The Past, Present, and Future of an Identity Theory

Author(s): Sheldon Stryker and Peter J. Burke

Source: Social Psychology Quarterly, Vol. 63, No. 4, Special Millenium Issue on the State of
Sociological Social Psychology (Dec., 2000), pp. 284-297
Published by: American Sociological Association
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Social PsychologyQuarterly
2000,Vol. 63,No. 4,284-297

The Past,Present,and Futureof an IdentityTheory*

SHELDON STRYKER
Indiana University
PETER J.BURKE
StateUniversity
Washington
yet
twosomewhatdifferent
of researchon "identity,"
Amongthemanytraditions
in the
reflected
havedeveloped.Thefirst,
theory
relatedstrandsof identity
strongly
withidentiofsocialstructures
andcolleagues,
focuseson thelinkages
workofStryker
focuseson theinternal
intheworkofBurkeandcolleagues,
ties.Thesecond,reflected
paperwe revieweachof thesestrandsand
In thepresent
processofself-verification.
oneanotherEachprothendiscusswaysin whichthetworelatetoand complement
the
influences
toidentities
therelation
ofsocialstructures
videsa context
fortheother:
createsand sustains
whiletheprocessofself-verification
processofself-verification,
Thepaperconcludes
withexamples
usefulapplications
ofpotentially
socialstructures.
ofchaland witha discussion
to otherarenasofsocialpsychology,
theory
ofidentity
oftherelation
mustmeettoprovidea clearunderstanding
theory
lengesthatidentity
selfandsociety.
between
is ubiquitous
The languageof "identity"
across
socialscience,cutting
incontemporary
politicalscience,
psychology,
psychoanalysis,
The commonusage of
and history.
sociology,
however,beliestheconsidthetermidentity,
erable variabilityin both its conceptual
role.Even when
meaningsand itstheoretical
considerationis restrictedto sociologyand
variationis stillconsidersocial psychology,
able.'

Three relativelydistinctusages exist.

to referessentiallyto the
Some use identity
cultureof a people;indeedtheydrawno distinctionbetweenidentityand,forexample,
ethnicity (see the collected papers in
Calhoun 1994).Thus theyobscurethe theoOthersuse
reticalpurposeofitsintroduction.
identityto referto commonidentification
witha collectivityor social category,as in
socialidentity
theory(Tajfel1982) or in conthus
workon social movements,
temporary
creatinga commoncultureamong participants(Snow and Oliver1995).Finally,some
use theterm,as we do in theworkunderlying
thispaper,withreferenceto partsof a self

composed of the meanings that persons

attach to the multipleroles theytypically
contemporary
play in highlydifferentiated
societies.
Thislastusage,ofcourse,is notuniqueto
our priorwork.In some ways,it is sharedby
all who claim Mead (1934) and symbolic
to theirintellecas important
interactionism
tual heritage,and who recognizethe comsociallife;thosewho
plexityofcontemporary
are a case
perspective
takea situatedidentity
in point (e.g., Alexander and Wiley 1981).
McCall and Simmons(1966) develop ideas
closelyrelatedto theearliestpublishedpresentation(Stryker1968) oftheideas basicto
inmorethannuance
thispaper,2yetdifferent
and in approach to theorydevelopment.
the framewithinwhichidentity
Specifically,
is conceptualizedhere is shared(forexample) by affect control theorists and
researchers(Heise 1977,1979; MacKinnon
and Heise 1988) who are
1994;Smith-Lovin
motivatedby theoreticalproblemsrelated

2
Identitytheorywas firstpresented at the 1966
meetingsof the American Sociological Association.
At the end of the presentation,McCall approached
*Send all correspondenceto Peter J.Burke, Departmentof Sociology,WashingtonState University, Strykerand exclaimed "You've just presented our
book!" (The book had notyetappeared.) Clearly,the
Pullman,WA 99164-4020;email:burkep@wsu.edu.
fundamentalideas involved were in the air at the
1 See the extended discussion,most of whichlies
time.Not yetin place was a body of researchtesting
outside the concernsof thispaper,in Cerulo (1997),
and extendingtheseideas.
or themorelimitedtreatmentin Stryker(2000).

284

IDENTITY THEORY

285

butnotidenticalto thoseunderlying
thepreEXTERNAL SOCIAL STRUCTURE
AND THE STRUCTURE OF SELF
sentpaper,and bystudentsof multipleroles
and identitiesand theirconsequences(e.g.,
Identitytheorytraces its roots to the
Reitzesand Mutran1995;Thoits1983;Wiley
ofGeorgeHerbertMead (especially
writings
1991).
1934) whichpresenta framework
underwritWe limitourattention
hereto thestrand
ing the analyses of numeroussociological
of theorizingand researchrepresentedby,
and social psychological issues. In themand developingfrom,
our earlierwork.Since
selves,however,
theydo notpresenta testable
1966,thisworkhas appearedunderthelabel
theoryof anyissue.Many observersbelieve
identity
theory;in the restof thispaper we
thatthissituationis due to the ambiguity
of
retainthatusageto simplify
presentation.
centralconceptsandto theattendant
difficulIdentity
theoryhas evolvedin twosometyofoperationalizing
suchconcepts(Meltzer
whatdifferent
butcloselyrelateddirections.
1972; Stryker1980). In highlysimplified
of a theoreticaland
Both are instantiations
form,Mead's framework
asserteda formula:
researchprogramlabeledstructural
symbolic
"Societyshapesselfshapessocial behavior."
interactionism
(Stryker1980),whose goal is Identity
theorybeganbyattempting
to specito understandand explainhow social strucfyand make researchablethe conceptsof
turesaffectself and how self affectssocial "society"and "self"in Mead's frameand to
behaviors.
The firstaspect,however,concen- organizethese as explanationsof specified
trateson examininghow social structures behaviors;such putativeexplanationscould
affectthestructure
of selfand howstructure be testedin systematicempiricalresearch
oftheselfinfluences
socialbehavior,
whereas (Stryker
1968).
the second concentrates on the internal
This specificationaccepts the utilityof
dynamicsof self-processesas these affect Mead's framework,
but departsfromMead
socialbehavior.Thus,relatively
speaking,the to adopta viewconsistent
withcontemporary
firstneglects internal dynamics of self- sociologist's imagery:societyis seen as a
processes,whilethesecondneglectswaysin mosaicof relatively
durablepatternedinterwhichexternalsocial structures
impingeon actionsand relationships,
differentiated
yet
theinternalprocesses.
The first
is represented organized,embeddedin an arrayof groups,
by work of Strykerand colleagues (e.g., organizations,
and institutions,
communities,
Stryker1980; Strykerand Serpe 1982), the andintersected
boundariesof
bycrosscutting
second by work of Burke and colleagues class, ethnicity,age, gender,religion,and
(e.g., Burke 1991; Burke and Reitzes 1991; othervariables.In addition,personsare seen
Burkeand Stets1999).By explicitly
articulat- as livingtheirlives in relativelysmall and
ingtherelationbetweenthesetwobodies of specializednetworksof social relationships,
work,we can refineand expandthescope of through
rolesthatsupporttheirparticipation
the structural
frame in suchnetworks.
symbolicinteractionist
The embeddednessof patand suggestnew applicationsof the frame ternedinteractions
and relationships
implies
The presentpaperis a structuralsymbolicinteractionistarguand derivativetheories.
directedto thesepurposes.
ment:the probabilityof enteringinto the
We begin by presentingthe variantof concrete(and discrete)social networksin
identity
theoryand relatedresearchfocusing whichpersonslivetheirlivesis influenced
by
on linksbetweenexternalsocial structure largersocial structures
in whichthose netand thestructure
ofself;we providemetathe- worksare embedded.That is, social strucoreticalconsiderationsnecessaryto under- turesoutside given social networksact as
standingthe conceptsand propositions.In boundariesaffecting
theprobability
thatperthenextsectionwe presentthevariantfocus- sonswillenterthosenetworks.
ingon theinternaldynamicsof self-processThese considerationsled to the initial
es. We then articulate the two variants. identitytheoryspecificationof Mead's forFinally,we discussextensionsand applica- mula.Mead's "socialbehavior"became"role
tionsof thearticulated
frame,as wellas new choice behavior." The theory sought to
frame.
answerthisquintessentialquestion:Given
questionsopenedbythearticulated

286

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

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situationsin whichthereexist behavioral theirnetworksdependon possessinga paris meaand role;commitment

optionsalignedwithtwo (or more) sets of ticularidentity
role expectationsattachedto two (or more) surable by the costs of losing meaningful
be forshouldtheidentity
positionsin networksof social relationships, relationsto others,
course gone. The theory hypothesized that the
whydo personschooseone particular
reflected
commitment
salienceof an identity
1968,1980).
ofaction?(Stryker
thatidentirequiring
soci- to therolerelationships
AcceptanceofMead's "selfreflects
theory'sspecifiety"dictumimpliesthatthe selfis multifac- ty.Thuswe arriveat identity
eted, made up of interdependent and cation of Mead's formula: commitment
and con- shapes identitysalience shapes role choice
mutuallyreinforcing
independent,
flictingparts.Identitytheorythus adopts behavior.
Variousresearchershave examinedthat
James'(1890) visionofpersonspossessingas
The generalconclusionis that
manyselvesas groupsofpersonswithwhich specification.
theyinteract.To referto each group-based the propositionsof identitytheoryare supself,the theoristschose the termidentity, ported reasonably well. Accomplished
thatpersonshaveas manyidentities research,however,also suggeststheneed for
asserting
for
ofconceptand measurement
networks
in which refinements
as distinct
ofrelationships
ofthetheory.
theyoccupypositionsand playroles.In iden- amplifications
Thus,for example,Strykerand Serpe
titytheoryusage,social roles are expectathatthesalienceof relitions attached to positions occupied in (1982) demonstrate
areinter- gious identitiespredictstimespentin relinetworks
ofrelationships;
identities
and the salienceof religious
The theoryasserts gious activities,
nalizedrole expectations.
to role
is predictedbycommitment
thatrole choicesare a function
of identities identities
so conceptualized,
and thatidentitieswithin relationships based on religion. Callero
self are organized in a salience hierarchy (1985) shows that the salience of a donor
theimportanceof hierarchy
as an identitypredicts the frequencyof blood
reflecting
donations;he also presentsevidence that
organizational
principlein society.
to othersin the blood donor
Identitysalienceis definedas theproba- commitment
willbe invokedacrossa community
affectsthesalienceof thedonor
bilitythatan identity
andFreudiger(1991) proNuttbrock
or alternatively
across identity.
varietyof situations,
Borrowingfrom videevidencethatthesalienceofthemother
personsin a givensituation.
mothersexplains,
cognitivesocial psychology(Markus 1977), identityamongfirst-time
theoristsunderstandidentitiesas cognitive (althoughto a limiteddegree)whetherthey
and make
and accepttheburdensofmotherhood
storedinformation
schemas-internally
fortheirchild.
forinter- sacrifices
meaningsservingas frameworks
The identity
theoryconceptionsofidenpretingexperience.As such,theyare cogniin
tive bases fordefiningsituations,and they tityand identitysaliencesuggeststability
and receptivity
to certain identitiesand theirsalienceacrosstimeand
increasesensitivity
Such stabilityis demonstrated
by
cues forbehavior.Withself thusspecified, situations.
studyof new
thatthehigh- Serpe (1987) in a longitudinal
theorists
hypothesized
identity
er thesalienceofan identity
relativeto other studentswhomovefromhometo a universiidentities incorporated into the self,the tyin a small city.At the same time,Serpe
of behavioralchoices shows thatstudentsexperiencechangesin
greatertheprobability
by enteringnew social
in accordwiththe expectationsattachedto priorcommitments
relationshipsat the university,and these
thatidentity.
have the expected
The building of identitytheory also changesin commitments
on thesalienceofidentities.
oftheconceptof"soci- effects
requiredspecification
In related research,Serpe and Stryker
in the
ety."Theoristsfoundthatspecification
Persons,as stated (1987) findthaton enteringthe university,
conceptof"commitment."
above, tend to live theirlives in relatively studentsseek new relationshipsby joining
to
ofsocialrelation- organizationsthatprovideopportunities
small,specializednetworks
salientidentities
refersto the degree to behaveinaccordwithhighly
ships.Commitment
whichpersons' relationshipsto others in held beforeentrance.Whentheysucceedin

IDENTITY THEORY

287

Lovin and Heise 1988),whichalso has symroots.3Burke and Tully

bolic interactionist
as reflex(1977) showedthatself-meanings,
could be meaive responsesto self-in-role,
sured reliably with semantic differential
scales.
INTERNAL MECHANISMS
to meaUsing the semanticdifferential
Identitytheorybegan with questions sure college students'identitiesand behavsalience of iors along the same dimensions,
about the originsof differential
Burke and
and why Reitzes (1981) foundthatsharedmeanings
in persons'self-structures
identities
saliencemaychangeovertime(e.g., was the linkbetweenidentity
identity
and behavior:
1988).These identitiespredictedbehavioronlywhenthe
Stryker1968;Wellsand Stryker
questionsled to the developmentof theory meaningof theidentity
correspondedto the
concerningways in whichpeople are tied meaningof the behavior.For example,stuand theconsequencesof dents'self-viewas sociable (one dimension
intosocialstructure
The theorythen of the studentidentity)did not predictcolthesetiesfortheiridentities.
salienceand legeplansbecausesociability
asserteda linkbetweenidentity
and thestudent
theidenti- identitydid not sharemeaning.In contrast,
behaviorstiedto rolesunderlying
ties; theorists argue that expectations students'self-views
ofacademicresponsibiliand acted ty(anotherdimensionof thestudentidentiattachedto roleswereinternalized
bycon- ty)werea strongpredictorofcollegeplans.
out.Thislastlink,laterstrengthened
ceptualizingidentitiesas cognitiveschemas
The question "How do self-meanings
and Serpe1994),remainedtheoreti- relateto meaningsof one's behavior?"was
(Stryker
cally underdeveloped.Anotherside to the elaboratedlaterin a cybernetic
modelofperremained,one concerning ceptualcontrolbased on theworkofPowers
studyofidentities
thenatureofidentities
and howtheyoperate (1973). Affectcontroltheory(Heise 1979)
withinthecontextsin whichtheyare held.
and themodelsofCarverand Scheier(1990)
The problemrequireda clearerunder- developed along similarlines.For identity
standingof the way in whichidentitiespro- theory,the model consistsof fourcentral
duced behaviorsexpressingthe identities. components(Burke 1991):theidentity
stanThe solutionwas based on the traditional dard, or the set of (culturallyprescribed)
ideas thatidentities meaningsheldbytheindividualwhichdefine
symbolicinteractionist
are self-meaningsand that self-meanings hisor herroleidentity
The perin a situation;
developin the contextof meaningsof roles son's perceptionsofmeaningswithinthesitand counterroles (Burke 1980; Burke and uation, matched to the dimensions of
Tully1977). From a symbolicinteractionist meaningin the identitystandard;the combehaviorsalso can be character- paratoror themechanismthatcomparesthe
perspective,
Burkeand Reitzes(1981) perceivedsituationalmeaningswiththose
ized as meaningful;
and heldin theidentity
standard;and theindividproposedthatthelinkbetweenidentity
whichis a function
behavior existed in the meanings they ual's behavioror activity,
betweenperceptionsand
of the difference
shared.
of theseideas required standard.
Implementation
Behavior,in thismodel,is organizedto
measurement
proceduresapplicableto both
identitiesand behaviors.Burke and Tully changethesituationand hencetheperceived
meaningsin orderto bringthem
(1977) foundthesein workby Osgood and self-relevant
colleagues(Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum into agreementwiththose in the identity
1957),who developedthesemanticdifferen- standard.Bringingsituationallyperceived
their
tial measurement
procedurereflecting
3 Affect
differencontrol
usedthesemantic
theory
bipolarresponsviewofmeaningas internal,
tial
to measurethemeaningof identities
alongthe
into
Thisidea was incorporated
es to stimuli.
universaldimensionsof evaluation,potency,and
earlierworkon self (Schwartzand Stryker activity,
chosetomeasurethe
whereasidentity
theory
to theevolutionof meanings
1970) and is fundamental
as theyrelatedto counter
ofroleidentities
affectcontroltheory(Heise 1977; Smith- rolesinsituations.
remainstable;
doingso, theirself-structures
changes in the salience of theiridentities
occur when theyare unable to findor use
suchopportunities.

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SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

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self-relevant
thespousalidentity,
meaningsinto agreementwith verifying
lead to reduced
theidentity
standardis self-verification;
to thatidentity.
This commitment
Scholarsexpanded the focuson meanis accomplished
byaltering
thecurrentsituation or by seekingand creatingnew situa- ingsto includenot onlysymbolicmeanings
tions in which perceived self-relevant (as traditionallyunderstood in symbolic
butalso signmeanings,
which
meaningsmatchthose of the identitystan- interactionism)
are not necessarilyshared(Lindesmithand
dard.
This model clarifiesseveral processes, Strauss1956).Drawingon theworkofFreese
none unique to the model,whichnow are (1988),Freeseand Burke(1994) showedthat
broughttogetherin a commonframework. meaningderivedfromsignsallowsone to act
in orderto alterthelevel
First,byseeingbehavioras a function
ofthe on theenvironment
relationshipbetween what a person per- and flowof resourcespresentin a situation,
ceivesin thesituationand theself-meanings so as to matchstandardsheld in an identity.
theory
held by the individual(Burke 1997; Heise The inclusionof resourcesin identity
1979; Stets 1997) one can view behavioras allowsthetheoryto take advantageofwork
goal-directed:
behaviorchangesthesituation on exchange and to tie it into relatively
in orderto matchmeaningsperceivedin the recentemphaseson meaningsin exchange
situationwithmeaningsheldin thestandard. theory.Such meaningswerefirstintroduced
This view gives agency to the individual by Emerson(1969,1981) and laterentering
(Burkeand Gray1999;Tsushimaand Burke into Molm and Cook's (1994) treatmentof
As a result,identity
exchangetheory.
theory
1999).
is
able
to
consider
the
more
mundane
expecSecond, emotion can be incorporated
tations
for
a
person
occupying
a
role,
such
as
intothemodel,as withaffectcontrol
directly
preparing
food,earninga livtheory(Heise 1979)andself-discrepancy
the- usingmaterials,
ory (Higgins,et al. 1986). The model views ing,and buyinggoods and services(Burke
emotionas due in part to the relationship 1997).
betweenperceivedself-meanings
in thesituPUTTING TOGETHER THE TWO
ationand theself-definitional
meaningsheld
STRANDS
in the identitystandard (see Carver and
Scheier1990;Stryker1987).A mismatchor
In thissectionwe movetowardsintegratincreasingan discrepancy(i.e., problemsin
ing the two parts of identitytheory:one
resultsin negativeemotion;
self-verification)
emphasizesthe social structuralsourcesof
a matchor a decreasingdiscrepancy(selfidentityand the relationsamongidentities,
verification)results in positive emotion
and the otherfocuseson internal,cognitive
(Burke and Stets 1999; Ellestad and Stets
identity
processes.The twomeetat behavior
1998;Smith-Lovin
1995;Stetsand Tsushima that
oftenin interaction
expressesidentities,
1999). For example, Stets and Tsushima
withothers.4
The formerarrivesat behavior
(1999) findthatthe intensityof anger and
to commitbymovingfromsocial structures
how long anger lasts are functionsof the
mentsto relationshipsthroughthe consekindsofinterruptions
of theself-verification
quent salience of the identityto behavior.
process.
The lattermovesfrominternalizedidentity
Yet,in additionto emotionand affectas standardsand perceptionsof self-relevant
emotionsare rec- meanings,
outcomesofself-processes,
througha comparisonof the two
ognizedas havingtheirown consequences, thateitherverifiestheidentitiesor indicates
bothdirectlyon the individualwho experi- a discrepancy,
to behaviorthatrepairsthe
encesthemand on othersas outwardexpres- discrepancy
thesituationorcreatbyaltering
sions of the individual's state. Emotions ingnewsituations.
signalto selfand to otherswhatthatstateis,
Thisdescription
suggeststhattheselines
makingthe state part of the situation to of theorizingdeveloped independentlyof
whichall parties,includingthe self,respond
(Frank 1988; Stryker1987). For example,
4 McCall and Simmons(1966) also note the meetBurkeand Stets(1999) findthatdepression ing of self-processesand social structurein interacand distress,
whichresultfromproblemsin tion.

IDENTITY THEORY

289

one another.In fact,however,theydid not.

in
The structural
approachconceivedidentity
cognitivetermsand understoodthatidentibyfindingor creattiessoughtconfirmation
ing situations in which they could be
expressed.The cognitiveapproach understood thatidentitieswere embeddedin and
affectedby social structuralcontexts.Both
understoodself as partiallya structureof
Both understoodidentimultipleidentities.
ties as linked to roles and to behavior
throughmeanings.In thefirstapproach,it is
argued thatsalientidentitiesare cognitive
how personsdefinesituaschemasaffecting
tionsandmakingthemmoresensitiveto cues
calling for identity-relevant behavior
(Strykerand Serpe 1994). This argumentis
givengreaterforceand precisionbytheargumentof the second approach: that the tie
betweenidentity
and behaviorexistsin their
commonmeaning(Burkeand Reitzes1981).
One can see the complementary
nature
ofstructural
and cognitiveidentity
theoryby
examining how these two emphases fit
together.The concept of identitysalience
impliesthatpersonsare morelikelyto define
situationstheyenter,or in whichtheyfind
inwaysthatmakea highly
salient
themselves,
identityrelevant;thisprocessenables them
to enact thatidentity(Burke and Franzoi
however,involverelations
1988). Situations,
to others;the extentto whichpersonscan
verifytheiridentitiesdependson theidentities of those others, on how the others
respondto identityclaims,and on whether
behaviorsthatcould alter the situationto
align perceptions with standards of selfmeaningsin factare viable(Rileyand Burke
mayormaynotbe con1995).Thus,identities
firmedin situationallybased interaction.
confirmation
processis
Again,iftheidentity
willbe
thesalienceoftheidentity
successful,
iftheprocessis unsuccessful,
the
reinforced;
is likelyto diminish,
salienceof the identity
perhapsconsiderably.
Relevant to furtherelaborationof the
linksbetweenthetwopartsofidentity
theory
in whichidentiis a viewof social structures
ties exist. Identity theory generally has
focusedon roleidentities.5
Thattermimplies

itis linkedto social

a duality.
Role is external;
Identity
positionswithinthesocial structure.
is internal,consistingof internalizedmeaningsand expectationsassociatedwitha role.
From this perspective,social structureis
positionsand
made up of interconnecting
associated roles, each linked throughthe
activities,resources,and meaningsthatare
or sequentially.
controlledmutually
each
In additionto therolesthemselves,
role or set of roles is embedded in one or
moreofa varietyofgroupsthatprovideconassotextforthemeaningsand expectations
ciatedwiththerole.Examplesincludegroups
classand networks,
as well as organizations,
es, unions,and othersocial units(insofaras
these unitsinvolve concreterelationships
or connectThe structure
and interactions).
edness of the roles and groupingsprovides
the firstlevel of social structures'
impacton
identities.
is the
One componentof commitment
numberof othersto whomone is connected
by possessinga particularidentity(Stryker
1980). This aspect of commitmentreflects
of the social
densityof ties,a characteristic
in whichan identityis embedded.
structure
Connectednessincreasesthe salienceof the
identity,
makingitmorelikelythattheidentitywillbe activatedin a givensituation:persons occupyingdenselyconnectedpositions
and holdingrelatedroleswillhave identities
associatedwiththosepositionand rolesthat
are moresalient.
This increased salience is reflectedin
thataccordmoreclosely
role performances
withthemeaningsand expectations
attached
to thatidentity.Burke and Reitzes (1991)
foundthattheabilityto predictfromidentity
meaningsto performanceswas greaterfor
identicommitted
thosewithmore strongly
committies.Studentswitha more strongly
to
workmoreeffectively
tedstudentidentity
is, to
verifyand maintainthatidentity-that
ofself-relevant
meaningsin
keepperceptions
the situationin line withself-meaningsin
standard.
theiridentity
howevSome aspectsofsocialstructures,
fromtheviewpoint
er,are moreproblematic
to particularrole relationof commitment

5 Social identitytheory,
on the otherhand,focuses
on category-basedidentities.
We discussthe relation

between identitytheoryand social identitytheory

laterin thispaper.

290

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

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ships,identitiesattachedto those role rela- ingsoflowerself-worth

and efficacy.
In additionships,
or the potentialgap betweenself- tion,thesemotherstendedto use child-rearrelevant perceptions in situations and ing practicesthatled to children'sfailureto
identitystandards.Persons typicallyare develophigher-level
identity
standards.
Whilethe above concernsthe influence
embeddedin multiplerole relationshipsin
multiplegroupsand theyholdmultipleiden- of social structure on identities, some
tities.Thesemultiplerolesand multipleiden- research is beginningto show how social
dependon thefunctioning
ofidentitiesmayreinforce
one another,
butperhaps structures
moreoftendo not(Reitzesand Mutran1995; tities.Burke and Stets (1999) presenteviThoits1983;Wiley1991).Whentheydo not, dence thatwhenseveralpersonsinteracting
theyintroduceidentitycompetitionor con- in a commonsituationmutuallyverifythe
to
flictsthatcomplicatethereciprocalrelation- identitiesheld byeach,theircommitment
theybeginto
ships between commitments, identity one anotherincreases.Further,
is,as a new
and self-relevant viewthemselvesas a group-that
salience,identity
standards,
social
structure.
when
Alternatively,
persons
perceptions
(Stryker
2000).
in a commonsituationhave diffiIf thecompetingor conflicting
identities interacting
theiridentities,existing
reflectgreatlydifferent
commitments
and cultiesin verifying
dissolve.For
consequentlydiffergreatlyin salience,the ties are brokenand structures
identitybased on greatercommitment
and example,Cast and Burke(1999) have shown
highersaliencewillbe reflected
(in situations that divorce is more likelywhen the huswherealternative
identitiescan be invoked) bands' and wives'spousal identitiesare not
in the operativeidentitystandardand per- verified.
ceivedself-meanings.
If the pressuresof the
APPLICATIONS AND NEXT
immediatesituationrequirelowcommitment
CHALLENGES
and a low identity
salience,we expectthata
standardand perceived
gap betweenidentity
Applications
will lose motivationalforce,
self-meanings
and willbecome inconsequential
forbehavIdentitytheoryhas thepotentialto illuior.Ifmultiplecompeting
or conflicting
iden- minatea widerangeofsociologicaland social
titiesinvolve highand roughlyequivalent psychologicalarenas and issues; we have
commitmentsand salience, considerable alreadysuggestedsome of these.Here we
stressis likelyto be generated,
and to stallor focuson two opportunities
forthe applicapreventbehavioralrepairof a gap between tionof identity
theoryconceptsand models,
standards and perceived self-meanings whichhave remainedrelativelyunexploited
(Burke1991).
untilnow.
The varietyof structurallocations of
inherentin the "multiple
Opportunities
identitiesimpliesthatvaryingresourceswill identities"
conceptualization
ofselfSociology
be availablefortheirconstruction
and func- has long conceptualizedpersonsas occupytioning,
includingachievementof self-verifi-ing multiplepositionsin organizedsets of
cation (Berger,Cohen, and Zelditch 1972; social relationships,
and as playingout the
Ridgewayand Berger1988). Tsushimaand diverseroles associatedwiththosemultiple
Burke (1999) distinguished
betweenlower- positions(Linton1936;Merton1957;Parsons
levelidentity
whichpertainto pro- 1949; Turner1978). The related idea that
standards,
gramsof behavior,and higher-level
identity thesediverserolescan presentcompetingor
whichpertainto generalprinciples conflicting
standards,
expectationsforpersons'behavand valuesguidingthelower-level
standards ior is widelyunderstoodand has entered
forbehavior.Theyfoundthatmotherspos- muchsociologicaland social psychological
sessingfewerresources(withless incomeor theoryand research(Gross,McEachern,and
had lesswell-devel- Mason 1958;Hill 1949;Strykerand Statham
education,or unmarried)
standards.
oped higher-level
identity
Further, 1985). More recentlytheseideas have been
motherswithoutsuchstandardsencountered displayedquite prominently
in literatureon
moreproblemsof controland confrontation workingwomen's conflictsand dilemmas
roledemandsofworkand offamregardingtheirchildren,and sufferedfeel- concerning

IDENTITY THEORY
ily(Thoits1987).Earlier,scholarsaddressed
relatedthemesregardingthe existenceand
consequences of status inconsistency
(Jackson and Burke 1965; Lenski 1954;
and Macke 1978).
Stryker
Yet, conceptualizationsof persons as
occupying
multiplestatusesormultiplesocial
roleexpectations
positionswithdivergent
do
not fullyincorporateor anticipatea "multiple identities"
conceptionofself,northetheoreticaland researchpossibilities
in
inherent
such conceptualizations.
These requirethe
of role-relatedexpectations
internalization
and theirorderingin a hierarchy
of salience.
They also require the filteringof identity
standardsthroughperceptionsrelevantto
the self;the existenceof suchperceptionsis
one compelling reason why identityand
identitysalience cannotsimplybe inferred
fromsociallocations.
In brief,the identity-theoretic
model is
fromrole-conflict
different
and statusinconsistency models and opens up different
thando thosemodels.The posopportunities
sibilitiesofthismodelare exhibitedin recent
workon gender-related
topics(Simon 1995;
Stets1995a,1995b;Thoits1986). Ever here,
however,theopportunities
are notexploited
in partbecause of limitations
in
thoroughly,
current
measurement
approachesto multiple
identities.
To visualize those opportunities,we
reviewa recentattemptto applyidentity
theory to theorizingand research on social
movements(Stryker
2000).As notedearlier,
studentsof social movementsrecentlyhave
borrowedfromsocial identitytheorythe
witha
conceptof identityas identification
social category(Tajfel 1982). This concept,
andtheconceptofcollectiveidentity
as a culturalemergentfromtheinteraction
of social
movementmembers,are keysto the literature on "new social movements"(Larana,
and Gusfield1995). Indeed,some
Johnston,
sociological studentsof movementshave
used identitytheory'sconcept of identity
salience to explainwhypersonsjoin social
movements(McAdam and Paulsen 1993).
None of these efforts,
however,adequately
treatvariationsin ratesand kindsof movementmembers'participationin movement
activities.
None deal successfully
withquestions such as the reasons for variationin

291

members'willingnessto contributemoney,
time,or otherresources-includingriskof
life-to a movement.
Suchquestionscan be approachedwitha
conception of self composed of multiple
identities
tiedto participation
in networks
of
social relationships
or in groupswithpotentiallydifferent
agendasand expectationsfor
members,
each affectedby perceptionsrelevantto theself.Thisconceptionvisualizesthe
even the likelihood,of competipossibility,
tion among identities.By recognizingthe
interplay
ofmultipleidentities,
an analystcan
accountforvariationin persons'participation in social movementsby referenceto
ways in whichcommitments
and identities
of
reinforce,
conflict
with,or are independent
one another.
Thisillustration
can be generalized.Any
social networkor groupis likelyto contain
members(and the larger the networkor
group,the more likelyit is to includesuch
persons) whose membershipin othernetworksor groupsmay create identitiesthat
eitherreinforce
or impedevariousformsof
participation.Althoughthis insightis not
new,its use has been limited;it could be
appliedwidelynot onlyto spousal and parent-childrelationships,
but also to broader
kin,religious,
voluntaryassociational,political, and any othertypeof relationshipthat
allowsvariationin levelsor kindsof participation.
AmplifyingExpectationStates Theory
and Status Characteristics Theory.
Sociological social psychologistscurrently
runtherisk-visiblein theworkof our psychologicalcounterparts-ofcreatingnumerous specializedtheoriesto deal withequally
numerousspecializedresearchtopics.These
theoriesdo notappearto bearmuchrelationshipto one another.Thatriskmustbe avoided ifpossible;thustherelatingofideas across
specialized theoreticaland researchtraditions is valuable. Bringingidentitytheory
intotheframework
ofexpectationstatestheory(Berger1988;Fisek,Berger,and Norman
1995;Ridgewayand Berger1986) and status
characteristicstheory(Berger,et al. 1972;
Foschi 1989;Wagnerand Berger1993) can
help clarifycentralprocessesemphasizedin
thesetheories(see Stetsand Burke1996).

292

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

QUARTERLY

Withinthe identitytheoryformulation, workneeds to be done beyondthisimmedivalue or worthcan be conceivedas a cogni- ate challengeto extendtherangeand applictheory?
made to thoseresourcesthat abilityofidentity
tiveattribution
Amongtheimportant
One criticaltaskis to findwaysofimpleallowself-verification.
resources incorporatedinto participant's mentingin researchdesignsthe conceptual
attachedto a viewof
of and theoretical
insights
standardsfortheaccomplishment
identity
a sharedgoal are the skillsand the perfor- self as composed of multiple identities.6
themselves. Thereis good reasonto believethatthefeedmancelevels of the participants
value to theindi- back processesmodeled by Burke need to
mayattribute
Participants
viduals(includingthemselves)who possess accommodatesuch multipleidentities.We
these resources, thus according status, suggest that self-verificationprocesses
willthemselvesbe
a singleidentity
respect,and esteem to those individuals involving
(again includingthemselves).Participants affectedby the existenceof otheridentities
meaningsand/or
whoreceivestatus,respect,and esteemfrom implicatedin self-relevant
be aidedin identitystandards.7Neithersocial life nor
otherparticipants
willthemselves
consistof elementscompletetheself-verification
process.In turn,theyare self-cognitions
likelyto accordstatus,respect,and esteemto lyisolatedfromone anotherotherthanaenaotherswhohelpintheirownself-verification.lytically.
theidea thatin
theoryreinforces
Identity
Certainlythereis reasonto believethat
the absence of specificinformationabout the postulatedlinks betweencommitment
skillsand performance
levelsrelevantto the and identitysalience,and betweenidentity
task,participantsin a group that seeks to salienceand rolebehavior,fora givenidentisolve a collectiveproblemwill draw upon tytiedto a givennetworkof social relationculturalmemorycontainedinpreviousstatus shipswillbe affectedby otheridentitiesand
As suggestedearand esteemallocationsto obtaininformation othergroupmemberships.
about possible resourcesavailable forthe lier,however,researchto date generallyhas
taskat hand.In thissense,status,respect,and not faced squarelythe implicationsof the
esteem are symbolic; they represent "multiple identities" conceptualization
availableforsuccessful exceptin thelimitedcase ofpairsofconflictresourcespotentially
ofthetaskand thusforself- ing identitiessuch as of spouse and labor
accomplishment
In sucha case,oppositional
verification(Ridgeway and Berger 1986; forceparticipant.
andperstandards,
identity
Ridgeway,Johnson,and Diekema 1994). roleexpectations,
Manipulationof symbolsand resourcesin ceptions of self-relevantmeaningscan be
function ascertainedfairlyreadily.
orderto obtaingoalsis an important
The reason is so is obvious:the greater
of identities(Freese and Burke 1994). In
thegreater
createvalue;and bycre- the numberof relatedidentities,
doingthis,identities
with
of dealingsimultaneously
atingvalue,identitiescan bothincreasethe the difficulty
amongthem.Thereis no clear
level of commitment
to groupsthatunderlie relationships
way of attackingthe issue at hand.Perhaps
the identitiesand increasetheirsaliencewill thisissue could be handledby adaptingthe
thatis,thelikelihoodthattheseidentities
Burkeand Reitzes(1981) techniqueofestabbe activatedin othersituations.
of meaningsof identity
lishingcommonality
to
commonalityof
and
behavior
establish
Challenges
meaningsamonglarge(r)numbersof identiAn immediatechallengeis entailed in ties.8Or perhapsthischallengecouldbe met
suggestingways in whichthe two parts of
theoryare linked.It lies in designing
identity
6Again,one mustkeep in mindthat"multipleidenand conductingresearch examininghow tities"is not equivalentto "multipleroles."
7 This iS one area in whichBurke's (1997) simulato networksof social relationcommitment
tion
of network exchange with an identitytheory
ships and identitysalience affectsidentity
model needed furtherdevelopmentto match some
standardsand perceptionsof self-relevant empiricaloutcomes.
meanings,
and vice versa.Here,however,we
8 Stets(1995b) suggestedlinkingidentitiesthrough
are interestedin a larger question: What sharedmeanings.

IDENTITY THEORY

293

has strongeror weakerties

by followingthe procedures adopted in basis of identity
outcomes.A princiexpectationstatestheoryto combinethesta- to variouspsychological
for
identities,
ofmultiplestatuscharacter- pal outcomeof category-based
tusimplications
istics (Berger, Rosenholtz, and Zelditch example, may be self-esteemor the lack
dependingon whetherthe category
1980).
thereof,
by theperor negatively
A secondcriticalchallengeis to develop is valuedpositively
measuresof identitymeaningsand identity son or byothersin theperson'senvironment.
especiallymayreflectsuccessful
saliencethatare independentof self-reports Self-efficacy
and thatcan be utilizedin nonexperimental role performanceand the approbationof
may
research.Given the conceptionsof identity role partners;feelingsof authenticity
personalidenand identity
salienceas cognitiveschemas,as resultfromtheabilitytoverify
well as contemporary
interactive
computer- titiesacrossrolesand situations.
A further,
criticalchallengelies in the
technology,
we envision
based interviewing
how emotions
the use of priming need to detailmoreexplicitly
an interesting
possibility:
The
theory.
ofidentity
proceduresand responselatencymeasures fitintotheframework
commonin experimentalcognitivesocial resourcesformeetingthisneed are diverse:
psychologicalresearchto measureboth the they include Cooley's (1902) distinction
existence and the salience of identities betweenthe more biologicallybased emo(Baldwin 1994; Fazio, et al. 1982; Higgins, tionsand themoresociallybased sentiments;
Strauman,
and Klein 1986;Markusand Wurf Goffman's(1959) ideas regardingthe cenofsentiments;
ofselfin theproduction
1987).Cognitiveschemasenhancethespeed trality
and accuracyofrecognizing
stimulirelatedto Kemper's (1991) structuraltheoryarguing
theschemas(relativeto unrelatedstimuli)as the emotionalconsequences of changesin
wellas increasingstorageand recallof these persons'changesin power and statusposiand themodelingof
cues; it can be arguedthatgreaterrespon- tionsin social structure;
in themanagement
of
cuesincreasesthe therole of sentiments
sivenessto identity-related
behavior identitymeaningsin affectcontroltheory
likelihood that identity-relevant
will be enacted-that is, that latencyis a (Smith-Lovin
1995).
Relevantto thischallengeis theworkof
salience.
directmeasureofidentity
technology, Higgins,Bond,et al. (1986) showingthatdifAgain,givencontemporary
standardslead to difeitherinpresenting ferenttypesofidentity
we see no greatdifficulty
verbalor pictorialcues relatedand unrelated ferenttypes of emotional response when
fails.Thisresarchfocuseson
to identities, or in measuring intervals self-verification
of failuresto meetstandardscomposedof othbetweenexposureto cues and recognition
cues.In addition,byusingsimilarprocedures ers' expectationsof what one oughtto do,
and failuresto meet
and requiringrapid evaluationof identity- whichresultin anxiety,
whichresultin
idealstandards,
positiveor nega- self-generated
relatedcues as affectively
tive, we can obtain a measure of the depression.Perhapsothertypesof identity
implicating
psychological centrality or importance standardscan be distinguished,
whichmea- otherkindsofemotionalresponses.
(Rosenberg1979) of an identity,
Researchers should explore the emosureis accomplishedin a mannerthatavoids
ofidenti- tionalconsequencesof failuresin self-verifiand thatis independent
self-reports
cationinrelationto variousotherdimensions
tysalience.
Anotherchallengelies in developinga of identitystandards-public and private,
of individualand group,supervisedand unsuclearerand morecompleteunderstanding
the- pervised,
different
Social identity
practicedandnew,higherandlower
bases ofidentity.
in
too,the
the
hierarchy.
Certainly,
identity
identities
has
focused
on
category-based
ory
and emoor Jew);identi- otherside of the self-verification
(e.g.,blackor white,Christian
on role-based tionalresponseneeds to be explored.What
tytheoryhas focusedprimarily
veridentities
(e.g.,parentorchild,teacheror stu- are theemotionalproductsofsuccessful
Is it necessarily
dent).To some extent,both have discussed ificationof self-standards?
correctto assumethatself-verperson-basedidentitiessuch as dominance, and generally
producespositiveaffect?
or perseverance.
It maybe thateach ification
honesty,

294

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

QUARTERLY

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ofSociology,
IndianaUniversity-Bloomington,
Professor
Distinguished
SheldonStryker,
in socialpsychology
perspective
in a symbolicinteractionist
interests
has long-standing
ofselfandinthedeveloponselfandtheconsequences
structural
constraints
emphasizing
PasteditorofSociometry
deriving
fromthatperspective.
Theory,
mentand testofIdentity
recipient
ofthe
SociologicalReview,
andtheAmerican
Quarterly)
(nowSocialPsychology
to
contribution
Awardforlifetime
Cooley-Mead
ASA's Sectionon Social Psychology's
Interaction
MeadAwardfor
fortheStudyofSymbolic
socialpsychology
and theSociety
Hunt,inveswithRichardSerpeand Matthew
research,
hiscurrent
Lifetime
Achievement,
tosocialrelationships.
locationon commitments
theimpactofsocialstructural
tigates
and
StateUniversity
at Washington
and ResearchScientist
PeterJ. Burkeis Professor
into
His current
workextends
identity
theory
Section.
ChairoftheASA SocialPsychology
include"Levels,
Recent
publications
andsociallearning.
areasofemotion,
grouprelations
(withT Tsushima)in Social Psychology
Agency,and Controlin theParentIdentity"
(withJ.Stets)
Context,"
Verification
inan Identity
1999,"Trust
andCommitment
Quarterly,
Theory"
Theoryand Social Identity
2000,and "Identity
Quarterly,
in Social Psyc'hology
2000.
Quarterly,
(withJ.Stets)inSocialPsychology