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ASSIGNMENT 2
TRIBOLOGY
Student Name

: Nitish Kumar

Student Roll No

1760

Course:-

: B.Tech

Semester

6th

Topic

: Fuels

Teacher name

Sunil Mehta

Assignment Weight age

10 Marks

PURPOSE
The assignment is designed to assess what students have learnt over last three weeks

ASSIGNMENT OBJECTIVE
The student must be able to analyze and understand concept of design synthesis and
design analysis.

Q1 What type of fuels are used in aeronautical science?

ASSESSMENT GUIDANCE
Individual or in group?

Individual

To obtain 40%:-

Student must explain the basic principle behind the

task.

To obtain 50%:-

Student must explain and differentiate all example

with application.

To obtain above 60%:-

Student has to give the right answers to at least five

questions asked to him/her.

Note
1. If any student is not submitting the assignment within the mentioned date, 30% marks
will be deducted.
2. No copying is allowed. If any one is found guilty of copying, then his/her assignment
will be cancelled.
3. Answers must be on their own language and computer printed.

Marks/Grades Obtained

COMMENTS

Faculty Signature

Date

Ans 1

Types of fuel used in aeronautical science are:

1. Aviation fuel
2. Aviation Biofuel
3. Synthetic Jet Fuel

1. Aviation Fuel : Aviation fuel is a specialized type of petroleum-based fuel used to power
aircraft. It is generally of a higher quality than fuels used in less critical applications, such as
heating or road transport, and often contains additives to reduce the risk of icing or explosion
due to high temperature, among other properties.
Most aviation fuels available for aircraft are kinds of petroleum spirit used in engines with spark
plugs (i.e. piston and Wankel rotary engines), or fuel for jet turbine engines, which is also used in
diesel aircraft engines.
Production of aviation fuel
The production of aviation fuel falls into two categories: fuel suitable for turbine engines and
fuel suitable for internal combustion engines. There are international specifications for each.
Jet fuel is used in both turboprop and jet aircraft, and must maintain a low viscosity at low
temperature, meet definite limits in terms of density and calorific value, burn cleanly, and remain
chemically stable when heated to high temperature.
Aviation gasoline, often referred to as "avgas", is a highly refined form of gasoline for aircraft,
with an emphasis on purity, anti-knock characteristics and minimization of spark plug fouling.
Avgas must meet performance guidelines for both the rich mixture condition required for takeoff power settings and the leaner mixtures used during cruise to reduce fuel consumption.
Avgas is sold in much lower volume than jet fuel, but to many more individual aircraft operators;
whereas jet fuel is sold in high volume to large aircraft operators, such as airlines and military.
Avgas
Avgas (aviation gasoline) is used in spark-ignited internal-combustion engines in aircraft. Its
formulation is distinct from mogas (motor gasoline) used in cars. Avgas is formulated for
stability, safety, and predictable performance under a wide range of environments, and is
typically used in aircraft that use reciprocating or Wankel engines.

Jet fuel

Ground fueling of a MIG-29 from an URAL tanker

Jet fuel is a clear to straw-colored fuel, based on either an unleaded kerosene (Jet A-1), or a
naphtha-kerosene blend (Jet B). It is similar to diesel fuel, and can be used in either compression
ignition engines or turbine engines.
Jet-A powers modern commercial airliners and is a mix of pure kerosene and anti-freeze and
burns at temperatures at or above 49 degrees Celsius (120 degrees Fahrenheit). Kerosene-based
fuel has a much higher flash point than gasoline-based fuel, meaning that it requires significantly
higher temperature to ignite. It is a high-quality fuel; if it fails the purity and other quality tests
for use on jet aircraft, it is sold to other ground-based users with less demanding requirements,
like railroad engines.

Aviation turbine fuel (jet fuel):

CIVIL JET FUELS
Aviation turbine fuels are used for powering jet and turbo-prop engined aircraft and are not to be
confused with Avgas. Outside former communist areas, there are currently two main grades of
turbine fuel in use in civil commercial aviation : Jet A-1 and Jet A, both are kerosene type fuels.
There is another grade of jet fuel, Jet B which is a wide cut kerosene (a blend of gasoline and
kerosene) but it is rarely used except in very cold climates.
JET A-1
Jet A-1 is a kerosene grade of fuel suitable for most turbine engined aircraft. It is produced to a
stringent internationally agreed standard, has a flash point above 38C (100F) and a freeze point
maximum of -47C. It is widely available outside the U.S.A. Jet A-1 meets the requirements of
British specification DEF STAN 91-91 (Jet A-1), (formerly DERD 2494 (AVTUR)), ASTM
specification D1655 (Jet A-1) and IATA Guidance Material (Kerosine Type), NATO Code F-35.
JET A

Shell Jet A-1 refueller truck on the ramp at Vancouver International Airport. Note the signs
indicating UN1863 hazardous material and JET A-1
Jet A is a similar kerosene type of fuel, produced to an ASTM specification and normally only
available in the U.S.A. It has the same flash point as Jet A-1 but a higher freeze point maximum
(-40C). It is supplied against the ASTM D1655 (Jet A) specification.
JET B

A US Airways Boeing 757 being fueled at Fort LauderdaleHollywood

International Airport.
Jet B is a distillate covering the naphtha and kerosene fractions. It can be used as an alternative
to Jet A-1 but because it is more difficult to handle (higher flammability), there is only
significant demand in very cold climates where its better cold weather performance is important.
In Canada it is supplied against the Canadian Specification CAN/CGSB 3.23
MILITARY
JP-4
JP-4 is the military equivalent of Jet B with the addition of corrosion inhibitor and anti-icing

additives; it meets the requirements of the U.S. Military Specification MIL-DTL-5624U Grade
JP-4. (As of Jan 5, 2004, JP-4 and 5 meet the same US Military Specification). JP-4 also meets
the requirements of the British Specification DEF STAN 91-88 AVTAG/FSII (formerly DERD
2454),where FSII stands for Fuel Systems Icing Inhibitor. NATO Code F-40.
JP-5
JP-5 is a high flash point kerosene meeting the requirements of the U.S. Military Specification
MIL-DTL-5624U Grade JP-5 (as of Jan 5, 2004, JP-4 and 5 meet the same US Military
Specification). JP-5 also meets the requirements of the British Specification DEF STAN 91-86
AVCAT/FSII (formerly DERD 2452). NATO Code F-44.
JP-8
JP-8 is the military equivalent of Jet A-1 with the addition of corrosion inhibitor and anti-icing
additives; it meets the requirements of the U.S. Military Specification MIL-DTL-83133E. JP-8
also meets the requirements of the British Specification DEF STAN 91-87 AVTUR/FSII
(formerly DERD 2453). NATO Code F-34.

A fuel truck filling the aeroplane

Aviation fuel additives
Aviation fuel additives are compounds added to the fuel in very small quantities, usually
measurable only in parts per million, to provide special or improved qualities. The quantity to be
added and approval for its use in various grades of fuel is strictly controlled by the appropriate
specifications.
A few additives in common use are as follows:
1. Anti-knock additives reduce the tendency of gasoline to detonate. Tetra-ethyl lead (TEL) is the
only approved anti-knock additive for aviation use and has been used in motor and aviation
gasolines since the early 1930s.

2. Anti-oxidants prevent the formation of gum deposits on fuel system components caused by
oxidation of the fuel in storage and also inhibit the formation of peroxide compounds in certain
jet fuels.
3. Static dissipater additives reduce the hazardous effects of static electricity generated by
movement of fuel through modern high flow-rate fuel transfer systems. Static dissipater additives
do not reduce the need for `bonding' to ensure electrical continuity between metal components
(e.g. aircraft and fuelling equipment) nor do they influence hazards from lightning strikes.
4. Corrosion inhibitors protect ferrous metals in fuel handling systems, such as pipelines and fuel
storage tanks, from corrosion. Some corrosion inhibitors also improve the lubricating properties
(lubricity) of certain jet fuels.
5. Fuel System Icing Inhibitors (Anti-icing additives) reduce the freezing point of water
precipitated from jet fuels due to cooling at high altitudes and prevent the formation of ice
crystals which restrict the flow of fuel to the engine. This type of additive does not affect the
freezing point of the fuel itself. Anti-icing additives can also provide some protection against
microbiological growth in jet fuel.
6. Metal de-activators suppress the catalytic effect which some metals, particularly copper, have
on fuel oxidation.
7. Biocide additives are sometimes used to combat microbiological growths in jet fuel, often by
direct addition to aircraft tanks; as indicated above some anti-icing additives appear to possess
biocidal properties.
8. Thermal Stability Improver additives are sometimes used in military JP-8 fuel, to produce a
grade referred to as JP-8+100, to inhibit deposit formation in the high temperature areas of the
aircraft fuel system.
Power boosting fluids
It used to be commonplace for large piston engines to require special fluids to increase their takeoff power. Similar injection systems are also incorporated in some turbo-jet and turbo-prop
engines. The power increase is achieved by cooling the air consumed, to raise its density and
thereby increase the weight of air available for combustion. This effect can be obtained by using
water alone but it is usual to inject a mixture of methanol and water to produce a greater degree
of evaporative cooling and also to provide additional fuel energy.
For piston engines, methanol/water mixtures are used and these may have 1 percent of a
corrosion inhibiting oil added. The injection system may be used to compensate for the power
lost when operating under high temperature and/or high altitude conditions (i.e. with low air
densities) or to obtain increased take-off power under normal atmospheric conditions, by
permitting higher boost pressure for a short period.
Both water alone and methanol/water mixtures are used in gas turbine engines, principally to

restore the take-off power (or thrust) lost when operating under low air density conditions. Use
of a corrosion inhibitor in power boost fluids supplied for these engines is not permitted.
The methanol and water used must be of very high quality to avoid formation of engine deposits.
The water must be either demineralised or distilled and the only adulterant permitted in the
methanol is up to 0.5 per cent of pyridine if required by local regulations as a de-naturant. In the
past there were several different grades of water/methanol mixtures, e.g. 45/55/0 for turbine
engines, 50/50/0 for piston engines (this was also available with 1% corrosion inhibiting oil and
was designated 50/50/1) and 60/40/0, however, with decreasing demand Shell now only supplies
45/55/0. The table shows the principal characteristics of Shell demineralised water and of the
commonly used methanol/water blend.

Fuel tank arrangement

2. Aviation Biofuel : Aviation biofuel is a biofuel used for aircraft. It is considered by some
to be the primary means by which the aviation industry can reduce its carbon footprint. After
a multi-year technical review from aircraft makers, engine manufacturers and oil companies,
biofuels were approved for commercial use in July 2011. Since then, some airlines have
experimented with using of biofuels on commercial flights. The focus of the industry has
now turned to second generation sustainable biofuels that do not compete with food
supplies.
Production routes and sources:
Jet fuel is a mixture of a large number of different hydrocarbons. The range of their sizes
(molecular weights or carbon numbers) is restricted by the requirements for the product, for
example, freezing point or smoke point. Jet fuels are sometimes classified as kerosene or
naphtha-type. Kerosene-type fuels include Jet A, Jet A-1, JP-5 and JP-8. Naphtha-type jet fuels,
sometimes referred to as "wide-cut" jet fuel, include Jet B and JP-4.
"Drop-in" biofuels are biofuels that are completely interchangeable with conventional fuels.
Deriving "drop-in" jet fuel from bio-based sources is ASTM approved via two routes.
Bio-SPK
The first route involves using oil which is extracted from plant sources like jatropha, algae,
tallows, other waste oils, Babassu and camelina to produce bio-SPK (Bio derived synthetic
paraffinic Kerosene) by cracking and hydroprocessing.
The growing of algae to make jet fuel is a promising but still emerging technology. Companies
working on algae jet fuel are Solazyme, Honeywell UOP, Solena, Sapphire Energy, Imperium
Renewables, and Aquaflow Bionomic Corporation. Universities working on algae jet fuel are
Arizona State University and Cranfield University
Major investors for algae based SPK research are Boeing, Honeywell/UOP, Air New Zealand,
Continental Airlines, Japan Airlines, and General Electric.
FT-SPK
The second route involves processing solid biomass using pyrolysis to produce pyrolysis oil or
gasification to produce a syngas which is then processed into FT SPK (FischerTropsch
Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene).
Future production routes
Further research is being done on an alcohol-to-jet pathway where alcohols such as ethanol or
butanol are de-oxygenated and processed into jet fuels. In addition, routes that use synthetic
biology to directly create hydro-carbons are being researched.

3. Synthetic Jet Fuel : A significant effort is under way to certify FischerTropsch (FT)
Synthesized Paraffinic Kerosene (SPK) synthetic fuels for use in United States and
international aviation fleets. In this effort is being led by an industry coalition known as the
Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuels Initiative (CAAFI), also supported by a parallel
initiative under way in the USAF, to certify FT fuel for use in all aviation platforms. The
USAF has a stated goal of certifying its entire fleet for use with FT synthetic fuel blends by
2011. The CAAFI initiative aims to certify the civilian aviation fleet for FT synthetic fuels
blends by 2010, and has programs under way to certify Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty
Acids (HEFA) (aka Hydrogenated Renewable Jet (HRJ)) SPK biofuels as early as 2013.
"Hydroprocessed" and "hydrotreated" have also been used in lieu of "hydrogenated". Both
FT and HEFA based SPKs blended with JP-8 are specified in MIL-DTL-83133H.
Synthetic jet fuels show a reduction in pollutants such as SOx, NOx, particulate matter, and
hydrocarbon emissions. It is envisaged that usage of synthetic jet fuels will increase air quality
around airports which will be particularly advantageous at inner city airports.

Qatar Airways became the first airline to operate a commercial flight on a 50:50 blend of
synthetic gas to Liquid (GTL) jet fuel and conventional jet fuel. The natural gas derived
synthetic kerosene for the six-hour flight from London to Doha came from Shell's GTL
plant in Bintulu, Malaysia.
The world's first passenger aircraft flight to use only synthetic jet fuel was from Lanseria
International Airport to Cape Town International Airport on September 22, 2010. The fuel
was developed by Sasol.