corn planted in New Zealand, NatBio
20 (2002), 861. On the Mexican corn case, NatBio 20 (2002), 3-4, 19, 106-7.
Mexico may relax its ban on rDNA research, NatBio 20 (2002), 416-7. European
regulation is discussed in NatBio 20 (2002), 324-5, 758-9; 21 (2003), 346-7. Chinese
stalling on importing GM crops may also be some protectionism for its own
agriculture, Nature 422 (2003), 99, 111-2. India is promoting GMOs, NatBio 20
(2002), 415, 641-2; though delaying GM mustard, NatBio 21 (2003), 9. GM wheat
delays are expected, NatBio 20 (2002), 863. UNEP was accused of buying support for
Cartegena, NatBio 20 (2002), 205; but the Protocol has broad support.
Chloroplast DNA can be transferred into the nucleus in plants, Nature 422 (2003),
31-2, 72-6. On the interaction between bacteria and plants in legume nodules,
Nature 422 (2003), 672-4. The mechanism of genetic exchange in American
trypanosomes is described in Nature 421 (2003), 936-9.
A review of manipulation of insect vectors by their parasites is Ann. Rev.
Entomology 48 (2003), 141-61. Gene silencing may stop transgenic animals
spreading, NS (8 March 2003), 25. Assessment of GM salmon is discussed in Nature
421 (2003), 889. The UK is still studying the issues also, NatBio 20 (2002), 965. On
the effects of introduced trout on native trout, Ecological Applications 13 (2003), 2337, 38-50. Speciation is discussed in Nature 422 (2003), 25-6; NS (8 March 2003), 15.
Discussion of biowarfare is in GeneWatch 16 (March 2003), 3-12; BMJ 326 (2003),
516; NatBio 20 (2002), 21-5. Chemical warfare is discussed in NS (29 March 2003),
6-7. The US may break the chemical weapons treaty if it uses teargas in "warfare" in
Iraq, NS (5 April 2003), 6. Researchers are under tight control also, NatMed. 9 (2003),
247; Science 299 (2003), 1651-2, 1945; 300 (2003), 414-5; though some companies
expect to generate money, Nature 422 (2003), 245, 790. As discussed in the
Scientific Ethics section, editors of major journals have agreed to censor research
sensitive to biodefense, NatMed. 9 (2003), 240; Nature 421 (2003), 787. On
antibodies for biowarfare defense, NatBio 20 (2002), 114, 597-601.

The 50th nation has ratified the Cartegena Protocol on Biosafety, so on

11 September 2003 it will enter into force, Nature 423 (2003), 794;
AgraEurope (6 June 2003), A1-2. Australia and USA have not signed it.
The EU has agreed to new liability rules on GMOs, AgraEurope (20 June
2003), EP6-7. On GMO biosafety research in China, Environ. Biosafety

Research 1 (2002), 5-8. South Africa may strength controls, Food

Chemical News (28 April 2003), 6. Vietnam is to regulate its biotech
industry soon, Food Chemical News (24 March 2003), 8-9.
Support for special regulation over genetic modification is made in
GeneWatch UK Briefing 21 (Jan. 2003), 8pp. GMO regulation in Italy is
discussed in NatBio 21 (2003), 346. A review of the fall in GM field
trials in Europe is NatBio 21 (2003), 360. A paper discussing the
alleged Mexican maize GM contamination is In Context 9 (Spring 2003),
3-5.
The US WTO action against the EU on GMOs is discussed in GeneWatch
16 (May 2003), 11-3; Nature 423 (2003), 269, 903; NS (24 May 2003),
3. European research in GM has decreased and opinioNS are mixed,
NatBio 21 (2003), 468-9. A background paper on the economic risks
and opportunities from release of GMOs in New Zealand was made to
the Ministry for the Environment, New Zealand, in March 2003 by
CSAFE. New Zealand is expecting to have GM and organic co-exisitng,
AgraFood Biotech 103 (28 April 2003), 2-6. The economic benefit will
not be great. The Nuffield Council has released a followup on
Genetically modified crops emphasizing that developing countries need
GM crops, Agrafood Biotech 106 (9 June 2003), 20-1. The ICSU has
announced the widest review of scientific data and considers GM crops
safe to eat though still has environmental doubts, ICSU, New Genetics,
Food and Agriculture: Scientific Discorives - Societal Dilemmas (2003),
AgraFood Biotech 107 (23 June 2003), 5.
The US EPA approved rootworm-resistant GM corn "YieldGard
Rootworm corn", NatBio 21 (2003), 351. HumaNS are responsible for
some GM dispersal, AgraFood Biotech 107 (23 June 2003), 25.
Dustclouds may carry some infectious organisms, SA (July 2003), 10-1.
On evolution of salmon egg size, Science 300 (2003), 895. Escaped
farm salmon may still threaten native salmon, NS (7 June 2003), 6. A
method to top genes escaping is discussed in NS (10 May 2003), 14-5.
Bioterrorism is challenging the right to research, Nature Reviews 4
(2003), 248; Nature 423 (2003), 571, 669; Science 300 (2003), 1847;
SA (June 2003), 14-5. At the same time the US army was issued a
patent for a bioweapoNS grenade, Nature 423 (2003), 789. A
discussion of Boston University's plaNS for a US$1.6 billion P4
biodefence laboratory in Boston are discussed in GeneWatch 16 (May
2003), 9-10. On the costs of building labs, Science 300 (2003), 1110.
Other research is discussed in NatBio 21 (2003), 469-70. On the
purchase of anthrax vaccine in the USA, Science 300 (2003), 877. On
characterization of anthrax, AJPH 93 (2003), 886-93. Books on
bioterrorism are reviewed in JAMA 289 (2003), 1571, 1574. Actors are

being used to make medical staff aware of what smallpox looks like,
NatMed. 9 (2003), 489. On terrorism in general, BMJ 326 (2003), 989. A
call for Iraqi scientists to disclose any bioweapoNS details is made in
SA (June 2003), 24-5. There is still not much collaboration between
former Soviet bioweapoNS researchers and Western ones, Nature 423
(2003), 678-80. Modeling of smallpox is in Science 300 (2003), 1503-4;
and see the Vaccines News for smallpox vaccine efforts.
Japan has passed a new bill on GMOs, Food Chemical News (30 June
2003), 18-9. A discussion of GMOs and Mexican maize is in In Context
(Spring 2003), 3-5. In the USA 40% of the 2003 maize crop is GM,
AgraFood Biotech 108 (7 July 2003), 18. A survey suggests about one
fifth of US farmers are flouting rules designed to prevent pest
resistance to Bt, Nature 424 (2003), 116. Monsanto has proposed that
exporters pay a royalty for exports for all roundupReady soybeans,
including many which are illegally grown, Food Chemical News (2 June
2003), 22. GM seed piracy is also widespread in Gujarat, India, APBN 7
(2003), 717. The EU approved new laws for labeling of GM crops on 2
July, European Voice (3 July 2003), 4. An Australian study suggests
pesticide use was reduced by 80% in GM cotton, AgraFood Biotech 110
(4 August 2003), 3-4.
The UK Nuffield Council on Ethics has said GM food will help the poor,
Lancet 361 (2003), 2051. On GMOs and ethics, Nature 424 (2003),
358, 473, 619; NS (19 July 2003), 3; (2 Aug. 2003), 21. There is
controversy in India over a GM potato containing an extra protein, BMJ
326 (2003), 1351. New Guinea as a cradle of agriculture is reviewed
in Science 301 (2003), 180-1; NS (28 June 2003), 20. There is
enhanced pesticide sorption by soils with particulate burns from crop
residue burns, EST 37 (2003), 3635-9. Trade policy and grain selfsufficiency in China is discussed in Agricultural Economics 28 (2003),
173-86.
Gene transfer from organelles to nucleus is reviewed in PNAS 100
(2003), 8612-4; 7678-83; Nature 424 (2003), 197-201. On horizontal
gene transfer, PNAS 100 (2003), 7419-20, 9658-62. GM decaff coffee is
discussed in Lancet 361 (2003), 2172.
The US plans to vaccinate half a million health care workers against
smallpox have stopped, with the figure at 38,257 people only, NS (23
Aug. 2003), 6. Also on smallpox vaccination, JAMA 290 (2003), 327882, 3283-9, 3290-4, 3295-9, 3306-7. Food and bioterror is discussed
in NatMed. 9 (2003), 987. Anthrax as a weapon is discussed in PNAS
100 (2003), 4355-6. There is increased funds for biodefense, Science
301 (2003), 17, 912-3. On surveillance mechanisms, AJPH 93 (2003),
1230-5. A B cell-based sensor for identification of pathogens is
described in Science 301 (2003), 213-5. A report on lawsuits against
biodefense research in the US is Science 301 (2003), 1168-9; NatMed.

9 (2003), 805. The International Biological Weapons Convention talks

are reported in Nature 424 (2003), 865.
An overview of GM crops is Nature 425 (2003), 655-9. In September
Brazil allowed GM soybean to be grown, Int. Herald Tribune (25 Sept.
2003), 12; NS (4 Oct. 2003), 5. The issues of Indian Bt cotton are
discussed in APBN 7 (2003), 1204; AgraFood Biotech 116 (27 Oct.
2003), 9. The harvest may not have been productive, GeneWatch 16
(Sept. 2003), 12-4. Indian hybrid and modified rice is discussed in NS
(19 Sept. 2003), 19. Chinese GM rules are of more concern to the USA
than the EU, AgraFood Biotech 114 (29 Sept. 2003), 8. A report on
biosafety options for Asean countries is available from UNIDO (Email:
office.Thailand@unido.org) . 14 African countries have agreed to
common GM guidelines, AgraFood Biotech 114 (29 Sept. 2003), 14. On
GM crops in developing countries, Lancet 362 (2003), 835; SA (Oct.
2003), 6. New Zealand's biggest insurer, Vero Insurance, will not insure
GM crops, Food Chemical News (6 Oct. 2003), 7-8. On agbiotech in
Japan, GEN 23 (July 2003), 46, 48.
Romanian farmers claim to have boosted soybean yields by 31%
according to a study using GM soybeans, AgraFood Biotech 112 (1
Sept. 2003), 6. Italy's ban on GM corn has been rejected by the
European Court of Justice, Int. Herald Tribune (10 Sept. 2003);
AgraFood Biotech 115 (13 Oct. 2003), 13. Austria however has
threatened to maintain its GMO moratorium, AgraEurope (5 Sept.
2003), 4-5. On UK research on GM crop safety suggesting wildlife
diversity was less in the GM fields, Science 302 (2003), 542; NS (27
Sept. 2003), 5; (18 Oct. 2003), 7-9; (25 Oct. 2003), 3, 21; Current
Biology 13 (2003), R819-20; Nature 425 (2003), 751. GM maize has
been approved in Czech republic, AgraFood Biotech 115 (13 Oct.
2003), 14.
USDA is requiring permits for GM industrial crops, Food Chemical
News (11 Aug. 2003), 8,9; Nature 425 (2003), 892. The US EPA may
monitor GM crops from space, Nature 425 (2003), 112. On the safety of
Bt crops, NatBio 21 (2003), 1003-9; Science 301 (2003), 1845-7. Public
oversight of biotechnology in Cambridge Massachussetts, USA has
been suggested to be a flourishing model for elsewhere, GeneWatch 16
(Sept. 2003), 7-10. On the safety of GM rapeseed, Science 302 (2003),
401-2. The safety of farmed fish is discussed in Science 301 (19 Sept.
2003); NS (25 Oct. 2003), 4; Nature 425 (2003), 753.
On ethical and religious issues of GM crops, Science & Christian Belief
15 (2003), 141-64. A discussion of what is conventional and its
redefinition is in The Ram's Horn 215 (Oct. 2003), 1-2. The EU has
released a report Towards Sustainable Agriculture for Developing
Countries: Options from life Science and Biotechnologies (32pp.,
http://europa.eu.int/comm./research/sadc. Nitrogen flows from
fertilizers are causing much damage, Nature 425 (2003), 894-5. On

sustainability, Ecological Economics 46 (2003), 231-48; Science 302

(2003), 357.
A report on bioweapons in the 21st century is Politics & the Life
Sciences 21 (2002), 1-27. Planning for smallpox outbreaks is discussed
in Nature 425 (2003), 681-5. On bioethics and defense, CQHE 12
(2003), 455-65. Self-regulation by scientists is called for in Science
302 (2003), 368-9, 543; Nature 425 (2003), 647. Also on biodefense,
Science 301 (2003), 1824, 1852-3; 302 (2003), 206-7. On chemical
weapons like those used in the Moscow theatre siege, Lancet 362
(2003), 1346. Agricultural terrorism is discussed in SA (Oct. 2003), 123; NS (30 Aug. 2003), 8-9.
A summary of accidents in GM containment is in GeneWatch 17 (Jan.
2004), 8-9; see www.genewatch.org/bubiodefense. On GMO regulation
internationally, GeneWatch 17 (Jan. 2004), 12-4. The UK government
approved use of commercial GM crops on 9 March 2004, Science 303
(2004), 1590. They claimed that GM crops are beneficial for the
environment, NS (6 Dec. 2003), 17. They have approved the
commercial growth of Bayer LL-Chardon variety of fodder forage
maize, NatBio 22 (2004), 371; Current Biology 14 (2004), R213-4. The
UK debate on GMOs is discussed in GeneWatch 16 (Nov. 2003), 10-12;
Current Biology 14 (2004), R889-90; Nature 428 (2004), 107; NS (13
March 2004), 3. Mendicino county in California, USA has banned growth
of GMOs, Science 303 (2004), 1608; Nature 426 (2003), 488.
Meanwhile, Europe has approved commercial GM crops, Science 303
(2004), 448; Nature 427 (2004), 474. The present state of use of GM
crops in the EU is in Acta Agric. Scand. Section B Suppl.1 (Dec. 2003),
14-18. The EU has adopted regulation for the Cartegena Protocol,
Agrafood Biotech. 118 (25 Nov. 2003), 10; and approval of GM crops,
Science 303 (2004), 448. A review of the EU GM pipeline is Agrafood
Biotech. 118 (25 Nov. 2003), 6-7. The agency responsible for GM trials
in Germany is shifting from Ministry for the Environment to the Federal
Agency for Natural Conservation, which is more negative towards GM
trials, Nature 427 (2004), 279.
A discussion of sustainable agriculture for developing countries is
Biology International 45 (2003), 34-8. Debates over intensification of
rice are in Nature 428 (2004), 360-1. A paper on ethics in FAO is Macer,
DRJ., et al. "Ethical opportunities in global agriculture, fisheries, and
forestry: The role for FAO", J. Agric. & Env. Ethics 16, 479-504.
Brazil has approved provisional measure No. 131 authorizing the
planting of transgenic soyabean in 2003/2003 and the sale and harvest
of soybeaNS until 31 January 2005, Agrafood Biotech. 118 (25 Nov.
2003), 12. Criticism of Monsanto policy in selling GM soybean and corn
seeds to Argentina and Brazil is in Ram's Horn 218 (Feb 2004), 1-4.
Papers on the GMO debate in Africa are African J. Biotech 2 (2003),

394-516; Nature 426 (2003), 224-6; NS (20 Dec. 2003), 21. A list of GM
crops in Africa is in NatBio 22 (2004), 260. Monsanto is planning to
export GM wheat to South Africa, Nature 427 (2004), 386-7. Bt cotton
may be useful for small-scale producers in South Africa, NatBio 22
(2004), 379-80. Australia and New Zealand would face serious
economic consequences if they boycotted GM technology according to
economic estimates, APBN 7 (No., 24, 2003), 75,77; Nature 428 (2004),
594. The number of chronically hungry people is increasing about 5
million a year, BMJ 327 (2003), 1303.
The planting of GM crops containing drugs is expected soon, NatBio 22
(2004), 133. The transgenic GloFish is being sold in California, though
there is debate over its safety, Nature 426 (2003), 372, 596; NatBio 22
(2004), 379; NS (20 Dec 2003), 24. The mixing of cultivated plants and
wild relatives is discussed in Nature 427 (2004), 395-6. There are still
debates over defining GM, Science 303 (2004), 1765-71; Nature 426
(2003), 495. On academic freedom and GM views, Nature 426 (2003),
591.
A report on the ways to confine GMOs is US National Research Council,
Biological Confinement of Genetically Engineered Organisms, 2004
(http://books.nap.edu/openbook/0309090857/html/), BioScience 54
(2004), 179. A report on the regulation of GM insects has encouraged
the development of systems to regulate GM insects, Pew Initiative on
Food and Biotechnology, Bugs in the System, 2004.
(http://pewagbiotech.org/research/bugs/) For a review see Science 303
(2004), 449; JAMA 291 (2004), 1055; NatBio 22 (2004), 141. A report
from the Keystone meeting held on GM insect vectors is in NatMed 10
(2004), 216. A review of how mobile elements drive evolution is
Science 303 (2004), 1626-32. On horizontal gene transfer, Nature 427
(2004), 72-5. Lethal effects of biological insecticide Bt types on
nontarget lepidoteransis claimed in Community and Ecosystem
Ecology (Dec 2003). On the genetics of insecticide resistance, Trends in
Genetics 20 (2004), 163-70.
A commentary on the Kay report to US Congress on the survey for
bioweapoNS in Iraq is in Biosecurity and Bioterrorism 1 (2003), 239-46.
Biosecurity peer review in the USA has been set up, Science 303
(2004), 1595. The question of coding behaviour for bioweapoNS is
discussed in Science and Engineering Ethics 9 (2003), 453-70. The
possibility of reemergence of smallpox if released by terrorists is
discussed in Bulletin WHO 81 (2003), 917-8. Much money is being
spent in research in the USA on biodefense, Nature 426 (2003), 598601; NatBio 22 (2004), 375-8; Nature Reviews Genetics 5 (2004), 2333. The US crackdown on scientists that research infectious diseases is
causing many to dispose of their collectioNS and stop research, NS (8

Nov. 2003), 3, 6-8; Science 303 (2004), 1743-4; Nature 426 (2003),
593; 428 (2004), 6. At the same time approved researchers are making
superbugs in the lab., NS (1 Nov. 2003), 6-7; (28 Feb. 2004), 6-7. It is
unsure how rapidly smallpox spreads, SA (Jan. 2004), 13-4. A book
review on Japanese Germ Warfare is in Nature 427 (2004), 396. Also on
bioweapoNS fears, Nature 427 (2004), 767; 428 (2004), 109, 454;
NatBio 22 (2004), 369. On anthrax vaccination in soldiers, NatMed 10
(2004), 112.
A paper against GMOs is in In Context 11 (Spring 2004), 3-7. A
discussion of the results of the UK GMO farm evaluatioNS is Science
304 (2004), 959-60; Nature 428 (2004), 107. Liability questioNS have
been raised however, Food Chemical News (15 March 2004), 1, 12.
Exporting countries of GMOs are opposed to tighter rules under the
Cartegena Protocol for import of GMOs, Food Chemical News (8 March
2004), 5-6; Nature 428 (2004), 6. There are some unintended effects of
the CBD for conservation research, Nature 427 (2004), 129. There are
difficulties in defining the term "GM", Science 303 (2004), 1765-9. A
conference report on research to develop GM insects to fight infectious
disease is Lancet 363 (2004), 1288-9.
Sweden has approved the growth of the first GM potato crops, The
Guardian (9 April 2004). In 2002 four commercial biotech crops, maize,
soybeans, cotton and canola represented US$20 billion value in the
USA, half of the total value of those four crops; AgraFood Biotech 120
(19 Jan. 2004), 33. Europe is progressing towards commercial GM crop
approval, Science 303 (2004), 448-9; Nature 427 (2004), 474.
Mendicino County has voted to approve a ban on GM crops, Food
Chemical News (8 March 2004), 7-8. China has issued safety
certificates for some GM crops including RoundupReady soybean,
cotton and corn, Food Chemical News (1 March 2004), 5-6; not only
from USA but also from Brazil, Food Chemical News (5 April 2004), 5-6.
India made its own GM cotton, NatBio 22 (2004), 255-6. Australia is
being more cautious in GM crops, Nature 428 (2004), 594.
In 2003 the estimated global area of transgenic GM crops was 68
million hectares, being grown by 7 million farmers in 18 countries,
ISAAA (16 Jan. 2004). In the USA in 2004 a 15% increase is expected
over 2003 figures, NatBio 22 (2004), 499. The misuse of herbicides by
farmers in Argentina connected to GM crops is discussed in NS (17
April, 2004), 3, 40-3, Monsanto has faced issues of illegal trade in
Round-up Ready soybean in Argentina, New York Times (21 Jan. 2004).
Regulatory problems may be hindering the adoption of biotechnology
in developing countries, Food Chemical News (8 March 2004), 9-10.
In the US BIO and two grain associatioNS have called for a federal
policy on the presence of small amounts of "adventitious presence" GM
material inside other crops, Food Chemical News (12 April 2004), 9-10.
Gene pollution is widespread, NS (28 Feb. 2004), 8. Papers on inter-

organism genetic exchange include Science 304 (2004), 233-60;

Current Biology (2004), R298-9. A list of invasive species is online at
www.issg.org/database/welcome; Science 304 (2004), 495. A case
where an invasive tree may be limited by an invasive beetle is reported
in Ecological ApplicatioNS 13 (2003), 1503-7. Rabbit pests in
Australasia are discussed in NS (1 May 2004), 50-1.
A comparison of US farmers and EU citizen's views on GM crops is in
Acta Agric. Scand. Section B., Suppl. 1 1 (2003), 60-7. There are some
data suggesting increased pesticide use after 1996 in the USA when
GM crops were introduced, Food Chemical News (22 Dec. 2003), 8. A
report on bioherbicides is Industrial Bioprocessing 26 (Feb. 2004), 10-1.
Sustainability in farming is discussed in Science 302 (2003), 1919-20;
and ideas to expand Chinese agriculture are in Nature 428 (2004), 2157. Debate over rice intensification is in Nature 428 (2004), 360-1.
Benefits of GM crops for the environment are given in NS (6 Dec.
2003), 17; J. Commercial Biotechnology 10 (2004), 234-40. Commercial
production of bioinsecticides from Bacillus thuringiensis HD-1 kurstaki
is described in Wiley InterScience DOI:10.1002/bit.20146.
The next generation of smallpox vaccines is discussed in Science 304
(2004), 809; JAMA 291 (2004), 1825-6. There are doubts as to how fast
smallpox spreads, SA (Jan. 2004), 13-4. Genetic research on bird flu is
causing some fear, NS (28 Feb. 2004), 3, 6-7. Biotech companies are
being warned against misuse or accidental use for bioterror, Nature
427 (2004), 767. Bioterror related research is discussed in NatBio 22
(2004), 256-7, 375-8; Nature 428 (2004), 109; JAMA 290 (2003), 2331;
Science 304 (2004), 359. Anthrax research is discussed in Science 302
(2003), 1637. The US BioShield program will fund anthrax vaccine
production and development, Nature 429 (2004), 4. Japan is building
facilities in China to destroy between 0.7 - 1.8 million abandoned
chemical weapoNS left in China after WWII, Asahi Shinbun (24 April
2004), 1.
GM pest resistant maize can boost farmer incomes, AgraFood
Biotech 117 (2003), 2. China is expected to soon commercialise GM
rice, NatBio 22 (2004), 642. Denmark has made growers liable for GM
co-existence contamination, AgraEurope (14 Nov. 2003), 8-9. There are
field trials of GM crops in 7 lander in Germany, AgraEurope (14 May
2004), 1. Australian farmers may accept GM crops when some
problems are solved, APBN 7 (2003), 1432 (No. 22),
www.asiabiotech.com. The WTO has decided that US cotton subsidies
are illegal, in a case brought by Brazil, NS (8 May 2004), 5, 8-9. On US
regulation of transgenic animals, NatBio 22 (2004), 637. A website for
review of GMO trials of vegetables is www.nbiap.vt.edu. Making
herbicide resistance withour genetic engineering may change the way
we regulate GMOs, Science 304 (2004), 1089. On the general future of
GM crops, Science 304 (2004), 959-60, 994-6.

Prehistoric GM corn is one way to consider the early emergence of

domesticated corn, Science 302 (2003), 1158-9. Transposons can be
classified as selfish DNA elements, Nature 429 (2004), 253-5. Control
of gene expression is developing as our understanding of DNA function
increases, NatBio 22 (2004), 686.
ELSI and bioterror research is called for in NatBio 22 (2004), 656.
The priorities for research on diseases which kill many more than terror
are questioned in Newsweek (5 April 2004), 41+. Regulation of US labs
that are doing research on sensitive issues related to bioterror is
discussed in Science 302 (2003), 962-3, 2054-7: 304 (2004), 687;
Lancet 363 (2004), 1532; NEJM 350 (2004), 2119-20, 2121-3. A
discussion of anthrax powder technology is Science 302 (2003), 14927. Modelling of disease outbreaks in urban social networks is made in
Nature 429 (2004), 180-4. Technology challenges in responding to
attacks are reviewed in Science 302 (2003), 1350-4. Boston may
consider to ban bioterror studies, Science 304 (2004), 665. On
agroterror, The Scientist (10 May 2004), 50-1.
A report criticizing non-food GM crops has been made by GeneWatch UK,
AgraFood Biotech 127 (26 April 2004), 8. The question of whether there are drugs in
Mexican GM crops is raised in NatBio 22 (2004), 803. Bt cotton is expanding in
China, AgraFood Biotech 129 (24 May 2004), 8. There are concerns that the
combination of Bt and herbicide tolerance may lead to longer persistence of
herbicides in the soil, NS (21 Aug. 2004), 18.The presence of Bt toxin genes in
USmaize refuges is reported in AgraFood Biotech 129 (24 May 2004), 26. In Germany
farmers are lukewarm in support for Bt maize because the European corn borer is not
so common, AgraFood Biotech 130 (7 June 2004), 2. The UK has a single list of
approved GM crops, NS (19 June 2004), 45.
A summary of concerns in Japan over the regulation of GM crops is Watanabe, KN.
et al. "Japanese controversies over transgenic crop regulation", Science 305 (2004),
1572. Some local prefectures are considering bans on GM crops, NatBio 22 (2004),
943. The regulations on rDNA in Japan are criticized as being too restrictive in
NatMed. 10 (2004), 557. India may need a stronger GMO regulatory body, Science
304 (2004), 1579. The Cartegena Protocol is discussed in NatBio 22 (2004), 811-2.
The need for sharing benefits of biotechnology in developing countries is stressed in
FAO's report, State of Food and Agriculture 2003-2004, SA (Aug. 2004), 3; Food
Chemical News (24 May 2004), 7-8; also in a UN report, Nature 430 (2004), 5; NS (3
July 2004), 3; and a PAHO report, AgraFood Biotech 121 (2 Feb. 2004), 4. The
precautionary principle is discussed in European Voice (10 June 2004), 8; (17 June
2004), 26.
Reviews of issues in the safety of GM crops include Heinemann, JA. & Traavik, T.
"Problems in monitoring horizontal gene transfer in field trials of transgenic plants",
NatBio 22 (2004), 1105-9; Nielsen, KM. & Townsend, JP. "Monioring and modeling
horizontal gene transfer", NatBio 22 (2004), 1110-4; 1076. A study of the functions of
genes that are horizontally transferred in prokaryotes is NatGen 36 (2004), 760-6.
Host-parasite gene transfer in flowering plants is reported in Science 305 (2004),
334-5, 676-8. A study on the growth and competitive ability of a transgenic Trifolium
subterraneum species is Hereditas 140 (2004), 229-44. On invasive species, Science

305 (2004), 1100-1. On Argentinian experiments on GM crops, NS (3 July 2004), 47.

The EU has approved Syngenta's Bt11 corn which is also grown in Argentina, Food
Chemical News (31 May 2004), 7. The development of local GM crops is discussed in
NatBio 22 (2004), 1055. Proposed changes to the US review of GMOs are discussed in
Food Chemical News (21 June 2004), 8-9. The USDA has said there will be less
secrecy in biopharm oversight, Food Chemical News (7 June 2004), 7-8.
A review on genetic control of mosquitoes and malaria control is EMBO Reports 5
(2004), 847-50. A study suggesting GM mosquitoes are less fit is in PNAS 101 (Jan.
2004); AgraFood Biotech 121 (2 Feb 2004), 25. Concerns over the seven times larger
size of GM salmon are discussed in PNAS 101 (7 June 2004); SA (Aug. 2004), 16;
NatBio 22 (2004), 831. The use of media and TV drama to reduce pesticide use in
Vietnam and Laos is described in Nature 430 (2004), 284. On ecogenomics, Science
305 (2004), 618-9.
Biodefense research is questioned in GeneWatch 17 (May 2004), 12-14. The
ethics of bioterrorism research is discussed in BME 198 (May 2004), 13-20. An artist
in the USA who obtained bacteria in the post has had charges reduced from bioterror
to mail fraud, Nature 429 (2004), 690; 430 (2004), 130. Attempts by Drosophila
researchers to allow mailing of live fruitflies legally are being made, Nature 429
(2004), 791.
A review of several US state laws on bioterror is AJPH 94 (2004), 1093-102; see
also, Science 305 (2004), 768-9. A book review of The Anthrax Letters is JAMA 292
(21 July 2004); and of Spores, Plagues and History: The Story of Anthrax, Lancet 364
(2004), 239-40. A rapid anthrax test has been approved by the US FDA, JAMA 292
(2004), 30; and on vaccine development and production, NatBio 22 (2004), 792. A
liquid crystal test for anthrax is discussed in NS (12 June 2004), 22. Posttraumatic
stress among survivors of bioterrorism is discussed in JAMA 292 (2004), 566. In
general on bioterror research, JAMA 291 (2004), 2933; Lancet 364 (2004), 393-4, 44952; Sexuality, Reproduction & Menopause 2 (June 2004); Nature 429 (2004), 603; 430
(2004), 388, 822; 431 (2004), 17; Science 304 (2004), 1726-7; 305 (2004), 1228-9;
Food Chemical News (21 June 2004), 10-1. The dangers of crossing avian and human
flu viruses is debated in Science 305 (2004), 594-5. Protests again a biosafety lab in
Montana is ongoing, Science 305 (2004), 1088. The public policy decisions for
approval of smallpox vaccine research are discussed in AJPH 94 (2004), 943-7.

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Commercial Introduction of Transgenics in developing countries - Some points to
ponder
-

S. Seshadri, K. Kathiravan, S. Ignacimuthu and

S. Janarthanan

Entomology Research Institute, Loyola College, Chennai 600 034, India. #Department of
Zoology, Thiagarajar College, Madurai 625009, India.
*
For Correspondence
E-mail: tsseshadri@rediffmail.com
Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 12 (2002), 57-59.
Slowly transgenics have been finding their way into the agricultural fields of developing
countries. After some debate India has approved use of Bt cotton. Planting of transgenics,
ostensibly, are reported to reduce the pesticide use and save much money. There are
for1and against2 groups on the introduction of Bt crops, which are commercialized now
for the control of insect pests in fields. Howsoever the decision of the countries in
introducing transgenics may be, there are some points still, on which the world is still
debating. Recently the Ecological Society of America has called for greater scrutiny of
genetically modified organisms (GMOs) than those of organisms produced by traditional
breeding practices citing the risks including creation of new or hardier pests, harm to
non-target organisms and loss or changes to biodiversity. They lay stress on the need for
more peer-reviewed research on the potential environmental effects of GMOs3. We
hereunder present some of those points that would be useful for discussion and further
refinement.
1. Bt crops kill only target pests
The world is divided and is yet to come to a conclusion that Bt crops do less harm to the
non-target insect pests. In the Bacillus thuringiensis toxin spray trials most of insects viz.
Ploidia interpunctella4, Heliothis virescens5, Plutella xylostella6 are reported to acquire
resistance. This kind of resistance cannot be ruled out in case of transgenics. Examples of
highly effective plant pest systems are Bt maize and the European corn borer7, Bt potato
and the Colorado beetle8 and Bt oilseed rape and the diamond back moth9. However,
especially the Bt cotton had come under criticism where in Bt cotton reduction in
expression resulted in surival of lepidopteran pests of intermediate Bt sensitivity in cotton
fields10. Some reports11 indicate that lepidopteran pests are less or not sensitive to Bt.
Most of the publications regarding the non-target insect studies are reported from
laboratory trials only. But there is an arguement that there may not be a threat to nontarget organisms on use of Bt crops. Some are of the opinion that the cotton cultivars with
boll specific ICP expression might need the aid of chemical insecticides when pest
densities are very high.
2. Gene pollution
Even though it is said that there will be no gene pollution, there is a fear that genes may
find their presence in the soil, in turn would be taken up by the soil living bacteria, which
would find its way into the gastrointestinal tracts of human beings and cattle. A recent
report on the presence of tetracycline resistant genes in groundwater as far as a sixth of a
mile downstream from swine facilities producing antibiotics12 can well be considered for
transgenics cases. According the authors, the evolution of genes are there due to use of
tetracycline in farms, which are transferred to bacteria that can travel a long distance in
the environment. The finding of horizontal transfer of genes in in-situ conditions is the
significant report in this present context.
Even though they are succumbed to various pest problems, most Bt crops still have
antibiotic resistant genes, promoter, terminator and other marker genes like GUS, etc that

may lead to various unexpected problems. Some are of the opinion nullifying this as
trivial and gene transfer does not happen in nature citing the short half life of the plant
DNA, the checks mouted by nucleases in gastrointestinal tracts, restriction enzymes and
other digestion enzymes produced by gut bacteria. As the effects are yet to be studied in
detail there arises the need to address this in utilitarian point of view.
3. Refugia
Scientists recommend the use of refugia while planting transgenics13,14. The advantage of
"refugia' discussed are to delay the development of Bt resistance in the target pest
population13. For Bt maize, in US, refuge areas of 4-30% of non-Bt maize area has been
recommended15. Scientists have started debating on the percent of refuges required for
each Bt crop14,16,17. But unlike West and US large areas may not be possible in developing
countries where the per capita land availability is less and smallholdings dominate the
agricultural scenario. If introduced in the small apportioned fragmented cultivable plots,
this may result in the loss of more farmers lives, where the benefactor will be the
transgenic planter and the loser will be the farmer planting non-Bt crops surrounding the
transgenic plots. In agriculturally dependant developing countries one cannot expect
more than 10 acres of solid plantation unless all the farmers in an area are convinced on
the advantages of transgenics. If not so, what would be the alternative? This has to be
answered immediately. Another case is the planting a transgenic by a small farmer. If
farmers with a land of 2 or three acres opt to transgenic and the area of refugia has to be
worked out differently to a huge US farm. It was also reported that, the contribution of
refuges would depend on several aspects of their management including their proximity
to GM crops and the extent to which they are treated with conventional pesticides18.
Hence a convincing area required for plantation and the set of package of practice for
each and every area (Bt crop dominating area, mixed cropping area and non-Bt
dominating area etc.) has to be worked out and promulgated effectively for a successful
implementation.
4. Insect resistance
Insect resistance is a great mishap in any plant crop that is planted as monocrop and in
mass scale. In the past, chemical pesticides application had come under attack and the
emphasis was implied to the routine and direct use of pesticides in higher amounts. More
than 500 species of insects have become resistant to conventional insecticides and there is
empirical evidence that they can also adopt to Bt toxins19. Thus the loss of Bt toxin to pest
resistance could have significant environmental consequences20. Cotton pests selected for
resistance to one or more Bt toxins include Heliothis virescens21, Spodoptera exigua22 and
Helicoverpa Zea23. Even in field conditions, a significant number of cotton growers have
experinced damage equivalent to control, due to H. armigera in Bt cotton fields24.
Plutella xylostella has been found to show higher resistance in field conditions14. In this
line some of questions that can be debated are 1) The half-life of the introduced gene
against target insect pests (this will help us to select or introduce a new gene for
incorporation before 100% breakdown occurs in field conditions) 2) Their specific targets
and implications there upon 3) The remedy if insect breaks down the resistance 4) The
consequential pyramiding effects if the insect breakdown occurs, etc.
5. Economy
Where farmers find it difficult to afford the cost of traditional seeds and related
agricultural practices, it is utmost important to workout economy on using the transgenics

and it is also worthier to think the cost-benefit particulars on planting them in large scale.
The issue and procurement price, market trend in leniant and flooded market scenario are
to be taken into account for a better appraisal. The crop promotion cost should be less
when compared to the conventional methods. Some reports say, transgenics (mustard)
can yield 20-25% more than average. It is a known fact, most of the farmers in
developing countries do not nourish their crops according to the prescription. There needs
a fair comparison of proper ecoagrotechnology vs transgenic technology. For successful
implementation of transgenics working out of the comparative cost-benefit ratio is a
must.
_@
6. Environment and health
The soil bound toxins are reported to retain greater insecticidal activity than the free
toxin. Reports indicates, binding of Bacillus thuringiensis subsp kurstaki toxins in the
clays, humic acids and clay humic acid complexes, after harvest of Bt crops, which
reduces their susceptibility to degradation by microbes25. These may have ecological
effects that need reevaluation under mass scale planting of Bt crops.
Allergies are reported to be a predominant problem associated with the trangenics. The
Starlink case in US is the best example. The Starlink gene protein found in American taco
shells were attributed to cross-pollination or mixing through silos or transporation that
had cost the producer, Aventis to pay around $100 million as compensation. Nobody
knows the resultant allergy related problems that may crop up on using transgenics in a
long run. This needs to be addressed immediately considering the poor laws that support
the farmers's cause in compensating the farmers in distressed conditions. In this scenario,
these countries must draw foolproof transgenic related laws to monitor and control the
producers and protect the end users.
Most of the traditional farmers have the habit of saving the seeds for their future purpose.
The most important question to be answered is, what if, if if farmers saves and reuses the
seeds (the seeds may have been pollinated by pollens from adjacent non-Bt crops or
through inbreeding and may lose the traits) for further use.
7. Traditional vs. Trangenic
Almost all the developing countries lack an organized marketing sector for selling their
produce and the grains markets are being controlled by the traders only. With this, the
consumers never had the chance of identifying the right preferred quality of grain from
these markets. There is also a lack of regulations to streamline the market to function
fairly. Recently the spurt is there from consumer societies alerting the public on the right
of knowing the quality, origin etc. Given the transgenic contamination in the traditional
varieties even in the developed Western markets and US, it may be highly difficult in the
developing countries to provide pure transgenic and traditional products separately to the
consumers. These countries even do not have sophisticated testing procedures or can
employ such sophisticated gadgets for the purpose. Moreover, the US experience says,
the contamination is mainly from the cross-pollination in the field from one field to
another. Considering the fragmentation of farm plots and poor availability of other
resources, it is highly unlikely that we may have pure transgenics or non-Bt varieties in
plots or markets. This will in a long run ruin the farmers' independency in planting a
variety of will, but will force them to take up the dictated varieties only.
8. Poverty vs. Science

Most of the economists say, the poverty in the world countries is not due to poor
availability of food grains. According to Amartya Sen, the root cause of the famine is not
the non-availability of resources of food materials but the inability of people to earn
money due to joblessness created by unemployment. It is nothing but the purchasing
power of the poor and not the physical shortage of food26,27. For example, if the stocks in
godowns are considered, India should be largest producer of grains in the world. Against
the required minimum stock (as on January 2001) of 16.8 million India has the stock of
45.7 million tonnes, which is roughly three times higher than the requirement28. Hence,
poverty should not be cited as the only reason, if India like countries prefers to go for
transgenics.
When Green Revolution was at full swing, William C. Paddock26 wrote, "To many the
green revolution is a turning point in man's long war against the biological limitations of
the earth." Some of his observations include, 1) The new varieties require irrigation,
water, fertilizer, and additional labor. All are expensive. For the farmer, this means
financial risk that may lead to debt. 2) To feed the world population requires the use of
agricultural chemicals, the pollutants of which will have a deletorious effect on our
children and on their children and 3) The governments of hungry nations will once again
turn their thoughts away from the No. 1 problem of solving the agricultural and rural
problems of their countries and resume their emphasis on pacifying the cities and
worshipping the idol of industrialization.
Apart from increased food grain production what we see now, as a consequence of Green
revolution, is the polluted dead soils, putrefacted lagoons and river and ocean pollution
and alteration of aquatic flora and fauna due to indiscriminate use of pesticides and
fertilizers. We must be cautious in our every positive move, that we do not allow one to
think that we again rehearse the same conditions due to transgenics introduction. Issues
that warrants are input requirements, farmers's financial risk, purchasing power,
economy, deletorious effects, and the unknown risk that may accrue in future. One has
been pushed to the state of thinking the post introduction pest breakdown and the suitable
alternatives. Moreover, the implementation of IPM has also suffered due to economic
conditions, availability of resources, availability of small farm plots, varieties used,
assorted cropping patterns, that made IPM adoption poor.
Hence, a thorough risk assessment of every GM plant to be released is essential and, in
addition, post approval monitoring of natural enemies should also be employed once
insect resistant GM plants are grown on a large commercial scale18. We suggest, the
farming system and farmers' plight, consumers and their awareness and markets also
should be analysed for a successful sustained implementation of the Bt crops. In addition,
people's perception also plays a great role in deciding a technology to be adopted. New
Zealand shows the way for this in obtaining public opinion on introduction of GM, where
it has made a broad and well focussed consultation. The Royal Commission established
by New Zealand on Genetic Modification as applied to research, medicine and
agriculture29 is a new line of thought in this direction. This will help the countries to face
the immediate challenges on introducing the transgenics. This kind of surveys and
commissions also can be instituted at least to make aware of the public and to draw more
consultations from various groups from their own country.
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