Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1.
a) The Harappan seal is possibly the most distinctive artifact of the Harappans or Indus valley
civilisation. Harappan seals contain animal and plant motifs and signs from a script that
remains undeciphered.
b) We know a great deal of sources which were left by the people, such as their houses, pots,
ornaments, tools and seals in other words, archaeological evidence.
2.
Archaeologists use the term culture for a group of objects,distinctive in style, that are usually
found together within a specific geographical area and period of time.
b. In the case of the Harappan culture, these distinctive objects include seals, beads, weights, stone
blades and baked bricks.
c. These objects were found from areas as far apart as Afghanistan, Jammu, Baluchistan (Pakistan) and
Gujarat .
d. Harappan civilisation is dated between c. 2600 and1900 BCE.
a.
3. SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EARLY HARAPPAN CULTURES AND MATURE HARAPPAN
CULTURES.
A)
Early and later Harappan cultures were associated with distinctive pottery, evidence of
agriculture and pastoralism, and some crafts.
b) In Early Harappan cultures Settlements were generally small, and there were virtually no
large buildings. But in Mature Harappan culture settlements were large and buildings were
also large.
4.
a. The Harappans ate a wide range of plant products. Archaeologists have been able to
reconstruct dietary practices from finds of charred grains, seeds and bones.
b. These are studied by archaeo-botanists, who are specialists in ancient plant remains.
c. Food grains found at Harappan sites include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea, sesame, Millets
and rice.
d. The Harappans ate a wide range of animal products.Archaeologists have been able to
reconstruct use of animals from finds of charred animal bones found at Harappan sites.
These include those of cattle, sheep,goat, buffalo and pig.
e. These are studied by Archaeo-zoologists or zoo-Archaeologists who are specialists in
ancient animal remains.
f. Bones of wild species such as boar, deer and gharial were also found. We do not know
whether the Harappans hunted these animals themselves orobtained meat from other
hunting (tribal) communities.
a. The settlement is divided into two sections, one smaller but higher called as the Citadel and
the other much larger butlower called the Lower Town.
b. The Citadel owesits height to the fact that buildings were constructedon mud brick
platforms. It was walled and physically separated from theLower Town. We find evidence of
structures that were probably used for special public purposes.
B.CITADEL
c. The warehouse, a massive structure of which the lower brick portions remain, while
theupper portions, probably of wood, decayed long ago.
d. The Great Bath was a large rectangular tank in a courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all
four sides. There were two flights of steps on the north and south leading into the tank.
There were rooms on three sides, in one of which was a large well. Across a lane to the
north lay a smaller building with eight bathrooms, four on each side of a corridor.Scholars
suggest that it was meant for some kind of a special ritual bath.
C. LOWER TOWN
E. The Lower Town was also walled. Several buildingswere built on platforms, which served
as foundations.
F. Once the platforms were in place, all building activity within the city was restricted to a fixed
area on the platforms. So it seems that the settlement was first planned and then built
accordingly.
D.DRAINAGE SYSTEM
G. One of the most distinctive features of Harappan cities was the carefully planned drainage
system. If you look at the plan of the Lower Town you will noticethat roads and streets were
laid out along an approximate grid pattern, intersecting at right angles.
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H. It seems that streets with drains were laidout first and then houses were built along them.
E.DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE
The Lower Town at Mohenjodaro provides examples of residential buildings. Many were
centred on a courtyard, with rooms on all sides. The courtyardwas probably the centre of
activities such as cooking and weaving, particularly during hot and dry weather. People
were more concern for privacy: there are no windows in thewalls along the ground level.
Besides, the mainentrance does not give a direct view of the interioror the courtyard.
J. Every house had its own bathroom paved withbricks, with drains connected through the
wall tothe street drains. Some houses have remains of stair cases to reach a second storey
or the roof. Many houses had wells, often in a room that could be reached from the outside
and perhaps used by passers-by.
I.
a. At burials in Harappan sites the dead weregenerally laid in pits. Sometimes, there
weredifferences in the way the burial pit was made insome instances; the hollowed-out
spaces were linedwith bricks. These variations are an indicationof social differences.
b. Some graves contain pottery and ornaments,perhaps indicating a belief that these could be
used in the afterlife. Jewellery has been found in burialsof both men and women.
c. Inthe cemetery found in Harappa in the mid-1980s, a burial contained ornament consisting
of three shell rings, a jasper bead and hundreds of micro beads were found near the skull of
a male.In some instances the dead were buried with coppermirrors. But the Harappans did
not believe in burying precious thingswith the dead.
d. Another strategy to identify social differences is to study artefacts, which archaeologists
broadly classify as utilitarian and luxuries. The first categoryincludes objects of daily use
made of stone or clay such as querns, pottery, needles, flesh-rubbers are usually found
distributed throughout settlements.
e. Archaeologists assume luxuries objects are rare and made from costly, non-local materials
or with complicated technologies such as little pots of faience, beads, micro beads etc were
probably consideredprecious because they were difficult to make.Rare objects made of
valuable materialsare generally concentrated in large settlements like Mohenjodaro and
Harappa
8.
a. Mohenjodaro almost exclusively devoted to craft production, including bead-making,shellcutting, metal-working, seal-making andweight-making.
b. The variety of raw materials used to make crafts such as stones (carnelian - red stone,
jasper-yellow stone, crystal- colourless stone, quartz and steatite) metals(copper, bronze
and gold) shell and clay.
c. The shapes of crafts were numerous discshaped,cylindrical, spherical, barrelshaped,segmented. Some were decorated by incising orpainting, and some had designs
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etched onto them. Some beads were made oftwo or more stones, cemented together, some
of stones were decorated with gold caps
d. Techniques for making beads differed according to the material Moulding,
chipping,Grinding, polishing and drilling are some of the techniques used for making crafts.
e. Chanhudaro, Lothal,Dholavira,Nageshwar and Balakot are some of the craft centres.
9. HOW DID ARCHAEOLOGISTS IDENTIFY CENTRESOF PRODUCTION?
a. In order to identify centres of craft production, archaeologists usually look for the following:
raw material such as stone nodules, whole shells, and copperore etc.
b. Archaeologists also lookfor tools which were used for making crafts.
c. Archaeologists lookfor unfinished objects, rejects and waste material. Waste isone of the
best indicatorsof craft work. Sometimes, larger waste pieces were used up tomake smaller
objects.
d. These traces suggestthat apart from small, specializedcenters, craftproduction was also
undertaken in large cities such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
10. STRATEGIES FOR PROCURING RAW MATERIALS WITH IN THE SUB-CONTINENT
Transportation:
a. Terracotta toy models of bullock carts suggest that this was one important means of
transporting goods and people across land routes.
b. Depictions of shipsand boats on seals suggest that Riverine routes along the Indus and its
tributaries, as well as coastal routes were also probably used for transporting goods and
people.
Strategies for ProcuringMaterials
a.
The Harappans procured materials for craftproduction in various ways. For instance,
theyestablished settlements where raw material was available.(Nageshwar andBalakotshell, Shortughai- lapis lazuli, a blue stone, Lothal- carnelian, steatite and metal-Rajasthan
and Gujarat)
b. Another strategy for procuring raw materials mayhave been to send expeditions to areas
such as the Khetri region of Rajasthan (for copper) and southIndia (for gold). These
expeditions establishedcommunication with local communities.
c. Occasional finds of Harappan artefacts such as steatite micro beads in the Khetri area
indicates that the inhabitants of Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture supplied copper to the
Harappans according to the aggrement.
(What is Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture?-In the Khetri area archaeologists found a new
culture and call it as the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture. Here they found distinctive nonHarappan pottery and an unusual wealth of copper objects. It is possiblethat the inhabitants
of this region supplied copper to the Harappans).
STRATEGIES FOR PROCURINGMATERIALS FROM DISTANT LANDS
a. Recent archaeological finds suggest that copper wasalso probably brought from Oman, on
the southeasterntip of the Arabian Peninsula. Chemicalanalyses have shown that both the
Omani copper and Harappan copper artifacts have traces of nickel.
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b. A distinctive type of vessel, a large Harappan jar coated with a thick layer of blackclay has
been found at Omani sites. Itis possible that the Harappans exchanged the contents of
these vessels for Omani copper.
c. Mesopotamian texts datable to the thirdmillennium BCE refer to copper coming from a region
called Magan, perhaps a name forOman, and interestingly enough copper found
Mesopotamian sites alsocontains traces of nickel.
d. It is worth notingthat Mesopotamian textsmention contact with regions named
Dilmun(Bahrain), Magan and Meluhha (the Harappan region).They mention the products
from Meluhha: carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and varieties of wood.
e. A Mesopotamian myth says of Meluhha: May your bird be the haja-bird, may its call be
heard inthe royal palace. Some archaeologists think the haja-bird was the peacock.
f. Mesopotamian texts refer to Meluhha (the Harappan region) as aland of seafarers.
Besides,we find depictions of shipsand boats on seals.
HARAPPAN SEALS
a. Harappan seals usually have a line of writing. Most inscriptions are short, the longest
containing about 26 signs. Although the script remains undeciphered to date, it was
evidently notalphabetical but syllable.It has just too many signs somewhere between 375
and 400.
b. It is apparent that the script was written from right to left as some seals show a wider
spacing on the right and crampingon the left, as if the engraver began working fromthe right
and then ran out of space.
c. A variety of objects on which writinghas been found: seals, copper tools, rims of jars,copper
and terracotta tablets, jewellery, bone rods, even an ancient signboard. Remember, there
mayhave been writing on perishable materials too such as cloth, animal skin etc.
HARAPPANWEIGHTS
a. Exchanges were regulated by a precise system ofweights, usually made of a stone called
chert and generally cubical with no markings.
b. Thelower denominations of weights were binary (1, 2, 4,8, 16, 32, etc). while the
higherdenominations followed the decimal system. Thesmaller weights were probably used
for weighing jewellery and beads and bigger weights were used for food grains.
c. Metal scale-pans have alsobeen found. These were probably used for measuring cloth and
other materials.
Ruling Authority in indus valley civilisation
(What are indications prove that complex decisions were taken and implemented in
Harappan society by the ruler?)
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a. The extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts as evident in pottery, seals and weights.
b. Bricks, thoughobviously not produced in any single centre, were ofa uniform ratio throughout
the region, from Jammuto Gujarat.
c. We have also seen that settlements werestrategically set up in specific locations for
variousreasons.
d. Labour was mobilised for makingbricks and for the construction of massive wallsand
platforms.
e. Who organised these activities? Most probably the king.
RULING AUTHORITY OR CENTRE OF POWER
a. There is evidence that by c. 1800 BCE most of the Mature Harappan sites had been
abandoned. Simultaneously, there wasan expansion of population into newsettlements in
Gujarat, Haryana andwestern Uttar Pradesh.
b. Distinctive artefacts of the civilisation- weights, seals, special beads, Writing, long-distance
trade, andcraft specialization disappeared after 1800 BCE.Houseconstruction techniques
deterioratedand large public structures were nolonger produced.
c. Overall disappearence of artefacts and settlements indicates a rural wayof life in what is
called Vedic culture or vedic civilisation began.
d. Several explanations havebeen put forward. These range fromclimatic change,
deforestation,excessive floods, the shifting and/or drying up ofrivers, to overuse of the
landscape.
e. Some of thesecauses may hold for certain settlements, but theydo not explain the
collapse of the entire civilisation.It appears that a strong unifying element, perhaps the
Harappan state, came to an end.
Evidence of an invasionin Indus valley civilisation
a.
Deadman Lane is a narrow valley wherepart of a skull, the bones of the thorax andupper arm of an adult were
discovered.Allwerein very friable condition, at a depth of4 ft 2 in. The body lay on its back diagonally across
the lane. Fifteen inches to thewest were a few fragments of a tiny skull. It is to these remains that the lane
owesits name.
b. Sixteen skeletons of people with the ornaments that they were wearing when theydied were found from the
same part of Mohenjodaro in 1925.
c.
R.E.M. Wheeler, then Director-General of the ASI, tried tocorrelate this archaeological evidence with that of
the Rigveda, the earliest known text in the subcontinent.
d. There is no destruction level covering the latest period of the city Mohenjodaro, no sign of extensive burning,
no bodies of warriors clad in armour and surrounded by the weapons of war. The citadel, the only fortified part
of the city,yielded no evidence of a final defence.
The sixth century BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian history
1.
2.
It is an era associated with the growing use of iron.
3.
It is an era associated with the development of coinage.
4.
It is witnessed the growth of diverse systems of thought (Religions) including
Buddhism and Jainism.
5.
It is also associated with emergence of Sixteen Mahajanapadas.
How did Magadha become the most powerful mahajanapada?OR (What are the different
explanations offered by early writers and present-day historians for the growth of
Magadhan power?)
1.
Magadha was a region where agriculture was especially productive.
2.
In Magadha iron mines were accessible and provided resources for tools and
weapons.
3.
Elephants, an important component of the army, were found in forests in the
region.
4.
The Ganga and its tributaries provided a means of cheap and convenient
communication.
5.
Buddhist and Jaina writers who wrote about Magadha attributed its power to the
policies of individuals.
6.
The ambitious kings of whom Bimbisara, Ajatasattu and Mahapadma Nanda are
the best known, and their ministers, who helped implement their policies.
Sources to understand Mauryan Empire
1.
Historians have used a variety of sources to reconstruct the history of the
Mauryan Empire. These include archaeological finds, especially sculpture, buildings,
monasteries etc
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2.
Contemporary works, such as the account of Megasthenes- (a Greek ambassador
to the court of Chandragupta Maurya), called Indica , which survives in fragments.
3.
Another source that is often used is the Arthashastra, parts of which were
probably composed by Kautilya or Chanakya, traditionally believed to be the minister of
Chandragupta.
4.
Besides, the Mauryas are mentioned in later Buddhist, Jaina and Puranic
literature, as well as in Sanskrit literary works.
5.
The inscriptions of Asoka (c. 272/268-231BCE) on rocks and pillars are often
regarded as amongst the most valuable sources.
How important was the Mauriyan Empire? (OR) (The emergence of the Mauryan Empire
was regarded as a major landmark in early Indian history-Why?)
1.
When historians began reconstructing early Indian history in the nineteenth
century, the emergence of the Mauryan Empire was regarded as a major landmark.
Mauryan Empire ruled India for about 150 years. It extended control as far northwest as
Afghanistan and Baluchistan and in the south up to Andhra Pradesh.
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2.
India was then under colonial rule, and was part of the British Empire.
Nineteenth and early twentieth century Indian historians found the emergence of the
Mauryan Empire in early India was both challenging and exciting.
3.
Some of the archaeological finds associated with the Mauryas, including stone
sculpture, were considered to be examples of the spectacular art typical of empires.
4.
Many of these historians found the message on Asokan inscriptions very different
from that of most other rulers, suggesting that Asoka was more powerful, industrious and
humble than later rulers who adopted grandiose titles.
5.
So the nationalist leaders in the twentieth century regarded Asoka as an inspiring
figure.
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c)
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
by tax collectors during the day. To escape from this situation, people abandoned their village
and went to live in the forest.
As this story indicates the relationship between a king and his subjects, especially the
rural population, could often be strained kings frequently tried to fill their coffers by
demanding high taxes, and peasants particularly found such demands oppressive.
2. Strategies for increasing agricultural production
One such strategy to increase agricultural production was the shift to plough agriculture, which
spread in fertile alluvial river valleys such as those of the Ganga and the Kaveri from c. sixth
century BCE.
The iron-tipped ploughshare was used to turn the alluvial soil in areas which had high rainfall.
In some parts of the Ganga valley, production of paddy was dramatically increased by the
introduction of transplantation, although this meant back-breaking work for the producer.
Areas which were semi-arid, such as parts of Punjab and Rajasthan and those living in hilly
tracts in the northeastern and central parts of the subcontinent practiced hoe agriculture, which
was much better suited to the terrain.
Another strategy adopted to increase agricultural production was the use of irrigation,
through wells and tanks, and less commonly, canals, which were constructed by kings and
communities.
.
3. Differences in rural society
a) There was a growing differentiation amongst people engaged in agriculture were based on
differential access to land, labour and some of the new technologies.
b) In the country side of Northern India people were divided into three groups - landless
agricultural labourers, small peasants, as well as large landholders.
c) The term gahapati was often used in Pali texts to designate the second and third categories.
d) Early Sangam texts also mention different categories of people engaged in agriculture were
based on differential access to land, labour and some of the new technologies.
e) In south India people who were divided into three groups large landowners orvellalar,
ploughmen or uzhavar and slaves or adimai.
4. Land grants and new rural elites
a.
The land grants were made to religious institutions, Brahmanas, samantas and
landless peasants.
b.
Prabhavati Gupta was the daughter of Chandragupta II, one of the most important
rulers in early Indian history,According to Sanskrit legal texts, women were not supposed
to have independent access to resources such as land.
c.
However, the inscription indicates that Prabhavati had access to land, which she
then granted. This may have been because she was a queen and her situation was
therefore exceptional.
d.
There were regional variations in the sizes of land donated ranging from small
plots to vast stretches of uncultivated land to donees (the recipients of the grant).
e.
Some Historians feel that land grants were part of a strategy adopted by ruling
lineages to extend agriculture to new areas. Others suggest that when kings were losing
control over their samantas, they tried to win allies by donating lands to people.
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2. Urban populations
a.
Kings and ruling elites lived in fortified cities. People who lived in towns were
washing folk, weavers, scribes, carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, officials,
religious teachers, merchants etc.
b.
Inscriptions mention about guilds or shrenis, organisations of craft producers and
merchants. These guilds probably procured raw materials, regulated production, and
marketed the finished products.
2. Trade in the subcontinent and beyond
a.
From the sixth century BCE, land and riverine routes extended in various
directions which connected all the parts of India.
b.
Rulers often attempted to control these routes, possibly by offering protection for
a price
(by collecting tax). Those who used these routes included peddlers who
probably travelled on foot and merchants who travelled with caravans of bullock carts
and pack-animals.
c.
Sea routes connected across the Arabian Sea to Central Asia, North Africa, West
Asia and beyond. Sea routes also connected Southeast Asia and China through the Bay of
Bengal.
d.
Also, there were seafarers, whose ventures were risky but highly profitable.
Successful merchants of south India, designated as masattuvan in Tamil
and setthisand satthavahas in Prakrit, could become enormously rich(some times more
richer than kings)
e.
A wide range of goods were carried from one place to another salt, grain, cloth,
metal ores, finished products, stone, timber, medicinal plants, spices, especially pepper,
etc.
a.
Exchanges were facilitated by the introduction of coinage. Punch-marked coins
made of silver and copper (c. sixth century BCE onwards) were amongst the earliest to be
minted and used by many dynasties including the Mauryas.
b.
The first coins to bear the names and images of rulers were issued by the IndoGreeks, who established control over the north-western part of the subcontinent c.second
century BCE.
c.
The first gold coins were issued in the first century CE by the Kushanas. These
were virtually identical in weight with those issued by Roman emperors and the Parthian
rulers of Iran.
d.
Coins were also issued by tribal republics of Punjab and Haryana called the
Yaudheyas. Archaeologists have unearthed several thousand copper coins issued by the
Yaudheyas.
e.
Some of the most spectacular gold coins were issued by the Gupta rulers. The
earliest coins issued by Guptas were remarkable for their purity. These coins facilitated
long-distance transactions from which kings also benefited.
From c. sixth century CE onwards, finds of gold coins taper off. Does this indicate that
there was some kind of an economic crisis?
a.
Historians are divided into two groups on this issue. Some suggest that with the
collapse of the Western Roman Empire long-distance trade between India and Rome
declined, and this affected the prosperity of India and trading communities.
b.
Others argue that new towns and networks of trade started emerging around this
time with in India.
c.
Some scholars point out that though finds of coins of were few but coins continue
to be mentioned in inscriptions and texts.
d.
Some historians suggest that people might have recycled the old coins for other
purposes.
e.
He also discovered that Asoka is the name of the ruler
and devanampiya andpiyadassi are titles used for Asoka in many
inscriptions. Epigraphists and historians studied Asokan inscriptions more closely. They
noted Asoka, devanampiya andpiyadassi are different names of the same ruler.
In Harappa almost all the cities were abandoned so that we have discovered enough
evidences to understand craft production but it is difficult to conduct extensive excavations
at most sites of Early Historic cities because people live in these areas even today (unlike
the Harappan cities)
b. A wide range of artefacts have been recovered from the people of early historic cities such
as fine pottery bowls and dishes, with a glossy finish, known as Northern Black Polished
Ware, ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels, figurines, made of a wide range of materials
gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell and terracotta tostudy craft production inEarly
Historic cities
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1. Historians often use textual traditions to understand Social history. Some texts lay down norms
of social behavior. Others describe and occasionally comment on a wide range of social
situations and practices.
2. Texts like Mahabharata allow us to piece together attitudes and practices that shaped social
histories.
3. In focusing on the Mahabharata, a colossal epic running in its present form into over100,000
verses with depictions of a wide range of social categories and situations.
4. It is one of the richest texts of the subcontinent. It was composed over a period of about1,000
years (c. 500 BCE onwards), and some of the stories it contains may have been in circulation
even earlier.
5. The central story is about two sets of warring cousins. The text also contains sections laying
down norms of behavior for various social groups. Occasionally the principal characters seem to
follow these norms.
The Critical Edition of the Mahabharata
1. In 1919, under the leadership of a noted Indian Sanskritist, V.S. Sukthankar, a team of scholars
initiated the task of preparing a critical edition of the Mahabharata.
2. Initially they collected Sanskrit manuscripts of the text, written in a variety of languages, from
different parts of the country. The team compared verses from each manuscript.
3. Ultimately, they selected the verses that appeared common to most versions andpublished these
in several volumes, running into over 13,000 pages. The project took 47years to complete.
4. There were several common elements in the Sanskrit versions of the story, evident in
manuscripts found all over the subcontinent, from Kashmir to Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the
south.
5. Also evident were enormous regional variations in the ways in which the text had been
transmitted over the centuries. These variations were documented in footnotes and appendices to
the main text.
Rules and Varied Practices in the early society
a. Rules about families(Kinship)
1. Families are usually parts of larger networks of people defined as relatives, or to use a more
technical term, kinfolk.
2. We noticed that not all families are identical: they vary in terms of number of members, their
relationship with one another as well as the kinds of activities they share.
3. Often people belonging to the same family share food and other resources, and live, workand
perform rituals together.
4. While familial ties are often regarded as natural and based on blood, they are defined in many
different ways. For instance, some societies regard cousins as being blood relations, whereas
others do not.
5. For early societies, historians can retrieve information about elite families fairly easily; it is,
however, far more difficult to reconstruct the familial relationships of ordinary people.
b. Rules about patriliny
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1. Patriliny means tracing descent from father to son, grandson and so on. Matriliny is the term
used when descent is traced through the mother. At one level, the Mahabharata is a story about
patriliny.
2. It describes a feud over land and power between two groups of cousins, the Kauravas and the
Pandavas, who belonged to a single ruling family, that of the Kurus, a lineage dominating one of
the janapadas.
3. Under patriliny, sons could claim the resources (including the throne in the case of kings) of
their fathers when the father died.
4. Most ruling dynasties (c. sixth century BCE onwards) claimed to follow this system, although
there were variations in practice: sometimes there were no sons, brotherssucceeded one another,
and sometimes other kinsmen claimed the throne.
5. In very exceptional circumstances, women such as Prabhavati Gupta exercised power. The
concern with patriliny was not unique to ruling families but also in ordinary families.
c.
Rules of marriage
1. There were two systems of marriage- Endogamy and Exogamy. Marriage within the kin is
called Endogamy. Marriage outside the kin is called Exogamy.
2. The lives of young girls and women belonging to elite families were often carefully regulated to
ensure that they were married at the right time and to the right person. This gave rise to the
belief that kanyadana or the gift of a daughter in marriage was an important religious duty of the
father.
3. There are three types of marriage- Monogamy (It is the practice in which a man having one
wife), polygamy or Polygyny (It is the practice in which a man having several wives)
and Polyandry ( It is the practice in which a woman having several husbands)
4. From c. 500 BCE, marriage norms were compiled in Sanskrit texts known as the Dharmasutras,
Dharmashastras and Manusmriti. These texts recognised as many as eight forms of marriage.
5. Of these, the first four were considered as good (Which were arranged by the parents of either
the boy or girl) while the remaining four were condemned( Which were fixed by the boy or girl)
It is possible that last four forms of marriage were practised by those who did not accept
Brahmanical norms.
d. The Gotra rules for women
1. One Brahmanical practice was to classify people in terms of gotras. Each gotra wasnamed after
a Vedic seer, and all those who belonged to the same gotra were regarded as his descendants.
2. Two rules about gotra were particularly important: a) women were expected to give up their
fathers gotra and adopt that of their husband on marriage and b) members of the
same gotra could not marry.
3. One way to find out whether this was commonly followed is to consider the names of men and
women, which were sometimes derived from gotra names. Some of the Satavahana rulers were
polygynous. The Queens who married Satavahana rulers indicate that many of them had their
fathers gotras even after the marriage.
4. What is also apparent is that some of these Queens belonged to the same gotra. As is obvious,
this was opposite to the ideal of exogamy recommended in the Brahmanical texts.
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5. In fact, it exemplified an alternative practice, that of endogamy or marriage within the kin group,
which is prevalent amongst several communities in south India. Satavahanas also had marriage
relations with Shakhas, Who were considered as out castes.
e.
1. We have seen that Satavahana rulers were identified through matronymics. It means their names
derived from that of the mother.
2. In the case of the Satavahanas we know that succession to the throne was generallypatrilineal. It
means sons succeeded to the throne after the death of father.
Social Differences: Within and Beyond the Framework of Caste
1. The right occupation
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras also contained rules about the ideal occupations of the
four categories or varnas.
Brahmanas were supposed to study and teach the Vedas, perform sacrifices and get sacrifices
performed, and give and receive gifts.
Kshatriyas were to engage in warfare, protect people and administer justice, study the Vedas, get
sacrifices performed, and make gifts.
The Vaishyas were expected to engage in agriculture, pastoralism and trade.
Shudras were assigned only one occupation that of serving the three higher varnas.
The Brahmanas evolved many strategies for enforcing right occupation norms.
a.
b.
c.
d.
One was to assert that the varna order was of divine origin.
Second, they advised kings to ensure that these norms were followed within their kingdoms.
And third, they attempted to persuade people that their status was determined by birth.
They also reinforced these norms by stories told in the Mahabharata and other texts.
2. Non-Kshatriya kings
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
According to the Shastras, only Kshatriyas could be kings. However, several important ruling
lineages probably had different origins.
The social background of the Mauryas, who ruled over a large empire, has been hotly debated.
Brahmanical texts described that Mauryas were of low origin.
The Shungas and Kanvas, the immediate successors of the Mauryas, were Brahmanas. In fact,
political power was effectively open to anyone who could muster support and resources, and
rarely depended on birth as a Kshatriya.
Other rulers, such as the Shakas who came from Central Asia, were regarded asmlechchhas,
(barbarians) or outsiders by the Brahmanas. They ruled north western part of India.
It is also interesting that the best-known ruler of the Satavahana dynasty, Gotami-puta SiriSatakani, claimed to be both a unique Brahmana and a destroyer of the pride of Kshatriyas.
3. Jatis and social mobility
19
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
In Brahmanical theory, jati, like varna, was based on birth. However, while the number
of varnas was fixed at four, there was no restriction on the number of jatis.
In fact, whenever Brahmanical authorities encountered new groups like nishadas or wanted to
assign a name to occupational categories like goldsmith used jati to classify them.
Jatis which shared a common occupation or profession were sometimes organised intoshrenis or
guilds.
One interesting stone inscription found in Madhya Pradesh records the history of a guild of silk
weavers who originally lived in Gujarat migrated to Madhya Pradesh were known as Dashapura.
The inscription provides a fascinating glimpse of complex social processes and provides insights
into the nature of guilds or shrenis. Although membership was based on a shared craft
specialisation, some members adopted other occupations.
4. Beyond the four varnas (Integration of varna practices)
1. In the subcontinent social practices of Tribal people were not influenced by Brahmanical ideas.
They were often described as odd, uncivilised, or even animal-like people such as forest
dwellers, pastoralists etc.
2. Those who could not be easily accommodated within the framework of settled agriculturists and
those who spoke non-Sanskritic languages were labeled as mlechchhas or out castes and looked
down upon.
3. There was a sharing of ideas and beliefs between higher varna people and forest dwellersand out
castes. The nature of relations between these people is evident in some stories in
the Mahabharata.
4. For example Eklavya, a forester who never goes to battle -wanted to learn archery from
Dronacharya.
5. Bhima, one of the five brothers of Pandava family married Hidimba, a Rhakshasi by birth and
they gave birth to a child.
5. Beyond the four varnas (Subordination of the lower varnas and conflict between higher and
lower varnas)
1. While the Brahmanas considered some people as being outside the system, they also developed a
sharper social divide by classifying certain social categories asuntouchable.
2. Those who considered themselves Pure (Brahmans, Kshatriyas and vaishyas) avoidedtaking
food and water from those they designated as untouchable (Shudhras).
3. Some of the activities of untouchables were regarded as polluting. These includedhandling
deadbodies and dead animals. Those who performed such tasks, designated aschandalas, were
placed at the very bottom of the hierarchy.
4. Their touch and, in some cases, even seeing them was regarded as polluting by those who
claimed to be at the top of the social order.
5. The Manusmriti laid down the duties of the chandalas. They were,
a. They had to live outside the village.
b. They had to use discarded utensils.
20
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
21
1.
2.
1.
2.
3.
4.
1. The original story was probably composed by charioteer-bards known as sutas whogenerally
accompanied Kshatriya warriors to the battlefield and composed poems celebrating their
victories and other achievements. These compositions circulated orally.
2. Then, from the fifth century BCE, Brahmanas took over the story and began to commit it to
writing. This was the time when chiefdoms such as those of the Kurus and Panchalas, around
whom the story of the epic revolves, were gradually becoming kingdoms.
3. Between c. 200 BCE and 200 CE when the worship of Vishnu was growing in importance,
and Krishna, one of the important figures of the epic, was coming to be identified as an
incarnation of Vishnu.
4. Between c. 200 and 400 CE, large didactic sections resembling the Manusmriti were added.
22
5. With these additions, a text which initially perhaps had less than 10,000 verses grew to comprise
about 100,000 verses. This enormous composition is traditionally attributed to asage named
Vyasa.
d.Dated of Mahabharata:
1. The original story was probably composed by charioteer-bards known as sutas and circulated
the story orally for many decades.
2. Then, from the fifth century BCE, Brahmanas took over the story and began to commit it to
writing. This was the time when chiefdoms such as those of the Kurus and Panchalas, around
whom the story of the epic revolves, were gradually becoming kingdoms.
3. Between c. 200 BCE and 200 CE when the worship of Vishnu was growing in importance, and
Krishna, one of the important figures of the epic, was coming to be identified as an incarnation
of Vishnu
4. Between c. 200 and 400 CE, large didactic sections resembling the Manusmriti were added in
Mahabharata.
The search for convergence or Finding historical truth from archaeology ( B.B.Lal`s
excavation and findings in Hastinapura)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
In 1951-52, the archaeologist B.B. Lal excavated a village named Hastinapura in Meerut (Uttar
Pradesh). We are not sure that this was the Hastinapura of the epic or the names are coincidental.
B.B. Lal found evidence of five occupational levels in Hastinapura, of which the second and
third are important.
B.B. Lal noted about the houses in the second phase (c. twelfth-seventh centuries BCE) a)
There were no definite plans of houses found. b) The walls were made of mud and mudbricks. c) The discovery of mud-plaster with prominent reed-marks suggested that some of
the houses had reed walls plastered over with mud.
In the third phase (c. sixth-third centuries BCE), B.B. Lal noted-a) Houses of this period were
built of mud-brick as well as burnt bricks. B) Soakage jars and brick drains were used for
draining out refuse water. C) Terracotta ring-wells may have been used both as wells and
drainage pits.
Weather the description of the city in the epic added after the main narrative had been composed
or it was a flight of poetic fancy, which cannot always be verified by comparisons with other
kinds of evidence.
One of the most challenging episodes in the Mahabharata is Draupadis marriage with the
Pandavas, an instance of polyandry that is central to the narrative.
1. Present-day historians suggest that polyandry may have been prevalent amongst ruling elites at
some point of time in Indian subcontinent.
2. Another fact suggests that polyandry gradually fell into disfavor amongst the Brahmanas, who
reworked and developed the text through the centuries.
23
3. Some historians note that while the practice of polyandry may have seemed unusual or even
undesirable from the Brahmanical point of view, it was (and is) prevalent in the Himalayan
region.
4. Others suggest that there may have been a shortage of women during times of warfare, and this
led to polyandry. In other words, it was attributed to a situation of crisis.
5. Some early sources suggest that polyandry was not the only or even the most prevalent form of
marriage. Why then did the author(s) choose to associate this practice with the central characters
of the Mahabharata? We need to remember that creative literature often has its own narrative
requirements and does not always literally reflect social realities but just used to create interest
for readers.
Mahabharata is a Dynamic Text
1. The growth of the Mahabharata did not stop with the Sanskrit version. Over the centuries,
versions of the epic were written in a variety of languages through an ongoing process of
dialogue between peoples, communities, and those who wrote the texts.
2. Several stories that originated in specific regions or circulated amongst certain people found
their way into the epic. At the same time, the central story of the epic was often retold in
different ways.
3. Episodes of Mahabharata were depicted in sculpture and painting.
4. They also provided themes for a wide range of performing arts plays, dance and other kinds of
narrations.
The mid-first millennium BCE is often regarded as a turning point in world history:
1. This period saw the emergence of thinkers such as Zarathustra in Iran, Kong Zi in China,
Socrates, Plato and Aristotle in Greece, and Mahavira and Gautama Buddha, among many
others, in India.
2. They tried to understand the mysteries of existence and the relationship between human
beings and the cosmic order.
3. This was also the time when new kingdoms and cities were developing and social and
economic life was changing in a variety of ways in the Ganga valley
24
1. The early Vedic tradition was one of the pre-existing traditions of thought.
2. The Rig-Veda consists of hymns in praise of a variety of deities, especially Agni, Indra and
Soma.
3. Many of these hymns were chanted when sacrifices were performed, where people prayed
for cattle, sons, good health, long life, etc.
4. At first, sacrifices were performed collectively. Later some sacrifices were performed by the
head of the family for the wellbeing of the domestic unit.
5. More elaborate sacrifices, such as the Rajasuya and Ashvamedha, were performed by
chiefs and kings who depended on Brahmana priests to conduct the ritual.
New questions in the early period
1. Many people were curious about the meaning of life, the possibility of life after death, karma
and rebirth.
2. Such issues were hotly debated. Thinkers were concerned with understanding and
expressing the nature of the ultimate reality.
Debates and discussions
1. There were as many as 64 sects or schools of thought. Lively discussions and debates took
place between the teachers of these schools of thought.
2. Teachers like Buddha and Mahavira travelled from place to place, trying to convince one
another as well as laypersons, about the validity of their philosophy or the way they
understood the world.
3. Debates took place in the kutagarashala (a hut with a pointed roof) and in groves where
travelling mendicants halted.
4. If a philosopher succeeded in convincing one of his rivals, the followers of the latter also
became his disciples. So support for any particular sect could grow and shrink over time.
5. Many of these teachers, including Mahavira and the Buddha, questioned the authority of the
Vedas. They also emphasised individuals to attain liberation from the trials and tribulations
of worldly existence.
2. Non-injury to living beings, especially to humans, animals, plants and insects, is central to
Jaina philosophy.
3. In fact the principle of ahimsa, emphasized within Jainism, has left its mark on Indian
thinking as a whole.
4. According to Jaina teachings, the cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through karma.
5. Asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from the cycle of karma. This can be
achieved only by renouncing the world.
Jain monks and nuns took five vows such as to abstain from killing.
To abstain from Stealing
To abstain from Lying
To observe celibacy
To abstain from possessing property.
Spread of Buddhism
1. Buddhism grew rapidly both during the lifetime of the Buddha and after his death, as it
appealed to many people dissatisfied with existing religious practices and confused by the
rapid social changes taking place around them.
2. Buddhas messages metta (fellow feeling) and karuna (compassion) spread across the
subcontinent and beyond through Central Asia to China, Korea and Japan, and through
Sri Lanka, across the seas to Myanmar, Thailand and Indonesia.
3. Buddhas teachings have been reconstructed by carefully editing, translatingand analyzing
the Buddhist texts.
4. Historians have also tried to reconstruct details of his life from
hagiographies.(Hagiography is a biography of a saint or religious leader. Hagiographies often
praise the saints achievements, and may not always be literally accurate. They are important
because they tell us about the beliefs of the followers of that particular tradition)
5. Many of these were written down at least a century after the death of the Buddha, in an
attempt to preserve memories of the great teacher.
26
Life of Buddha (What were the traumatic incidents changed the life of the
Buddha?)
1. According to the traditions, Siddhartha was the son of a chief of the Sakya clan. He had a
sheltered upbringing within the palace, insulated from the harsh realities of life.
2. One day he persuaded his charioteer to take him into the city. His first journey into the world
outside was traumatic.
3. He was deeply anguished when he saw an old man, a sick man and a corpse (dead
body). He realized in that moment that the decay and destruction of the human body was
inevitable.
4. He also saw a homeless mendicant, who had come to terms with old age, disease and
death, and found peace. Siddhartha decided that he too would adopt the same path.
5. Soon after, he left the palace and set out in search of his own truth. Siddhartha explored
several paths including bodily mortification which led him to a situation of near death. He
meditated for several days and finally attained enlightenment. After this he came to be
known as the Buddha or the Enlightened One.
27
5. The Buddhas followers came from many social groups. They included kings, wealthy
men,gahapatis, workers, slaves and craftspeople.
6. Once persons get into the sangha, all were regarded as equal, having shed their earlier
social identities on becoming bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. The internal functioning of
thesangha was based on the traditions where decisions were taken through discussions
and voting.
Stupas
Where were stupas built?
Stupas were built in the places associated with Buddhas life
Lumbini-where he was born
Bodh Gaya -Where he attained enlightenment
Sarnath -Where he gave his first sermon( public speech) and
Kusinagara -Where he attained nibbana (Death) gradually, each of these places came to be
regarded as sacred.
5. By the second century BCE a number of stupas, including those at Bharhut, Sanchi and
Sarnath had been built.
1.
2.
3.
4.
3. According to a Buddhist text known as the Ashokavadana, Asoka distributed portions of the
Buddhas relics to every important town and ordered the construction of stupas over them.
How were stupas built?
1. Inscriptions found on the railings and pillars of stupas record donations made for building
and decorating them. Some donations were made by kings such as the Satavahanas;
others were made by guilds, such as that of the ivory workers.
2. Hundreds of donations were made by women and men who mention their names,
sometimes adding the name of the place from where they came, as well as their
occupations and names of their relatives.
3. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis also contributed towards building these monuments.
The structure of the stupa
1. The stupa originated as a simple semi-circular mound of earth called anda. Gradually, it
evolved into a more complex structure, balancing round and square shapes.
2. Above the anda was the harmika, a balcony like structure that represented the abode of the
gods.
3. Arising from the harmika was a mast called the yashti, often surmounted by a chhatri or
umbrella. Around the mound was a railing, separating the sacred space from the secular
world.
4. The early stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut were plain except for the stone railings. Later
wooden fence and the gateways were richly carved and installed at the four cardinal points.
Worshippers entered through the eastern gateway and walked around the mound in a
clockwise direction keeping the mound on the right, imitating the suns course through the
sky.
5. Later, the mound of the stupas came to be elaborately carved with niches and sculptures
as at Amaravati, and Shahji- ki-Dheri in Pakistan.
29
8. In 1854, Walter Elliot, the commissioner Andhra Pradesh visited Amaravati and collected
several sculpture panels and took them away to Madras. These came to be called the Elliot
marbles after him.
9. By the 1850s, some of the slabs from Amaravati had begun to be taken to different
places:a) To the Asiatic Society of Bengal at Calcutta b) To the India Office in Madras and
some even to London
10. Some years later, a British official named Colin Mackenzie visited the site. He found several
pieces of sculpture and made detailed drawings of them, these reports were never
published to protect the Stupa
Stories in stone
1. At first sight the sculpture (4.13) seems to depict a rural scene, with thatched huts and trees.
However, art historians who have carefully studied the sculpture at Sanchi identify it as a
scene from the Vessantara Jataka. This is a story about a generous prince who gave away
everything to a Brahmana, and went to live in the forest with his wife and children.
2. According to hagiographies, the Buddha attained enlightenment while meditating under a
tree. Many early sculptors did not show the Buddha in human form instead, they
showed his presence through symbols.
3. The empty seat was meant to indicate the meditation of the Buddha.
4. The Stupa was meant to represent the mahaparinibbana (death)
5. Another frequently used symbol was the wheel. This stood for the first sermon of the
Buddha, delivered at Sarnath.
6. A beautiful woman swinging from the edge of the gateway, holding onto a tree. After
examining other literary traditions, Scholars realized that it could be a representation of
ashalabhanjika. According to popular belief, this was a woman whose touch caused trees
to flower and bear fruit
7. Some of the finest depictions of animals are found in sanchi. These animals
includeelephants, horses, monkeys and cattle.
8. While the Jatakas contain several animal stories that are depicted at Sanchi, it is likely that
many of these animals were carved to create lively scenes to draw viewers. Elephantswere
depicted to signify strength and wisdom.
9. Another motif is a woman surrounded by lotuses and elephants which are sprinkling water
on her as if performing an abhisheka or consecration. While some historians identify the
figure as Maya, the mother of the Buddha, others identify her with a popular
goddess,Gajalakshmi literally, the goddess of good fortune who is associated with
elephants.
10. The serpent motif, which is found on several pillars, seems to be derived from popular
traditions, which were not always recorded in texts. Interestingly, one of the earliest modern
art historians, James Fergusson, considered Sanchi to be a centre of serpent worship.
The Division of Buddhism into Mahayana and Hinayana
1. By the first century CE, there is evidence of changes in Buddhist ideas and practices.
2. Early Buddhist teachings had given great importance to self-effort in achieving nibbana.
Besides, the Buddha was regarded as a human being who attained enlightenment through
his own efforts. Those who adopted these beliefs were described as Hinayana or the
lesser vehicle.
31
3. However, gradually the idea of a saviour emerged. Buddha was regarded as a God the one
who could ensure salvation. Those who adopted these beliefs were described
asMahayana or the greater vehicle.
4. Simultaneously, the concept of the Bodhisatta (Buddha in the previous birth) also
developed. Bodhisattas were perceived as deeply compassionate beings they accumulated
merit through their efforts not to attain nibbana but to help others.
5. The worship of images of the Buddha and Bodhisattas became an important part of
Mahayana tradition.
Building temples
1. The early temple was a small square room, called the garbhagriha, with a single doorway
for the worshipper to enter and offer worship to the image.
2. Gradually, a tall structure, known as the shikhara, was built over the central shrine. Temple
walls were often decorated with sculptures.
3. Later temples became far more elaborate with assembly halls, huge walls and
gateways, and arrangements for supplying water.
32
4. One of the unique features of early temples was that some of the temples were hollowedout
of huge rocks, as artificial caves (Rock cut temples). The tradition of building artificial
caves was an old one. Some of the earliest of these were constructed in the third
century BCE on the orders of Asoka for renouncers who belonged to the Ajivika (fatalist) sect.
5. This tradition evolved through various stages and culminated much later in the eighth
century in the carving out of an entire temple, that of Kailashnatha (a name of Shiva) in
Maharashtra.
3.
4.
5.
34
He attempted to suggest that social divisions were not unique to India. At the same time he pointed
out that within Islam all men were considered equal, differing only in their observance of piety.
5. In spite of his acceptance of the Brahmanical description of the caste system, Al-Biruni disapproved
of the notion of pollution. As we have seen, Al-Birunis description of the caste system was deeply
influenced by his study of normative Sanskrit texts which laid down the rules governing the system
from the point of view of the Brahmanas.
4.
Why was travelling more insecure in the medieval period according to Ibn
Battuta?
1. Ibn Battuta was attacked by bands of robbers several times. In fact he preferred travelling in a
caravan along with companions, but this did not deter highway robbers.
2. While travelling from Multan to Delhi, his caravan was attacked and many of his fellow travellers
lost their lives; those travellers, who survived, including Ibn Battuta, were severely wounded.
3. He suffered from home sick and in many places he was not welcomed by the people.
2. The paanBetel plant looked like grape plant. It is grown for the sake its leaves. People chew betel leaves with
areca nut and lime.
3. Indian cities
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Ibn Battuta found cities in the subcontinent full of exciting opportunities , resources and skills. They
were densely populated and prosperous, except for the occasional disruptions caused by wars and
invasions.
Most cities had crowded streets and bright and colourful markets that were stacked with a wide
variety of goods. Ibn Battuta described Delhi and Daulatabad as vast cities, with a great population,
the largest in India.
The bazaars were not only places of economic transactions, but also the hub of social and cultural
activities. Most bazaars had a mosque and a temple, and in some of them at least, spaces were
marked for public performances by dancers, musicians and singers.
Ibn Battuta explains that towns derived a significant portion of their wealth through the appropriation
of surplus from villages because of the fertility of the soil, which allowed farmers to cultivate two
crops a year.
He also noted that the subcontinent was well integrated with inter-Asian networks of trade and
commerce, with Indian manufactures being in great demand in both West Asia and Southeast Asia,
fetching huge profits for artisans and merchants. Indian textiles, particularly cotton cloth, fine
muslins, silks, brocade and satin, were in great demand.
5.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Almost all trade routes were well supplied with inns and guest houses. Ibn Battuta was also amazed
by the efficiency of the postal system(by horse and human runners) which allowed merchants to
not only send information and remit credit across long distances, but also to dispatch goods required
at short notice.
Use of slavesSlaves were openly sold in markets, like any other commodity, and were regularly exchanged as
gifts. When Ibn Battuta reached Sind he purchased horses, camels and slaves as gifts for Sultan
Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
There was considerable differentiation among slaves. Some female slaves in the service of the Sultan
were experts in music and dance, and Ibn Battuta enjoyed their performance at the wedding of the
Sultans sister.
Female slaves were also employed by the Sultan to keep a watch on his nobles. They were generally
used for domestic labour.
Ibn Battuta found that men slaves were used for carrying rich women and men on palanquins
or dola.
The price of slaves, particularly female slaves required for domestic labour, was very low, and most
families who could afford to do so kept at least one or two of them.
Francois Bernier
36
1. Franois Bernier, a Frenchman, was a doctor, political philosopher and historian. He came to the
Mughal Empire in search of opportunities. He was in India for twelve years, from 1656 to 1668,
2. He was closely associated with the Mughal court, as a physician to Prince Dara Shukoh, the eldest
son of Emperor Shah Jahan, and later as an intellectual and scientist, with Danishmand Khan, an
Armenian noble at the Mughal court.
3. Bernier travelled to several parts of the country, and wrote accounts of what he saw, frequently
comparing what he saw in India with the situation in Europe.
4. He dedicated his major writing to Louis XIV, the king of France, and many of his other works were
written in the form of letters to influential officials and ministers.
5. In virtually every instance Bernier described what he saw in India as a bleak situation in comparison
to developments in Europe. This assessment was not always accurate.
4. Merchants often had strong community or kin ties, and were organised into their own caste-cum
occupational bodies. In western India these groups were called mahajans, and their chief, thesheth or
nagarsheth.
5. Urban groups included professional classes such as physicians (hakim or vaid), teachers
(punditor mulla), lawyers (wakil ), painters, architects, musicians, calligraphers, etc. While some
depended on imperial patronage, many made their living by serving other patrons,
D. Sati and women Labourers
1. European travellers and writers often highlighted the treatment of women as a crucial marker of
difference between Western and Eastern societies. Bernier chose the practice of sati for detailed
description.
2. He noted that while some women seemed to embrace death cheerfully, others were forced to die.
However, womens lives revolved around much else besides the practice of sati.
3. Women labour was crucial in both agricultural and non-agricultural production.
4. Women from merchant families participated in commercial activities, sometimes even taking
mercantile disputes to the court of law.
5. Therefore it seems unlikely that women were confined to the private spaces of their homes.
Travelers who wrote detailed accounts regarding Indian social customs and religious
practices
Jesuit Roberto Nobili- He translated Indian texts into European languages
Duarte Barbosa- , He wrote a detailed account of trade and society in south India
Jean-BaptisteTavernier- He was particularly fascinated with the trading conditions in India, and
compared India to Iran and the Ottoman Empire.
Italian doctor Manucci- He wrote detailed accounts regarding Indian social customs and religious
practices and settled in India.
How did Franois Berniers accounts influence policy-makers and the intelligentsia in
Europe?
Or
How did Franois Berniers descriptions influence Western theorists from the eighteenth
century?
Berniers Travels in the Mughal Empire is marked by detailed observations, critical insights and
reflection. His account contains discussions trying to place the history of the Mughals within some
sort of a universal framework. He constantly compared Mughal India with contemporary Europe.
2. Abul Fazl, the sixteenth-century official chronicler of Akbars reign, describes the land revenue as
remunerations of sovereignty, a claim made by the ruler on his subjects for the protection to the
crops he provided rather than as rent on land.
3. Berniers descriptions influenced Western theorists from the eighteenth century onwards. The French
philosopher Montesquieu, for instance, used this account to develop the idea of oriental despotism,
1.
38
according to which rulers in Asia enjoyed absolute authority over their subjects, who were kept in
conditions of subjugation and poverty.
4. This idea was further developed as the concept of the Asiatic mode of production by Karl Marx in
the nineteenth century. He argued that in India surplus was appropriated by the state. This led to the
emergence of a society that was composed of a large number of autonomous and egalitarian village
communities.
5. However, this picture of rural society was far from true. In fact, during the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries, rural society was characterised by considerable social and economic differentiation.
2.
There were twoprocesses at work to integrate different cults. One was a process of
disseminatingBrahmanical ideas. This is exemplified by thecomposition, compilation and
preservation of Puranictexts in simple Sanskrit verse, explicitly meant tobe accessible to women
and Shudras.
At the sametime, there was a second process at work that ofthe Brahmanas accepting and
reworking the beliefsand practices of Shudras
Infact, many beliefs and practices were shaped througha continuous dialogue between great
(Brahmans) traditionsand little (Shudras) traditions throughout the land.
One of the most striking examples of this processis evident at Puri, Orissa, where the principal
deitywas identifiedas Jagannatha(literally, the lord of the world), a form of Vishnu.
Such instances of integration are evidentamongst goddess cults as well. Worship of thegoddess,
often simply in the form of a stone colouredwith red and yellow mud. They were identified as wives
of the principal male deities sometimes theywere equated with Lakshmi, the wife of Vishnu,
inother instances, with Parvati, the wife of Shiva and Saraswati, wife of Brahma.
Difference and conflict betweenvarious cults or traditions of Hinduism
Tantric practices
Puranic traditions
Vedic Traditions
Those engaged in Tantric
Also, devotees often tended to
In Vedic traditions
practices frequently ignored the project their chosen deity,
the principal
authority of the Vedas.
eitherVishnu or Shiva, as
deities are Agni,
supreme.
Indra and Soma,
39
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Vedic practices
were for only men
andBrahmans,
Kshatriyas and
Vaishyas.They 1.
practiced Vedic
tradition by
chanting long
Vedic hymns and
elaborate
sacrifices.
Early
Traditio
ns of
Bhakti
in
Tamil
Nadu
(South
India)
Historian
s of
religion
oftenclas
sify
bhakti
traditions
Chidambaram, Thanjavur were constructed under the patronage of Chola rulers and representations
of Shiva in bronze sculpture wereproduced.
3. Rulers tried to win the support of Alvars and Nayanars. The Chola kings often attempted to claim
divine supportand proclaim their own power and status by buildingsplendid temples that were
adornedwith stone and metal sculpture torecreate the visions of these popularsaints who sang in the
language ofthe people.
4. These kings also introduced the singing of Tamil Shaiva hymns inthe temples under royal
patronage,taking the initiative to collect and organise them into a text (Tevaram).
5. Cholaruler Parantaka I had consecratedmetal images of Bhakti Saints -Appar, Sambandar and
Sundarar in a Shiva temple.These were carried in processionsduring the festivals of these saints.
41
Arab merchantsfrequented ports along the western coast in the firstmillennium CE, they settledin
the Malabar Coast.
2. In 711 an Arab general named Muhammad Qasim conquered Sind, which became part of the
Caliphs domain.
3. Later the Turks and Afghans established theDelhi Sultanate.This continued with theestablishment
of the Mughal Empire in the sixteenthcentury.
4. Theoretically, Muslim rulers were to be guided bythe ulamas. Ulemas are theologians who are well
versed in Islamic laws.Rulers ruled according to the sharia.The sharia is the law governing the
Muslim community. It is based on the Quran and the hadiths.
5. Muslimsruled and protected people of all the religions but collected Jizya tax from the Non- Muslims. Several
rulersgave land endowments and granted tax exemptionsto Hindu, Jain, Zoroastrian, Christian and
Jewishreligious institutions and also expressed respect to the Saints.
Historians pointed out that the termMusalmanor Muslim was virtuallynever used in India upto
14th century. Instead they wereoccasionally identified in terms ofthe region from which they came.
Turkish rulers were designated as Turushka.
Tajika were people from Tajikistan. Parashika were people from Persia.
Sometimes, terms usedfor other peoples were applied to thenew migrants. For instance, theTurks and
Afghans were referred to as Shakas andYavanas.
A more general term for these migrant communities was mlechchha, indicating that they didnot
observe the norms of caste society and spokelanguages that were not derived from Sanskrit.
42
1. In the early centuries of Islam a group of religiousmindedpeople called Sufis turned toasceticism
andmysticism in protest against the growing materialismof the Caliphate.They were critical of the
dogmatic definitions andscholastic methods of interpreting the Quran and sunnahby the Ulemas.
They emphasized on seeking salvationthrough intense devotion and love for God by following the
commands of Ph. Muhammad.
2. Khanqahs:Institutionally, the Sufis began to organize communities around thehospice orkhanqahc
ontrolled by a teaching master known as sheikh. He enrolled disciples and appointeda successor. He
established rules for spiritualconduct and interaction between inmates as well asbetween laypersons
and the master.
3. Silsilas:The word silsilaliterally means Spiritual chain, signifying a continuouslink between master
and disciple, stretching as anunbroken spiritual genealogy from Allah> the Prophet Muhammad >
Sufis > devotees. It was through this channel that spiritual power andblessings were transmitted to
devotees.
4. Ziyarat:When the sheikhdied, he was buried in a tomb shrine and his tomb-shrine is
called dargah. Itbecame the center ofdevotion for his followers. This encouraged the
practiceof pilgrimage or ziyaratto his grave, particularly onhis birth, deathand marriage
anniversaries. This was becausepeople believed that in death saints were united with God.
5. Be-sharia and Ba-sharia Sufis:
Be-Sharia
Sufis, Who left the khanqahand took to
mendicancy and observedcelibacy and
extremeforms of asceticism were called BeSharia
They were known by differentnames
Qalandars, Madaris, Malangs, Haidaris,etc.
Ba-Sharia
The Sufis who lived in Khanqas by following
normal Sharia practices were called Ba-Sharia
Sufis.
They did not have other names.
The khanqahwas the centre of social life. It comprised several small rooms anda big hall, where the
inmates andvisitors lived and prayed.
b. The inmates included familymembers of the Shaikh, his attendants and disciples.The Shaikh lived in
a small room on the roof of thehall where he met visitors in the morning and evening. Sufi or Walior
friend of the God, who claimedproximity to Allah, acquiring Gods Grace to performmiracles.
c.
There was an open kitchen (langar), run on unasked charity. From morning till late nightpeople
from all walks of life soldiers, slaves,singers, merchants, poets, travellers, rich andpoor,
Hindu jogisand qalandars cameseeking discipleship, amulets for healing.
d. Practices that were adopted, including bowing beforethe Shaikh, offering water to visitors, shaving
theheads of initiates, and yogic exercises, representedattempts to assimilate local traditions.
43
e.
c.
d.
e.
4.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
5.
Pilgrimage, called ziyarat, to tombs of sufi saints isprevalent all over the Muslim world. This
practiceis an occasion for seeking the sufis spiritual grace.
For more than seven centuries people ofvarious creeds, classes and social backgrounds
haveexpressed their devotion at the dargahsof the fivegreat Chishti saints.Amongstthese, the most
revered shrine is that of KhwajaMuinuddinChishti, popularly known as Gharib Nawaz(comforter
of the poor).
But the earliestconstruction to house the tomb was funded in thelate fifteenth century by
Sultan GhiyasuddinKhalji of Malwa. Since the shrine was located on the traderoute linking Delhi
and Gujarat, it attracted a lotof travellers.
The earliest textual references to KhwajaMuinuddinsdargahdate to the fourteenth century.It was
evidently popular because of the austerityand piety of its Shaikh, the greatness of his
spiritualsuccessors, and the patronage of royal visitors.Muhammad bin Tughlaq (ruled, 1324-51)
was thefirst Sultan to visit the shrine.
Akbar visitedthe tomb fourteen times,sometimes two or three times a year, to seekblessings for
new conquests, fulfilment of vows, andthe birth of sons. He offered a hugecauldron (degh) to
facilitate cooking for pilgrims.He also had a mosque constructed within thecompound of the dargah.
Qawwali
Also part of ziyaratis the use of music and danceincluding mystical chantsperformed by
speciallytrained musicians or qawwalsto evoke divineecstasy.
The sufis remember God either by reciting the Divine Names or evoking His
Presencethrough sama(audition) or performanceof mystical music called Qawwali.
Amir Khusrau the great poet, musician and disciple of ShaikhNizamuddinAuliya, gave a unique
form to the Chishtisama by introducing the qaul, a hymn sung at the opening or closing of qawwali.
This was followed by sufi poetry in Persian, Hindavi or Urdu, and sometimes using words from all
of these languages.
Qawwals (those who sing these songs) at the shrine of ShaikhNizamuddinAuliya always start their
recital with the qaul. Today qawwali is performed in shrines all over the subcontinent .
Languages and communication in Chishti Tradition:
a.
In Delhi, those associated withthe Chishtisilsilaconversed in Hindavi, the languageof the people.
Other sufis such as Baba Faridcomposed verses in the local language.
b. Yet otherscomposed long poems or masnavisto express ideasof divine love using human love as an
allegory (Symbol). Forexample, the prem-akhyan(love story)Padmavatcomposed by Malik
Muhammad Jayasi revolvedaround the romance of Padmini and Ratansen, theking of Chittor.
44
c.
A different genre of sufi poetry was composed inand around the town of Bijapur, Karnataka.
Thesewere short poems in Urduattributed to Chishtisufis who lived in this regionduring the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
d. These poems were probably sung by women whileperforming household chores like grinding grain
andspinning. Other compositions were in the form oflurinamaor lullabies and shadinamaor
weddingsongs.
e. It is likely that theSufis of this region wereinspired by the pre-existing bhakti traditionof
theKannada vachanasof the Lingayats and the Marathiabhangsof the santsof Pandharpur. It is
throughthis medium that Islam gradually gained a place inthe villages of the Deccan.
6. Sufis and their relations with the state(Rulers)
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
The sufisaccepted unsolicited grants and donations from thepolitical elites. The Sultans in turn set
up charitabletrusts as endowments for hospices andgranted tax-free.
The Chishtis accepted donations in cash and kind.Rather than accumulate donations, they
preferredto use these fully on immediate requirementssuch as food, clothes, living quarters and
ritualnecessities.
All this enhanced themoral authority of the shaikhs, which in turnattracted people from all walks of
life. Further, theirpiety and scholarship, and peoples belief in theirmiraculous powers made Sufis
popular among themasses, whose support kings wished to secure.
Kings did not simply need to demonstrate theirassociation with Sufis; they also required
legitimationfrom them. When the Turks set up the DelhiSultanate, theyanticipated opposition from
Ulemas for not imposing Sharia as the state law. The Sultansthen sought out the Sufis who
derived theirauthority directly from God and did not depend onjurists to interpret the sharia.
Besides, it was believed that the auliyacouldintercede with God in order to improve the materialand
spiritual conditions of ordinary human beings. That is why kings often wanted their tombs tobe in
the vicinity of Sufi shrines and hospices.
However, there were instances of conflict betweenthe Sultans and the Sufis. To assert their
authority,both expected that certain rituals be performed suchas prostration and kissing of the feet.
Occasionallythe Sufi shaikhwas addressed with high-soundingtitleslikesultan-ul-mashaikh.
45
2. According to the traditions, she was a Rajput princess from Marwar who was married against her
wishes to aprince of Mewar, in Rajasthan.
3. Shedefied her husband and did not submit to thetraditional role of wife and mother,
insteadrecognising Krishna, the avatar of Vishnu, as herlover.
4. Her in-laws tried to poison her, but she escapedfrom the palace to live as a wandering
singercomposing songs that are characterised by intenseexpressions of emotion.
5. According to some traditions, her preceptor(student) wasRaidas, a leather worker. This would
indicate herdefiance of the norms of caste society.
6. Afterrejecting the comforts of her husbands palace, sheis supposed to have donned the white robes
of awidow or the saffron robe of the renouncer.
7. Although Mirabai did not attract a sect orgroup of followers, she has been recognised as asource of
inspiration for centuries.
8. Her songscontinue to be sung by women and men, especiallythose who are poor and
considered low caste inGujarat and Rajasthan.
7- An Imperial Capital-Vijayanagara
The Discovery of Hampi( How was the city Hampi/ Vijayanagardiscovered?)
1. Colonel Colin Mackenzie, an employee of the English East IndiaCompanyprepared the first survey
map of thesite of Hampi.
2. Much of the initial information he received wasbased on the memories of priests of the
Virupakshatemple and the shrine of Pampadevi.
3. Subsequently,from 1856, photographers began to record themonuments which enabled scholars to
study them.
4. As early as 1836 epigraphists began collectingseveral dozen inscriptions found at this site and
othertemples at Hampi.
5. In an effort to reconstruct thehistory of the city and the empire, historians collatedinformation from
these sources with accounts offoreign travellers and other literature written inTelugu, Kannada,
Tamil and Sanskrit.
47
2. The first dynasty, known as theSangama dynasty, exercised control till 1485.They were supplanted
by the Saluvas, militarycommanders, who remained in power till 1503. They were replaced by
the Tuluvas and Aravidudynasty rulers.
3. ( Explain the contributions of Krishnadeva Raya to the Vijayanagara Empire)
a. Krishnadeva Raya belonged to the Tuluva dynasty.
b. Krishnadeva Rayas rule was characterised by expansion and consolidation.
c. This was the time when the land between the Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers was acquired.
d. He subdued the rulers of Orissa (1514) andsevere defeats were inflicted on the Sultan of Bijapur.
e. Krishnadeva Raya is credited with building somefine temples and adding
impressivegopuramstomany important south Indian temples.
f. He alsofounded a suburban township near Vijayanagaracalled Nagalapuram after his mother.
g. Some of themost detailed descriptions of Vijayanagara come fromhis time or just after.
4. On their northern frontier, the Vijayanagara kingscompeted with contemporary rulers including
theSultans of the Deccan and the Gajapati rulers ofOrissa. Some of the areas that were
incorporated withinthe empire had witnessed the development ofpowerful states such as those of the
Cholas in TamilNadu and the Hoysalas in Karnataka.
5. As warfare during these times depended uponeffective cavalry, the import of horses from
Arabiaand Central Asia was very important. Local communities of merchants known
askudiraichettisor horse merchants provided horses to Vijayanagara rulers.
6. In fact, Vijayanagara was also noted for itsmarkets dealing in spices, textiles and preciousstones.
Trade was often regarded as a status symbolfor such cities, which boasted of a wealthy
populationthat demanded high-value exotic goods, especially precious stones and jewellery.
7. Krishnadeva Rayas successors were troubled by rebellious nayakasormilitary chiefs. By 1542
control at the centre hadshifted to another ruling lineage, that of the Aravidu,which remained in
power till the end of theseventeenth century.
8. During this period, as indeedearlier, the military ambitions of the rulersof Vijayanagara as well as
those of the DeccanSultanates resulted in shifting alignments.Eventually this led to an alliance of the
Sultanatesagainst Vijayanagara. It was the adventurous policy of Rama Raya who tried to play off
one Sultanagainst another that led the Sultans to combinetogether and wage war on Rama Raya.
9. In 1565 Rama Raya, the chiefminister of Vijayanagara, led the army into battleat Rakshasi-Tangadi
(also known as Talikota), wherehis forces were routed by the combined armiesof Bijapur,
Ahmadnagar and Golconda. The victoriousarmies sacked the city of Vijayanagara. The city
wastotally abandoned within a few years.
Amaranayaka System
1. The amara-nayakasystem was a major politicalinnovation of the Vijayanagara Empire. It is
likelythat many features of this system were derived from the iqtasystem of the Delhi Sultanate
2. Among those who exercised power in the VijayanagarEmpire weremilitary chiefs who
usually controlled forts and hadarmed supporters. These chiefs often moved fromone area to
another, and in many cases wereaccompanied by peasants looking for fertile land on which to settle.
3. The amara-nayakaswere military commanderswho were given territories to govern by the rayas.
4. They collected taxes and other dues from peasants,craftspersons and traders in the area.
48
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
They retainedpart of the revenue for personal use and formaintaining a stipulated contingent
of horsesand elephants. These contingents provided theVijayanagara kings with an effective
fighting forcewith which they brought the entire southernpeninsula under their control.
Some of the revenuewas also used for the maintenance of temples andirrigation works.
The amara-nayakassent tribute to the kingannually and personally appeared in the royal courtwith
gifts to express their loyalty.
Kings occasionallyasserted their control over them by transferring themfrom one place to another.
However, during the courseof the seventeenth century, many of thesenayakasestablished
independent kingdoms. This hastenedthe collapse of the central imperial structure.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
i)
ii)
iii)
49
h. A second line of fortification went round theinner core of the urban complex, and a third
linesurrounded the royal centre, within which each setof major buildings was surrounded by its
ownhigh walls.
3. Roads in Vijayanagara Empire
a.
The fort was entered through well-guarded gates,which linked the city to the major roads.
Archaeologists have studied roads within the cityand those leading out from it.
b. These roads have beenidentified by tracing paths through gateways, as wellas by finds of
pavements.
c. Roads generally woundaround through the valleys, avoiding rocky terrain.Some of the most
important roads extended fromtemple gateways, and were lined by bazaars.
4.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
4.
5.
6.
7.
According to localtradition, the hills near the sacred centresheltered the monkey kingdomof Vali
and Sugriva mentioned in the Ramayana.
Other traditions suggest that Pampadevi, the localmother goddess, did penance in these hills in
orderto marry Virupaksha, the guardian deity of thekingdom, who isrecognised as a form of Shiva.
Among these hills are foundJaina temples of the pre-Vijayanagara period as well.In other words,
this area was associated with severalsacred traditions such as the Pallavas,Chalukyas, Hoysalas and
Cholas. Rulers very oftenencouraged temple building as a means ofassociating themselves with the
divine.
Temples also functioned as centres of learning. Rulers granted land andother resources for the
maintenance of temples. Temples developed as significantreligious, social, cultural and economic
centres. Fromthe point of view of the rulers, constructing, repairingand maintaining temples were
important meansof winning support and recognition for their power,wealth and piety.
The Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf ofthe god Virupaksha. All royal orders were
signedShriVirupaksha, usually in the Kannada script.Rulers also indicated their close links with the
godsby using the title Hindu Suratrana this meant Hindu Sultan.
The rayagopuramsor royal gatewaysthat often dwarfed the towers on the gate ways,whichsignalled
the presence of the temple from a greatdistance. They were also probably meant asreminders of the
power of kings, able to commandthe resources, techniques and skills needed toconstruct these
towering gateways.
Other distinctivefeatures include mandapasor pavilions andlong, pillared corridorsthat often ran
around theshrines within the temple complex.
51
8. A characteristic feature of the temple complexesis the chariot streets that extended from the
temple gopuramin a straight line. These streets were pavedwith stone slabs and lined with pillared
pavilions inwhich merchants set up their shops.
9. The Virupaksha templea. The Virupaksha temple was built in the ninth-tenth centuries.
b. The hall in front ofthe main shrine was built by Krishnadeva Raya tomark his accession.
c. He is also credited withthe construction of the eastern gopuram, whichmade the central small.
d. The halls in the temple were used for a variety ofpurposes. Some were spaces in which the images
ofgods were placed to witness special programmes ofmusic, dance, drama, etc.
e. Others were used tocelebrate the marriages of deities, and yet otherswere meant for the deities to
swing in.
10. The Vitthala temple
a.
In the Vitthala temple, the principal deity was Vitthala, aform of Vishnu generally worshipped in
Maharashtra.
b. The introduction of the worship of the deity inKarnataka is another indication of the ways in
whichthe rulers of Vijayanagaraaccepted different traditions.
c. As in the case of othertemples, this temple too has several halls.
d. This temple has aunique feature that the main shrine is designed like a chariot.
52
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Our major source forthe agrarian history of the sixteenth and earlyseventeenth centuries are
chronicles and documentsfrom the Mughal court.
One of the most important chronicles was theAin-i Akbari authored by Akbars court historian
AbulFazl. Thistext meticulously recorded the arrangements madeby the state to ensure cultivation,
to enable thecollection of revenue by the agencies of the stateand to regulate the relationship between
the stateand rural magnates, the zamindars.
The detailed revenue records fromGujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan dating fromthe 17th and
18thcenturies.
Further,the extensive records of the East India Company provide us with useful descriptionsof
agrarian relations in eastern India.
All thesesources record instances of conflicts between peasants, zamindars and the state. In the
processthey give us an insight into peasants perception ofand their expectations of fairness from the
state.
2. One example was the wooden plough, whichwas light and easily assembled with an iron tip
orcoulter.
3. A drill, pulled by a pair of giant oxen,was used to plant seeds, but broadcasting ofseed was the most
prevalent method.
4. Hoeing andweeding were done simultaneously using a narrowiron blade with a small wooden
handle.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Despite the abundance ofcultivable land, certain castegroups were assigned menialtasks and thus
relegated topoverty. Such groupscomprised a large section ofthe village population, hadthe least
resources and wereconstrained by their positionin the caste hierarchy, muchlike the Dalits of modern
India.
In Muslim communities menials like the halalkhoran,those who cut meat were housed outside
theboundaries of the village; similarly the mallahzadas, boatmen in Bihar were comparableto slaves.
There was a direct correlation between caste,poverty and social status at the lower strata ofsociety.
In Marwar, Rajputs are mentioned as peasants,sharing the same space with Jats, who were accordeda
lower status in the caste hierarchy.
The Gauravas, who cultivated land in UttarPradesh sought Rajput status in the seventeenthcentury.
Castes such as the Ahirs, Gujars and Malisrose in the hierarchy because of the profitability ofcattle
rearing and horticulture.
In the easternregions, intermediate pastoral and fishing castes like the Sadgops and Kaivartas
acquired the statusof peasants.
54
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
The village panchayat was an assembly of elders. In mixed-caste villages,the panchayat was usually
a heterogeneous body. The panchayat represented various castes and communities in the village so it
is calledan oligarchy.
The panchayat was headed by a headman known as muqaddam or mandal. Some sources suggest
thatthe headman was chosen through the consensus ofthe village elders, and that this choice had to
beratified by the zamindar. Headmen held office as longas they enjoyed the confidence of the village
elders.
Thechief function of the headman was to supervise thepreparation of village accounts, assisted by
theaccountant or patwariof the panchayat.
The panchayat derived its funds fromcontributions made by individuals to a commonfinancial pool.
These funds were used for defrayingthe costs of entertaining revenue officials, expenses
forcommunity welfare activities such as tiding overnatural calamities and digging a canal
whichpeasants usually could notafford to do on their own.
One important function ofthe panchayat was to ensure that caste boundaries amongthe various
communitiesinhabiting the village wereupheld. In eastern India allmarriages were held in the
presence of the mandal.
Panchayats also had the authority to levy finesand inflict more serious forms of punishment
likeexpulsion from the community. It meant that a person forced to leavethe village became an
outcaste and lost his right to practise his profession.
In western India people of lower castes presented petitions to the panchayat complaining
about extortionate taxation or the demand for unpaid labour (begar) imposed by the superior
castes orofficials of the state.
In the eyesof the petitioners the right to the basic minimum forsurvival was sanctioned by custom.
They regardedthe village panchayat as the court of appeal thatwould ensure that the state carried out
its moralobligations and guaranteed justice.
The decision of the panchayat in conflicts between lower caste peasants and state officials or the
local zamindar could vary from case to case. In cases of excessive revenue demands, the panchayat
often suggested compromise.
In cases where reconciliation failed, peasants took recourse to more drastic forms of resistance, such
as deserting the village.
JatiPanchayat
a. In addition to the village panchayat each sub-caste or jati in the village had its own jati panchayat.
b. These panchayats wielded considerable powerin rural society.
c. In Rajasthan jati panchayats arbitrated civil disputes between members ofdifferent castes.
d. They mediated in contested claimson land, decided whether marriages were performedaccording to
the norms laid down by a particularcaste group and determined who had ritual precedencein village
functions, and so on.
e. In most cases,except in matters of criminal justice, the staterespected the decisions of
jatipanchayats.
25 per cent ofthe total households in the villages were artisans. The distinctionbetween artisans and
peasants invillage society was a fluid one, asmany groups performed the tasks of both.
55
b. Cultivators and theirfamilies would also participate incraft production such as dyeing,textile
printing, baking and firingof pottery, making and repairingagricultural implements.
c. Village artisans potters, blacksmiths, carpenters,even goldsmiths provided specialisedservices in
return for which they were compensatedby villagers by giving them a share of theharvest, or an
allotment of land, perhaps cultivablewastes, which was likely to be decided by thepanchayat.
d. Zamindars inBengal who remunerated blacksmiths, carpenters,even goldsmiths for their work by
paying them asmall daily allowance and diet money. This latercame to be described as
the jajmanisystem,though the term was not in vogue in the sixteenthand seventeenth centuries.
56
Whilemale infidelity was not always punished, the stateand superior caste groups did intervene
when it cameto ensuring that the family was adequately providedfor. In most cases when women
petitioned to the panchayat, their names were excluded from therecord: the petitioner was referred to
as the mother,sister or wife of the male head of the household.
9. Amongst the landed gentry, women had the rightto inherit property. Instances from the Punjab
showthat women, including widows, actively participatedin the rural land market as sellers of
property inheritedby them.
10. Hindu and Muslim women inherited zamindaris which they were free to sell or mortgage. Women
zamindars were known in eighteenth-century Bengal.
8.
The Flow of Silver coin into Mughal Empire( Revenue through trade)
58
1. The Mughal Empire was the large territorialempires in Asia among the Ming (China),Safavid (Iran)
and Ottoman (Turkey) empires that had managed to consolidate powerand resources during the
sixteenth and seventeenthcenturies.
2. The politicalstability achieved by all these empires helped createvibrant networks of overland trade
from China to theMediterranean Sea.
3. Voyages of discovery and theopening up of the New World (America)resulted in a
massiveexpansion of Indias trade withEurope.
4. An expanding trade brought in huge amounts of silverbullion into India to pay for goods procured
from India. This was good for India because it did not havenatural resources of silver.
5. As a result, the periodbetween the 16th and17th centuries wasalso marked by a remarkable stability in
theavailability of metal currency, particularly the silverrupyain India. This facilitated an
unprecedentedexpansion of minting and circulating of silver coins.
6. Italian traveller, GiovanniCareri, who passed through India c. 1690, providesa graphic account about
the way silver travelledacross the globe to reach India. It also gives us an ideaof the phenomenal
amounts of cash and commoditytransactions in seventeenth-century India.
Limitations of Ain-i-Akbari
59
1. Although the Ain was officially sponsored to recorddetailed information to facilitate Emperor Akbar,
it was much more than areproduction of official papers. That the manuscriptwas revised five times by
the author would suggesta high degree of caution on the part of AbulFazland a search for
authenticity.
2. For instance, oraltestimonies were cross-checked and verified beforebeing incorporated as facts in
the chronicle. Inthe quantitative sections, all numeric data werereproduced in words so as to
minimise the chancesof subsequent transcriptional errors.
3. Historians who have carefully studied the Ainpointout that it is not without its problems.
Numerouserrors in totalling have been detected. These areascribed to simple slips of arithmetic or
oftranscription by AbulFazls assistants.
4. Data werenot collected uniformly from all provinces. Forinstance, while for manysubasdetailed
informationwas compiled about the caste composition of thezamindars, such information is not
available forBengal and Orissa.
5. Further, while the fiscal datafrom the subasis remarkable for its richness, someequally vital
parameters such as prices of commodities and wages of workers from these same areas are not as
well documented.
6. These limitations notwithstanding, the Ainremainsan extraordinary document of its times. By
providingfascinating glimpses into the structure andorganisation of the Mughal Empire and by giving
usquantitative information about its products and people.
60