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Introduction

Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

Soft Sensors for Monitoring


Antanas Verikas
Intelligent Systems Lab, Halmstad University,
Box 823, 30118 Halmstad, Sweden
antanas.verikas@hh.se

2009 September

Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

Soft sensor definition


Techniques and tasks

Definitions
Soft sensor is a common name for software where several
measurements are processed together. There may be dozens
or even hundreds of measurements. The interaction of the
signals can be used for calculating new quantities that can not
be measured.
Soft sensors or inferential calculators are operators virtual
eyes. Soft sensors create windows to a process where physical
equivalents are unrealistic or even impossible.
Sensor output can be a control signal, advisory information for
operators, predictions of product quality, information on
process faults or outliers in data.
Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

Soft sensor definition


Techniques and tasks

Techniques

Neural networks (NN)


Neuro-fuzzy systems
Kernel methods (support vector machines)
Multivariate statistical analysis
Data fusion (Dempster-Shafer theory, for example)
Image analysis

Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

Soft sensor definition


Techniques and tasks

Tasks

Outlier detection in process data


Process and system monitoring
Fault diagnosis
Defect detection
Trend detection
Monitoring uncertainty of predictions

Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

Basic information
Distance from the data center
Residual analysis, Influence measures
Classification techniques

Outliers, high leverage points


There are two types of outliers: in the X-space, called leverage
points, and in the y-space. The goal is to eliminate bad leverage
points and outliers in the y-space. The most difficult problem is to
distinguish between good and bad leverage points.





\

[

Figure: Data point 1 is outlier in y -space, data points 2 and 3 are


outliers in x-space. Data point 2 is a good leverage point and data point
3 is a bad leverage point.
Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

Basic information
Distance from the data center
Residual analysis, Influence measures
Classification techniques

Robust statistics
Use robust statistics (scaling, PCA, covariance matrix) to increase
effectiveness of outlier detection.
A robust estimate of scale can be obtained using the median
absolute deviation of the median (MADM) defined as
d

med|x med(x)|
0.6745

(1)

The divisor is a correction factorif the number of samples is large


then d is approximately equal to the actual standard deviation of
the true distribution of x.

Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

Basic information
Distance from the data center
Residual analysis, Influence measures
Classification techniques

Robust sample estimates


It is very important to protect sample estimates from outliers
influence. Below is the list of methods allowing to select
observations, consistent with the majority.
1

Resampling by half means (RHM)

The smallest half volume (SHV)

The closest distance to the center (CDC)

Minimum volume ellipsoid (MVE)

Minimum scatter determinant (MSD)

Sample estimates are then computed based on the selected data.


These estimates are used for scaling and outlier detection.
Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

Basic information
Distance from the data center
Residual analysis, Influence measures
Classification techniques

Categorization of techniques (1)


Methods based on distance from the data center:
PCA based techniques
Techniques analyzing the projection matrix
H = X(XT X)1 XT , where X is an N K data matrix with K
being the data dimensionality and N the number of
observations.

Methods based on the difference between the predicted


and actual values of a dependent variable:
Residuals
Influence measures

Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

Basic information
Distance from the data center
Residual analysis, Influence measures
Classification techniques

Categorization of techniques (2)

Classification techniques. A classifier separates data into


the outlier and normal classes.
Robust estimators are used instead of the common least
square estimator.
The least absolute deviation (LAD)
The least median of squares (LMS) are representatives of the
group.

Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

Basic information
Distance from the data center
Residual analysis, Influence measures
Classification techniques

PCA (1)
The ith transformed variable zi , which is known as PC or score is
zi = hxpi i

(2)

where pi is the ith column of the loading matrix P.


Scores are normally distributed as long as the process does not
deviate from the normal operating conditions. Thus, the T 2
statistic can be used to detect deviations from the normality. The
T 2 statistic, based on M components, for a data point i is:
Ti2 =

M
X
zij2
j=1

sj2

where sj2 stands for the variance of zj .


Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

(3)

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

Basic information
Distance from the data center
Residual analysis, Influence measures
Classification techniques

PCA (2)
The variable
Ti2

N(N M)
M(N 2 1)

(4)

is F -distributed with M and N M degrees of freedom. The


threshold for the T 2 statistic is
T2 =

M(N 2 1)
F (M, N M)
N(N M)

(5)

where F (M, N M) is the upper 100% critical point of the F


distribution with M and N M degrees of freedom.

Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

Basic information
Distance from the data center
Residual analysis, Influence measures
Classification techniques

PCA (3)
The portion of the input space corresponding to the K M
smallest eigenvalues can be monitored using the Q statistic (2 )
Q = eT e

(6)

e = (I PPT )x

(7)

where
is the residual vector. The threshold Q for the Q statistic can be
computed from the eigenvalues and the normal deviate
corresponding to the 1 percentile.

Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

Basic information
Distance from the data center
Residual analysis, Influence measures
Classification techniques

H matrix
hi = xi (XT X)1 xT
i

the cut-off value is

2K /N

The cut-off value for the Jackknife residual ti (next slide) is given
by t0.95 (N-K-1)the 95% quantile of the Student distribution.

Jackknife residuals

5
0

0.2

0.4
0.6
High leverage

0.8

Figure: Outliers are denoted by o and normal data points with +.


Lines illustrate the cut-off values.
Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

Basic information
Distance from the data center
Residual analysis, Influence measures
Classification techniques

Residual analysis, Influence measures

Measure based on

Formula
r
(NK 1)
ti = ti (NK
t 2 )

Residuals

Cut-off value
t(N K 1)

ei2
eT e

2(K 1)
N

Conf. Ellipsoid Volume

hi = hi +

Influence Function

p
p
WKi = |ti | hi (1 hi ) 2 K /N

ti = e i

(1hi )

ei = yi ybi

Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

Basic information
Distance from the data center
Residual analysis, Influence measures
Classification techniques

Classification techniques
Can be supervised or unsupervised. In the unsupervised case, the
detector is trained by finding a hypersphere of the minimum radius
r that contains most of the data points from a set Xt .
The function f (x) used to categorize x is:
N
X


f (x) = H (x, x) 2
i (xi , x) + T

(8)

i=1

where (x, x) is a kernel, i and T are found by maximizing


W () =

N
X

i (xi , xi )

i=1

subject to

PN

i=1 i

N X
N
X

i j (xi , xj )

i=1 j=1

= 1 and 0 i 1/N, i = 1, ..., N.

Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

(9)

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

Basic information
Distance from the data center
Residual analysis, Influence measures
Classification techniques

Combining different measures


Process Data
Yes

Contradictory Data?

CDC

RA

AANN

Data Diagnostic Measures

Fuzzy Expert

Neural Network
Inlier

Outlier

Figure: (Left): The flowchart of data processing (CDC=closest distance


to centre; RA=regression analysis; AANN=autoassociative neural
network). (Right): The process model network and the AANN.
Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

PCA and PLS based monitoring


Kernel PCA-based monitoring
Monitoring by AANN
Monitoring the uncertainty of prediction

PCA based monitoring


The T 2 statistic, based on M components and SPEy are given
by:
2
TM
=

M
X
zj2

;
2

j=1

sj

SPEy =

K
X

(yi ybi )2

(10)

i=M+1

where sj2
zj = pT
j y

is the variance of zj .
is the jth score , where pj is the jth column of the
loading matrix P, and y is the multivariate process output.
2 is:
An upper limit (UL) for the TM
2
TUL
=

M(N 1)(N + 1)
F (M, N M)
N(N M)
Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

(11)

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

PCA and PLS based monitoring


Kernel PCA-based monitoring
Monitoring by AANN
Monitoring the uncertainty of prediction

PLS based monitoring


PLS extracts variables that explain the variation in X which is
most predictive of Y.
PLS uses the sample covariance matrix (XT Y)(YT X).
The first variable z1 = wT x maximizes the covariance
between z1 and the Y space, w1 is the first eigenvector of
(XT Y)(YT X).
T
w2 is the first eigenvector of XT
2 YY X2 , where
T
X2 = X z1 p1 is the deflation of X with p1 = Xz1 /(zT
1 z1 ).

Variables zi (scores) can be used for monitoring (via score


plots for example).
Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

e remaining sections of this paper are structured as


s. Section 2 explains kernel PCA and its properties.
In
Introduction
detection
n 3, the concepts outlined in Section Outlier
2 are used
to
Process monitoring
late the process fault detection method.
In Section
4,
Examples
ult identification strategy based on reconstruction is
d. The results of three kinds of experiments are
ted and discussed in Section 5. Finally, Section 6
es concluding remarks.

ka 1=nKa
PCA and PLS based monitoring
for bk>0,
where
a=[a1 a2. . .an]T. The centered
Kernel
PCA-based
monitoring
Monitoring
by
AANN

matrix K is easily calculated using the noncentered


Monitoring the uncertainty of prediction

matrix K: K=KKEEK+EKE, where Eij=1/n. To e


the normality of the principal component, i.e., NvN
the calculated a must be scaled such that they s
NaN2 =1/nk.

Kernel PCA-based monitoring (1)

Fig. 1. Graphical depiction of the various metrics in kernel PCA.

The sample covariance matrix in the feature space


P
T
e
e
e i ) = (xi ) m
(x
= N1 N
i=1 (xi )(xi )
P
m = N1 N
i=1 (xi )
Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

PCA and PLS based monitoring


Kernel PCA-based monitoring
Monitoring by AANN
Monitoring the uncertainty of prediction

Kernel PCA-based monitoring (2)


A Mahalanobis type distance in the feature space can be considered
as a dissimilarity between a point x and the training data
e T ( )1 (x)
e
E (x) = (x)
e is obtained by replacing all zero or
The regularized covariance
near-zero eigenvalues of by a constant c
e = VVT + c (I VVT )

where is the diagonal matrix of nonzero eigenvalues


1 p of and V is the matrix of the corresponding
eigenvectors v1 , , vp
P
ke
k
vk = N
i=1 i (xi ), 1 k p, where i are coefficients found
e
by solving the eigenvalue problem: = (1/N)K.
Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

PCA and PLS based monitoring


Kernel PCA-based monitoring
Monitoring by AANN
Monitoring the uncertainty of prediction

Kernel PCA-based monitoring (3)


e
The kth projection (score) tk of the centered value (x)
is
obtained
P
k e
e
e
tk = hvk , (x)i
= N
i=1 i h(xi ), (x)i
e , E (x) can be split into two terms:
Using
p
p
X
X

1 e
1
2
2
2
e
e
hvk , (x)i +
k(x)k
hvk , (x)i
E (x) =
k
c
k=1
T 1

= t

k=1

t + (c )

e (x, x) tT t)
(K

Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

PCA and PLS based monitoring


Kernel PCA-based monitoring
Monitoring by AANN
Monitoring the uncertainty of prediction

Kernel PCA-based monitoring (4)

E (x) represents the estimated statistic for characterizing the


likelihood of x. The first and the second terms of E (x) represent
the distance in the feature space and the distance from the feature
space, respectively.
Similar to the T 2 and SPE statistics in the linear PCA, the
e (x, x) tT t
corresponding statistics Tf2 = tT 1 t and SPEf = K
can be monitored to detect faults. It is assumed that training data
are multivariate normal in the feature space.

Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

PCA and PLS based monitoring


Kernel PCA-based monitoring
Monitoring by AANN
Monitoring the uncertainty of prediction

AANN with orthogonal bottleneck layer outputs

Acta 515 (2004) 101108

Objective function F
F = SSE + (1 )
P P
s
= Si=1 Sj=i+1 siji sj
si , sj variance of ui and uj
sij covariance of ui and uj
For the ith data point
P
SPEi = R
xij )2
j=1 (xij b

Five layer autoassociative neural network topology used for


ear principal component analysis. Non-linear scores (u) are obAntanas
Soft Sensors
for u:
Monitoring
after the bottleneck layer (W: weights;
b: Verikas
bias; t: linear
scores;

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

PCA and PLS based monitoring


Kernel PCA-based monitoring
Monitoring by AANN
Monitoring the uncertainty of prediction

Confidence limits (1)


J.A. Lopes, J.C. Menezes / Analytica Chimica Acta 515 (2004) 101108

105

Fig. 2. Non-linear scores obtained for the 102 nominal runs (+) where each score represents a run (multiway approach). Three faulty runs () were
projected on the model (left: confidence limits assuming normal distribution, 95 and 99%; right: confidence limits based on the density estimation method,
95 and 99%).

Figure: Non-linear scores obtained for the 102 nominal runs (+). Three
faulty runs () were projected on the model (Left: confidence limits
assuming normal distribution, 95 and 99%;PRight: confidence
limits based

N
xxi
1
on the kernel density estimate b
f (x) = Nh
,
95
and
99%).
K
i=1
h
Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

PCA and PLS based monitoring


Kernel PCA-based monitoring
Monitoring by AANN
Monitoring the uncertainty of prediction

Confidence limits (2)


356

F. Doymaz et al. / Journal of Process Control 11 (2001) 343359

Fig. 7. On-line monitoring, snapshot-1. Normal trending can be observed both in the scores and in the SPE plots.

Figure: Normal trending is observed in both the scores and SPE plots.
Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

PCA and PLS based monitoring


Kernel PCA-based monitoring
Monitoring by AANN
Monitoring the uncertainty of prediction

Confidence limits (3)

Fig. 7. On-line monitoring, snapshot-1. Normal trending can be observed both in the scores and in the SPE plots.

Fig. 8. On-line monitoring, snapshot-2. As soon as the failure of sensor 11 is introduced, it manifests itself as dierent cluster in the lower left scores
plot. In addition, the SPE indicates this event by spotting clearly above the 95% condence limit.

Figure: The failure of sensor 11 manifests itself as a different cluster in


the lower left scores plot. The SPE also indicates this event.
Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

PCA and PLS based monitoring


Kernel PCA-based monitoring
Monitoring by AANN
Monitoring the uncertainty of prediction

Confidence limits (4)

Fig. 9. On-line monitoring, snapshot-3. After sensor 11 got back to normal, now the scores plots point the location of the dark clusters to dierent
place, indicating a new type of failure.

Fig. 10. On-line monitoring, snapshot-4. Flooding manifests itself in more process signals as time passes. Activity in the scores plot also indicates an
abnormal trending in the system.

Figure: An abnormal trending in the system.


Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

PCA and PLS based monitoring


Kernel PCA-based monitoring
Monitoring by AANN
Monitoring the uncertainty of prediction

Detecting sensor faults and process upsets (1)


At time t when the SPElimit is violated, one can go one step back
in each sensor array and calculate the SPE again
x1 = [x1 (t 1), x2 (t), ..., xp (t)] SPE1 = kx1 b
x1 k2
x2 = [x1 (t), x2 (t 1), ..., xp (t)]

SPE2 = kx2 b
x2 k2

.....................................
xp = [x1 (t), x2 (t), ..., xp (t 1)]

SPEp = kxp b
xp k2

where xj is a vector containing measurements for all sensors at


time t, but t 1 sample for sensor j, b
xj is the model estimate.
The sensor j = arg mini SPEi is the most probable candidate of
being the fault sensor.
Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

PCA and PLS based monitoring


Kernel PCA-based monitoring
Monitoring by AANN
Monitoring the uncertainty of prediction

Detecting sensor faults and process upsets (2)


Different sensors are usually highly correlated
CC =

cov (xi , xj )
xi xj

(12)

where the vectors xi and xj are taken from a moving window


containing the current sample and a number of past samples.
CCs are compared with the ones obtained from the training
data.
A failure in one sensor affects readings of only that sensor.
The unavailable sensor values can be reconstructed from the
remaining sensors using the initial (calibration) model.
Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

PCA and PLS based monitoring


Kernel PCA-based monitoring
Monitoring by AANN
Monitoring the uncertainty of prediction

Bayesian approach
Two sources of errors: the noise on the target t2 (x), and the
variance of the output due to weights (parameters) uncertainty
w2 (x). These two terms are independent, thus:
y2 (x) = w2 (x) + t2 (x)

(13)

t2 (x) is often assumed to be constant and approximated by


t2 (x) = 2ED /(N )

(14)

where ED is the training set error and is the number of


well-determined model parameters.
w2 (x) = gT (x)H1 g(x)

(15)

H is the Hessian matrix and g (x) = y (x)/w is the gradient of


the model output.
Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

well [6] in a neural


This approach is computationally fast, does not
Introduction
PCA and
monitoring
al network context in
increase the input
dimensionality
ofPLS
thebased
network
as
Outlier detection
Kernel PCA-based monitoring
ing, a similar method
in some Process
other
approaches Monitoring
to confidence
monitoring
by AANNinterval
r as the noise model
Monitoring
the uncertainty
of prediction
estimation, and Examples
does not rely
on the
smoothness
variance [7].
and peaked Gaussian assumptions of the Bayesian
the fact that for a
approach. However, it does rely on the ability of
quare error, the optithe neural network to approximate the conditional
mates the conditional
regression correctly. Hence model complexity and
x) t(x)x.
Hence
the local
bias-variance
dilemma
are issues which
need
to y (x)k2
For each x, the
variance
is estimated
as kt(x)
ay estimate the local
be addressed. Also note that if we make the
used
as the
for assumptions
the secondofnetwork.
this local
variance
is target
additional
a Gaussian noise distrir another 2neural
netbution,
then
we can
down aexpected
likelihood variance.
model,
(x) is an approximation
to write
the local
ut of this second netget value again. Howthis optimum output
to the local expected
a confidence interval.

NN-based approach

(10)

ctive error bars there


works. Each network
dden nodes, but has
eparate output nodes.
ed regression to the
the second one (the
he residual error sursurface is extracted

Fig. 1. The architecture of the predictive error network. The


second interlocking network which produces the confidence preFigure:
The
diction
is displayed
as apredictive
dotted line. error network.
Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

and

form:
hi t fh

X
na

Introduction
OutlierI detection
Wijmonitoring
p t  j
Process
Examples
j0



nc
X

W H h l t 

Chemical industry
Forest industry

nTextile
b
X
industry
^y t  k
Machinery
WikR ^

Electronics industry
k1
Paper-making industry
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1 bH
i

il
Predicting online biomass
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an RNN, the in
processed (scaled
range [-1,1]. This
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case, the output
the range [-1,1].

Recurrent NN
to pcapture
dynamic
information
theneural
input-output
^y isinthe
where
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network
input, ^
network
and h volume,
is the hidden
feed output
rate, liquid
and neurons
dissolvedoutput.
oxygen.
data. Inputs:

Fig. 1 Structure of the proposed neural soft sensor


Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Fig. 2 Four dieren

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

120

Chemical industry
Forest industry
Textile industry
Machinery
Electronics industry
Paper-making industry
Printing industry

Detecting sound and dead knots in wood


A potential defect area is determined by the statistical t-test for
equality of average R intensities of the area and a clear wood area.
Classification is based on histograms of intensity variance.
118

Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

278

Chemical industry
Forest industry
Textile industry
Machinery
Electronics industry
Paper-making industry
Printing industry

O. Silven et al.: Wood inspection w

SOM based detection of wood defects (1)


a

Fig. 6ag. Real detections. Parts a,An


b and
d are clear.
Also the parts
c and
e are unambiguous while
f and g are
image
is divided
into
non-overlapping
regions.

Percentiles of R, G, and B intensity histograms of


a region and differences of the percentiles are the
features fed into the self-organizing map (SOM).
Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

Chemical industry
Forest industry
Textile industry
Machinery
Electronics industry
Paper-making industry
Printing industry

SOM based detection of wood defects (2)


280

O. Silven et al.: Wood inspection with non-supervised clustering

Fig. 10. Detection SOM: The


dashed lines are manually drawn,
pessimistic (upper) and optimistic
(lower) approximations of the
boundary between sound wood and
defects

Detection SOM: The dashed lines are manually drawn, pessimistic


(upper) and optimistic (lower) approximations of the boundary
between sound-wood and defects.
Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

Chemical industry
Forest industry
Textile industry
Machinery
Electronics industry
Paper-making industry
Printing industry

SOM based detection of wood defects (3)


O. Silven et al.: Wood inspection with non-supervised clustering

Fig. 15. Classicati


fects with similar a
close to each other

Classification SOM: Defects with similar appearance are close to


each other.
Antanas Verikas

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

Chemical industry
Forest industry
Textile industry
Machinery
Electronics industry
Paper-making industry
Printing industry

SOM based detection of wood defects (4)

Fig. 15. Classi


fects with simil
close to each oth

Fig. 15. Classication SOM. Defects with similar appearance are


close to each other

Fig. 16ac. Defects mapped to three different SOM nodes: a dry


knots; b sound knots; and c shakes

Fig. 16ac. Defects mapped to three different S


Results for classifying human-detected defects

knots;pixels
b sound
knots;
c shakes
with feature set 1 and 3232
regions
with aand
pessimistic
boundary. Error escapes and thus non-classied defects were
2.5% of total defects.

Two different recognition tests were made. In the rst one


all human-labeled defects were classied in order to evaluate
The defects were classied based only on the regions that
the recognition power independently from detection capabilfor were
classifying
defects
with
featurephase,
set 1and
andeach
3232
pixels regions w
were detected by the
detection
suspected
ity. Results
The features
calculatedhuman-detected
from rectangular areas
that
boundary.
Error
escapestheand
thus non-classi
region was named to
match as well
as possible
humanhuman experts had marked to indicate the positions of the delabeled
confusion
matrixdefects.
is presented in Table 5.
fects.
In other
words, human-defect
was used
ratherIn the
Two
different
recognitiondetection
tests were
made.
rstregions.
one The2.5%
of total
false-alarm rate of 39.8% decreases to less than ve perthanall
thehuman-labeled
algorithm presented
in Figs.were
9 and classied
14. The results
defects
in of
order The
to evaluate
cent; however, the 2.5% error-escape rate grows to 12.8 %
the rst test are presented in Table 4.
The defects were classied based only on
the recognition
power
independently
from
detection
since
some
detected real defects are now classied as sound
Antanas
Verikas
Soft
Sensors
forcapabilMonitoring

Defects mapped onto 3 SOM nodes: a) dry knots; b) sound knots;


and c) shakes.

slack-end, netting-multiplies, thin-bar, oil-stain, etc. Fig. 6


Introduction
-15
shows
segmentation of some of the diAerent fabric defects
10
Outlier detection
with the mispick trained FFN. Comparing
the segmentation
Process
monitoring
of defect samples in Fig. 3 and their corresponding
segExamples
0
20
40
60
80
100
mentation
(with
mispick
trained
FFN)
in
Fig.
6,
it can 120
be
Training steps
observed that the results in Fig. 6 (before post-processing)
Fig. 4. Convergence of training error fro fabric defect mispick.

can
conclude
that these
defectspresent
can beindetected
successThirdly,
the
wrinkles
(crease)
the fabric
under
Chemical
industry
fully. However,
the degree
of segmentation
the amount
inspection
can alter
gray-level
arrangement (or
of neighboring
Forest
industry
of noise)
ofhence
defects
varies from
pixels,
and
generate
false defect
alarm to
or defect.
noise. Three posTextile
industry
sible reasons can be attributed to this variation. Firstly, the
Machinery
texture Real-time
of fabric
under
inspection is not exactly as same as
Electronics
industry
2.5.1.
implementation
Paper-making
thatCan
used
theindustry
training
FFN. Thisincan
be due toLet
(i) us
elastictheforFFN
be implemented
real-time?
conPrinting
industry
ity
of
yarns
and/or,
(ii)
variations
in thePCA)
alignment
sider the 5/1 FFN withrandom
25 inputs
(ignoring
used
of fabric with respect to camera. Secondly, the impurities
present in the yarns of the fabric also contribute to this noise.
Thirdly, the wrinkles (crease) present in the fabric under
inspection can alter gray-level arrangement of neighboring
pixels, and hence generate false alarm or noise.

MLP-based detection of textile defects


slack-end, netting-multiplies, thin-bar, oil-stain, etc. Fig. 6
shows segmentation of some of the diAerent fabric defects
with the mispick trained FFN. Comparing the segmentation
of defect samples in Fig. 3 and their corresponding segmentation (with mispick trained FFN) in Fig. 6, it can be
observed that the results in Fig. 6 (before post-processing)

Each pixel is characterized by a feature vectorgrey values from


2.5.1. Real-time and
implementation
the neighbourhood. PCs are then calculated
presented to a
Can the FFN be implemented in real-time? Let us consider the 5/1 FFN with 25 inputs (ignoring PCA) used
multilayer perceptron.
(a)

(d)

(g)

(j)

(b)
(a)

(e)
(d)

(h)
(g)

(k)
(j)

(b)
(c)

(e)
(f)

(h)
(i)

(k)
(m)

Fig. 5. Plain weave fabric samples with defect double weft, thin bar, broken ends, sleck-pick in (a), (d), (g) and (j), respectively; their

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360
Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

Chemical industry
Forest industry
Textile industry
Machinery
Electronics industry
Paper-making industry
Printing industry

Gabor filtering-based detection of textile defects (1)


A 2-D Gabor function is an oriented complex sinusoidal
grating modulated by a 2-D Gaussian. The Gaussian
has an aspect ratio of x /y . The sinusoid has a
spatial frequency of fo and an orientation .
Usually the X -axis of the Gaussian has the same
orientation as the sinusoidal wave.
( "
#)
h(x, y ) =

1
2x y

2
x2
+y
x2 y2

exp 12

exp{2jfo q(x, y )}

q(x, y ) = cos()x + sin()y

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R pq , pq are calculated using the standard expressions.


The
Chemical industry
Forest
feature difference image d pq (x, y)Introduction
is given by Eq.
(4).industry K 34 (x, y) = [K 3 (x, y) K 4 (x, y)]
d pq (x, y) = |T pq (x, y)

Outlier detection
monitoring
RProcess
pq |
Examples

Textile industry
Machinery
In stage three, the three fused imag
Electronics (4)
industry
tained, in stage two are combined u
Paper-making industry
Printing industry a single and final fused image K(x,

1 (2)
Gabor filtering-based detection of textile
defects
K (x,
y) = [K 12
(x, y) + K 23 (x,
3

Fig. 2 Feature extraction from reference/ideal image

The noises that occur in the var


tion can be removed from the fina
applying
filtering,
which
is ba
Fourdisc
scales:
p=
4 and
ing filter within the square matrix o
orientations:
q = as
4;1. So,
the radius
has been chosen
discFeaturesthe
filtered image is referred
meanto as
The
lastR
stage and
corresponds
to th
value
standard
filtered imagepq
KD(x, y) to provide
pq of
localdeviation
defects (objects)
arethe
clearly s
lar texture
(i.e.,
background).
This
filtered
image
energy.
thresholding the disk filtered image
low the chosen threshold are consid
background and values above the
as belonging to the defective areas.

Fig. 3 Fabric fault Segmentation System

K (x, y ) = [K12 (x, y ) + K23 (x, y ) + K34 (x, y )]/3


q
Kij (x, y ) = [Ki (x, y ) Kj (x, y )];

Antanas Verikas

Kp (x, y ) =

P4

2
q=1 [Spq (x, y )]

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Introduction
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Gabor filtering-based detection of textile defects (3)

Fig. 4 Fabric Fault Segmentation Results. a Ideal Weaves: from top to bottom Ribs top, Oxford, Twill, Drill, Twill and Satin; b Faulty Weaves:
from top to bottom Double pick, End out, Multiple break, Hook damage, Selvage float and Weft crack; c Final fused images; d Final segmented
images

Figure: a) Ideal weaves, b) faulty weaves, c) fused images, d) segmented.


5 Experimental results and discussion

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digitized using digital camera (Nikon Coolpix 3100; Resolution


2048
1536). for
FromMonitoring
the digitized images, regions
Soft
Sensors

Introduction
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Textile industry
Machinery
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ICA-based detection of textile defects (1)


An image is divided into overlapping windowsx vectors.
x = As, where A is the mixing matrix and s is the vector of
independent components.
Having A, s is obtained, s = Wx, where W is the pseudo inverse
of A obtained from defect-free images. The columns of the
de-mixing matrix W are called independent component filters.
Each window is checked for being defective. The defect detection
for a window i is based on computing the Euclidean distance
di = ||sm si ||2 and comparing it with a threshold, where sm is
the mean vector obtained from defect-free windows.
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ponents
130

that are extracted from non-defective


are Recognition
number
of dominant
O.G. Sezer etimages
al. / Pattern
40 (2007)
121
133 orientations appeared in the indepenChemical
industry
presented, then for each group, defect detection results are
dent components. Nevertheless, we are able to detect defects
Forest industry
Introduction
given from defective image classes, e1e4.
These images
even with this limited number of orientations.

Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

Textile industry
Machinery
Electronics industry
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ICA-based detection of textile defects (2)


Fig. 5. Independent components of c1r1 texture class from non-defective
images.

Fig. 7. Independent components of c1r3 texture class from non-defective


images.

Fig. 8. Detection results for TILDA images drawn from c1r3 texture class,  = 2.5.

Fig. 9. Independent components of c2r2 texture class from non-defective


images.

Fig. 11. Independent components of c2r3 texture class from non-defective


images.

Fig. 6. Detection results for TILDA images drawn from c1r1 texture class,  = 2.5.

Fig. 10. Detection results for TILDA images drawn from c2r2 texture class,  = 2.

Figure: The defect detection results for two classes of textures.


Quantitative results of the algorithm are given in Table 1.
Verikas
The results of the algorithm are givenAntanas
for defective
classes

In general, the algorithm has higher performance for the


Soft
for i.e.
Monitoring
rst
twoSensors
textile types,
c1r1 and c1r3. The structure of

Introduction
Outlier detection
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Examples

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Machinery
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SOM-based bearing degradation monitoring (1)


Features characterizing the vibration waveform are extracted and
used to train the SOM.
H. Qiu et al. / Advanced Engineering Informatics 17 (2003) 127140

Fig. 17. The enhanced signal of early stage defect.

to the ratio between two greatest eig


frequency 20,480/89Z230 Hz, which is very close to the
Antanas
Soft Sensors for Monitoringcovariance matrix of the input data.
BPFO 236.4
Hz. Verikas

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SOM-based bearing degradation monitoring (2)


SOM is trained using data from the normal operation. For a given
x the MQE is evaluated as MQE = ||x mBMU ||, where mBMU is the
weight vector of the best matching
of the
SOM.Informatics 17 (2003) 127140
H. Qiu et al.unit
/ Advanced
Engineering

Fig. 21. The MQE of three degradation processes (a) Test 1, bearing 3 (b) Test 1, bearing 4 (c
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SOM-based bearing degradation monitoring (3)

138

SOM is trained using data from all the operation conditions. The
U-matrix (matrix of distances between weights of SOM nodes) is
used to visualizeH.the
of the
degradation
Qiu et trajectory
al. / Advanced Engineering
Informatics
17 (2003) 127140process.

Fig. 19. The U-matrix and trajectory of degradation process of bearing 3 from test 1 (inner race failure).

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Detecting defects on surface of ceramics capacitors (1)


Examples of images of defective surfaces
1786

H.-D. Lin / Image and Vision Computing 25 (2007) 17851801

Fig. 1. Ripple defects of dierent shapes.

Gabor lters is a complicated task and these methods are


fabrics and machined surfaces. Numerous methods have
It
assumed
p defect
quality
characteristics
are
normally
distributed.
computationally
expensive
since the 2-D
convolution must
beenis
designed
to solve thethat
structural
inspection
tasks
be conducted in a sliding window throughout the entire
in textile fabrics [35]. On the other hand, statistical texThe
procedure
requires
computing
the
mean
of
the
characteristics
image. In addition, Gabor lters require proper tuning of
tures, also called random textures, cannot be described
lter parameters at dierent scales [14]. Kumar and Pang
primitives and displacement rules. They arise randomly
xby
from a sample of size n.
[15] propose supervised and unsupervised defect detection
in object surfaces, such as sandpapers, leathers, and cast
surfaces. Surface defects locally break the homogeneity of
a texture pattern. In general inspection of
randomVerikas
textures
Antanas

approaches for automated inspection of textile fabrics


using
wavelet
features.
Soft Gabor
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for Monitoring

Introduction
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Detecting defects on surface of ceramics capacitors (2)


An image is divided into blocks and the Hotelling T 2 statistic is
used to detect defects in each block.
T 2 = n(x )T 1 (x )
Since and are unknown, they are estimated from m samples
of size n. Therefore, each block is divided into m sub-blocks. The
statistic T 2 then is
T 2 = n(x x)T S1 (x x)
x and S are estimated from defect free images.
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Soft Sensors for Monitoring

3.3. Wavelet characteristic based multivariate T2 model


Introduction

The proposed multivariate statistical model


decomposes
Outlier detection
monitoring
an image of (M N) pixels into a set ofProcess
equal-size
subimagExamples
es, which are called units of multivariate processing.
Supposing each of the subimages has (m n) pixels, then the
original image has g h (i.e. Mm  Nn ) multivariate processing
units. Each of the multivariate processing units can be further decomposed into a b wavelet processing units. For
each wavelet processing unit, we can apply wavelet transform to the region of (ma  nb) pixels to obtain two wavelet

can beindustry
integrated to produce a T value through T s
Chemical
(Eq.
(7)). Therefore, one image of 256 256 pixels ca
Forest
industry
Textile
industry
struct
a T2 distance diagram with 64 64 T2 values
Machinery
An
Electronics image
industrycan be divided into many multivaria
cessing units.
Paper-making
industryLet a multivariate processing u
Printing
M(x,industry
y) and an original image be f(i, j). Fig. 3 prese

scopes of one multivariate processing unit and four w

Detecting defects on surface of processing


ceramics
capacitors
(3) mode
units in
the multivariate statistical

wavelet processing units C(xa,yb) can be dened


multivariate processing unit M(x, y), where a and
integers and (1 5 a, b 5 2). Thus, one M(x, y) includ

One multivariate processing unit of size 4 x 4 pixels


Four wavelet processing units of equal size 2 x 2 pixels

R component of RGB image

Wavelet
characteristics

Wavelet transform
Image
synthesis

AR

Approximated
characteristic

DR

Detail
characteristic

Feature extraction of image blocks


by wavelet transform

T2 distance diagram
Z : T 2 value
Defect locations
(high energy)

Y : 255
X : 255

X : Mean matrix of texture features


S : Covariance matrix of texture features

T 2 = n ( X X ) ' S 1 ( X X )
Fig. 2. The processes of the wavelet-based multivariate T2 model.

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Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Normal location
(low energy)

800

Introduction
Outlier detection
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Examples

Chemical industry
Forest industry
Textile industry
Machinery
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Detecting defects on surface of ceramics capacitors (4)


H.-D. Lin / Image and Vision Computing 25 (2007) 17851801

Fig. 15. Defects in dierent texture surfaces and their detection results by the the wavelet-based T2 statistical method.

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Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

Chemical industry
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Machinery
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The task
To develop soft sensors for on-line detection of abnormal paper
formation variations in machine direction in various frequency
regions.
Forming
section

Press
section

Drying
section

Reel
section

Calender

Headbox

Figure: A schematic drawing of a paper machine.


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Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

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Reflection sensor design and arrangement

Figure: Reflection sensor design (left) and arrangement (right).

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Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Chemical industry
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Machinery
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Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

Processing flowchart

Subdivide into blocks of a given length

Subdivide into blocks of a given length

On-Line Monitoring

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Soft Sensors for Monitoring

Introduction
Outlier detection
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Examples

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Multi-resolution time series representation


Compute the Fourier power spectrum of the time series f (x)
P(u) = kF (u)k2 = R 2 (u) + I 2 (u)

(16)

Divide the frequency axis into several frequency regions Ri of


different average frequency:

where

u Ri if iW log2 (u) < (i + 1)W

(17)

W = {log2 [N/(2 2)]}/{Nr 1}

(18)

Characterize the frequency content of the region a by a


feature vector xa Rk .
The partitioning implements the multi-resolution time series
representation.
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Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

Feature extraction
Ei =

1 X
P(u)
Ni

(19)

1
max P(u)
E i uRi

(20)

uRi

Emi =
i = Ni2

Pi (u)
1 i2

Ni
uRi Pi (u)

(21)

1 X n
Pi (u) log Pin (u)
log Ni

(22)

Xh

P
uRi

Mi =

uRi

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Introduction
Outlier detection
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Examples

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Novelty (abnormality) detection


The optimal values of the parameter vector of the detector
are found by maximizing the following objective function
W () =

N
X

i (xai , xai )

i=1

N X
N
X

i j (xai , xaj )

(23)

i=1 j=1

P
subject to N
i=1 i = 1 and 0 i 1/N, i = 1, ..., N.
The function f (xa ) used to categorize the data point xa is:
N
X


i (xai , xa ) + T
f (xa ) = H (xa , xa ) 2
i=1

where i and T are found by maximizing (23) and


H[y (xa )] = 1 if y (xa ) 0 and 1 otherwise.
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Soft Sensors for Monitoring

(24)

Introduction
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Data
Data sets A and C have been recorded on production line and
correspond to 920 and 70 km of newsprint divided into
M = 9200 and 700 blocks, respectively.
The data set A was randomly split into training, validation,
and test subsets. Ten different random splits were used.
All data of the set C have been used for testing. In the 700
data blocks there were 70% and 75% of outliers in the
lowest and highest frequency region, respectively.
The abnormalities screened were located in the region of
0.2 0.4 mm and 1.6 3.2 m.
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Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
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Categorization results of the set C data

Table: The expected amount of outliers is approximately 75% and 70%


for the highest and the lowest frequency region, respectively.

Set\n
Test
Test

10

Highest frequency region


73.1 74.0 73.4 74.4 73.5 74.7 75.6 75.3 74.9 72.6
Lowest frequency region
66.3 68.9 69.9 68.9 67.3 68.3 69.7 69.2 68.9 67.2

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Introduction
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Abnormalities detection software

Figure: The detection result in the highest frequency region.


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Introduction
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Graphical process

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Introduction
Outlier detection
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Examples

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Machinery
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Printing press

Dampening

Ink bath
Blanket cylinder

Paper path
Plate cylinder
Impression cylinder

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Introduction
Outlier detection
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The problem and measuring areas


The problem

Colour deviation
and areas to measure
the amount of colour.
2007-11-21
Halmstad
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Introduction
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Estimating
the amount
ink computing
Estimating
the amount
of ink byofsoft

RGB
Neural Net

CMYK
2007-11-21

Halmstad

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Introduction
Outlier detection
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Examples

Measuring ink density


1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

400

500
600
Wavelength (nm)

P
R()S()F ()
D = lg P
S()F ()
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700

(25)

Chemical industry
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Introduction
Outlier detection
Process monitoring
Examples

Measuring ink density by soft computing


0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
400

450

500
550
600
Wavelength (nm)

A = projections of of spectra on eigenvectors


B = (K + IN )1 A
(xi , xj ) = exp{||xi xj ||2 /}
Spectrum is reconstructed using a and eigenvs
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650

700

x = RGB triplet
k = (xi , x)
a = BT k

Introduction
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Examples

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Spectra from RGB values


Original; From RGB; E = 0.7
0.7

0.6

0.6

0.5

0.5
0.4

0.4
0.3

0.3

0.2
0.2

0.1
0
400

450

500
550
600
Wavelength (nm)

650

700

Antanas Verikas

0.1
400

450

500
550
600
Wavelength (nm)

Soft Sensors for Monitoring

650

700

Introduction
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Examples

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Print quality characterization


Print quality attributes
Missing dots (Q1 )
Dot deformation
Dot size deformation Q2 )
Dot shape deformation Q3 )

Ink density variation Q4 )


Noise level Q5 )
Z
Quality =

f (Q)g ()

(26)

where g () is a measure
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Introduction
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Examples

ranking
PrintQuality
quality ranking
by man

Chemical industry
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Machinery
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Sample

Ann

Anna R

Sofia

Peter

Frank

Stellan

Bernd

Dan

6.00

7,63

7,38

3,25

3,75

1,75

1,25

Cristofer

Magnus

Wolfgang

Kerstin

Maria

Mean

Marcus
Mean

2007-11-21

6.00

7.71

7,28

3.0

3.93

4.93

1.57

1.57

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Halmstad

19

Introduction
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Correlation between quality rankings by man and machine

When ranking prints by the machine, the usefulness of printing


dots of different colours was assessed.
Ink\Correlation
Magenta
Yellow
Cyan
Black

R
0.9524
0.9524
0.9762
0.9762

p
0.0003
0.0003
0.0000
0.0000

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Assessing banknote printing quality


Line width
Colour
Circle Diameter

Spherical shell clustering


Each cluster resembles a circle. Each
circle prototype i consists of: ri and
ci . The distance dij from an edge
pixel xj to a prototype i is defined:
dij = (||xj ci ||2 ri2 )2

(27)

and used to minimize:


J(1 , ..., K ) =

K X
X
i=1 xj i

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Soft Sensors for Monitoring

dij2

(28)

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