Module18: Internal Flow

Flow and Heat Transfer through

Pipes and Ducts

Introduction to Internal Flow

Characteristics
follow I&D, Chapter 8
primary difference from external flow is the presence of an
opposing, confining surface that constrains the boundary
layer growth
entry (entrance) length exists (B.L. is developing)
fully developed region eventually forms

r0 R
ref. Incropera
& DeWitt,
Chap. 8

Hydrodynamic Boundary Layer Development

Terms and Notation

Critical Reynolds number
Re D,c =

umD
2300

 onset of turbulence

Hydrodynamic entry length

Laminar: x fd 0.05 Re
D

Turbulent:

10

x fd
60
D

Mean velocity, um such that

& = u m A c
m
 constant for steady
incompressible flow

Mean temperature Tm (to be defined later)

General Assumptions
We will assume:
steady, incompressible, Newtonian,constant
properties
Kn (= /L) << 1 (continuum)
for air @ STP 0.1 m
continuum breaks down for
very low pressure
very small dimensions
Careful using for microchannels with
gases !

Hydrodynamics - Laminar Flow

u 1 (rv)
+
= 0
continuity
x r r
u
p u
u
u
+v
+
=
r x momentum
r
x r r r
x
v
p v
v
u
+v
=

r r-momentum
r
r r r r
x
u(x, R) = 0
v(x, R) = 0

Entrance Region:

B.C.s:

u
=0
r r =0
u(x = 0, r) = uo(r)

Needs numerical solution

Assume axisymmetry

Hydrodynamics - Laminar Flow

Fully Developed Region Poiseuille Flow (parallel
flow):
u
v=0

= 0 u(r)

v-momentum equation yields p = 0 p = p( x) only

r

x-momentum reduces to balance between pressure &

shear forces:
dp d du
=
r
dx r dr dr

B.C.s

u(R) = 0
u
r

=0
r =0

Integrate twice and apply B.C.s to get

d du dp

r =
r dr dr dx

Mean velocity

Velocity distribution

Velocity profile

can integrate easily

since dp/dx is
independent of r

1 dp 2
r
u(r) = R 1
4 dx R

&
m
=
um =
2
R
u(r)
um

u(2r)dr
R 2

r
= 2 1
R
2

R 2 dp
=
8 dx

Notice
dimensionless
velocity
distribution not a
functions of Re
why?

Fully Developed Laminar Flow

Pressure Drop : Expressed in terms of the Moody (or Darcy)
friction factor
dp
D
dx
f 2
u m / 2

u 2m
pfd = f
L
2D

D = 2R

f=

64
Re D

fully developed
laminar

ref. Incropera &

DeWitt, Chap. 8

Note: dP/dx is
constant, but f
is not, due to
funny nondimensionaliza
tion

For turbulent flow the analysis is not as simple as above, and the pressure
drop is very sensitive to roughness (unlike in laminar flow). For smooth
surfaces,
fturb
= 0.316 ReD-0.25 (ReD < 20000)
= 0.184 ReD-0.20 (ReD > 20000)

Thermal Considerations - Laminar Flow

Characteristics:

ref. Incropera & DeWitt, Chap. 8

r0 R

Terms and Notation

x fd,t

0.05 ReD Pr
Thermal entrance length
D
(unlike in laminar flow, the entrance length is nearly
independent of Pr in turbulent flow, with Lt / D ~ 10)
The shape of the fully developed profile T(r, x) is different
depending on whether Ts or q is a constant
Example:
for engine oil (Pr 6000), say D = 1 cm, um = 1 m/s,
= 550 x 10-6 m2/s:
ReD = (1) (0.01)/(550 x 10-6) = 18 (laminar)
xfd,t = 0.05 Re Pr = 5455 tube diameters!
i.e., a tube length of 54 m!!
(t never reaches the centerline in pipes of reasonable length)

Bulk Mean Temperature

Bulk mean temperature:
rate of
thermal
energy
transport

& v Tm =
E& t = mC

uC v TdA c

Ac

Tm

Ac

uC v TdA c
& v
mC

Weighted w.r.t. mass flow rate

For a circular cross section, with constant-property flow

2
Tm =
umR 2

T(r) u(r) r dr

Thermally Fully Developed Flow

Define a dimensionless temperature

Ts T(x, r)
Ts Tm (x)

The relative shape of the temperature profile no longer

changes if field is fully developed

Ts T
=0

x Ts Tm
q s = h(Ts Tm ) = k

T/r r =R
Ts T
=
= constant f (x)

Ts Tm
r Ts Tm r =R
T
h = constant
r r = R
k

In thermally f.d. flow with const. props.,

local h is independent of x !
That is, Nux is independent of x

Can this happen without

hydrodynamically fullydeveloped flow?

Energy Balance
Temperature Distribution
- Energy Balance

Energy Balance:

E& in = E& out

specific volume

1
v=

d(C v Tm + pv)
&
&
&
dq conv + m(C v Tm + pv) m(C v Tm + pv) + m
dx = 0
dx

thermal energy

flow work

Energy Balance (contd)

d(C v Tm + pv)

& v Tm + pv) m(C

& v Tm + pv) + m
&
dq conv + m(C
dx = 0
dx

Perfect gas pv= RTm ; also dq conv = qs (x)Pdx

d(C v + R)Tm
&
qs (x)Pdx m
dx = 0
dx
But C v + R = Cp and d ( Cp Tm ) = di

Perimeter

For constant properties:

dTm
dx
For a circular pipe P = D
dTm Dqs (x)
=
& p
dx
mC

& p
qs (x)P = mC

What if its not a perfect gas ?

Neglect pressure work, set Cp =Cv
to get the same result.

Constant Heat Flux Boundary Conditions

dTm Dqs
=
= constant
& p
dx
mC
Furthermore,
qs = h ( Ts Tm ) ( Ts Tm ) = constant
dTs dTm

=
= constant
dx
dx
Ts -T(x,r)
Also, recall =
=constant with x
Tm Ts
Since Tm Ts =constant, Ts -T(x,r) is also constant
T dTs dTm
Thus,
=
=
x dx dx
All temperatures rise at the same rate axially!

Constant Temperature Boundary Conditions

dTm Dqs (x)
=
= not constant
& p
dx
mC
However, qs (x) = h ( Ts Tm ) .Thus :
d ( Ts Tm )
dx

D
h ( Ts Tm )
& p
mC

( Ts Tm ) = ( Ts Tm )inlet exp(

D
hx)
& p
mC

Careful! h is
constant only in
fully-developed
region!

Bulk temperature varies exponentially!

Furthermore,since =

Ts -T(x,r)
=constant with x
Tm Ts

Ts T dTm
dTm
T
1 T
1
=

=
= constant
x
Ts Tm dx
Ts T x Ts Tm dx
All temperatures tend towards Ts exponentially with x!

Axial Temperature Variation

Is bulk temperature variation linear (or

exponential) through the FD region? What about
the temperature at a point (x,r)?

Hydrodynamically and Thermally Fully Developed

Flow Solution
Energy Equation:
(f.d. vel. Profile, v=0)

Constant Surface Flux

Temperature

qs = constant = h(Ts Tm )
T dTm

=
x
dx
See Sec. 8.4.1 I&D for solution

T T
=

r
x r r r

Constant Surface

dTs
=0
dx
T
Ts T dTm

=
x
Ts Tm dx

Solution for Constant Heat Flux BC

LHS known
Integrate twice to
obtain

T T
=
u

r
x r r r

4
2
2u m R 2 dTm 3 1 r 1 r
T(r) = Ts
+

dx 16 16 R 4 R

Is this known?

Since both bc are Neumann-type, temperature can

only be determined up to an additive constant. What
is the physical meaning of this?

Nusselt Number
Steps:
1. Recall
2. Find

T
r

T
r

= h (Ts Tm )
r=R

from temperature solution

r=R

3. Find bulk temperature:

2
Tm =
umR 2

T(r) u(r) r dr
Known

4. Hence find h, and thus NuD

hD
Nu D =
= 4.36 for qs = constant
k

Notice Nusselt number

not a function of Re or
Pr!

Solution for Constant Temperature BC

Solution is a bit more complicated because LHS
is not constant.
Solution obtained numerically
Can show that

Nu D = 3.66

Ts = constant

Other Useful Relationships

For the entire tube (i - inlet, o - outlet), overall energy
& p (Tm,o Tm,i )
balance: q conv = mC
dTm qs P
P
Also
=
=
h(Ts Tm )
& p mC
& p
dx mC

qs = constant

Ts=constant

Px
Ts Tm (x)
= exp
& p
Ts Tm,i
mC
q = h A s Tlm

As = P L

To Ti
Tlm
ln(To / Ti )

qs P
Tm (x) = Tm,i +
x
& p
mC
q = qs P L

Developing Flow Terminology

Thermal entry length problem
Flow is fully developed, temperature is not

Combined entry length problem

Both flow and temperature are developing

Unheated starting length

There is an insulated length of duct at the entrance so
that the flow has a chance to develop while the
temperature does not
Synonymous with Thermal entry length
T=Ts

T=Ts

Convection Correlations
Refer to the course text to find correlations for NuD for:

entry region (section 8.4.2)

Hansen formula (Eq. 8.56 I&D) - assumes only thermal entry length;
for constant surface temperature
Seider-Tate formula (Eq. 8.57 I&D) - for combined entry length; less
accurate; evaluate properties at mean temperature defined as
average between inlet and outlet

turbulent flow (section 8.5)

Colburn relation for friction factor for smooth circular tubes (Eq. 8.58
I&D); Dittus Boelter (Eq. 8.59) and Seider-Tate (Eq. 8.61) correlations
for Nusselt number

non-circular tubes (section 8.6)

(Laminar flow - use Table 8.1)
Turbulent flow, use correlations for circular tubes with hydraulic
diameter: Dh = 4Ac/P, where P is the wetted perimeter

concentric tubes (section 8.7)

Entry Length in Circular Pipes

NuD at x = 0 = ?
Why the difference between thermal and combined entry lengths?
Notice that curves are independent of Re, Pr if x axis is scaled as
shown
Graetz number = Re Pr/(x/D) (some texts use inverse)

Example:
Water at 280 K enters a 1-inch diameter tube kept at
a constant surface temperature of 360 K. The tube is
2 m long and water velocity = 1 m/s.
Find the heat transfer coefficient & exit temperature.
Solution:
First, estimate the exit temperature to evaluate
properties. Try 350 K T = T + T = 350 + 280 = 315 K
mi

mo

2
3
631 106
1
10

7
2
3
= =
= 6.36 10 m /s Q = =
= 991 kg / m

991
v 1.009

Pr = 4.16 ;

k = 0.634 W/mK

1* 0.0254
4
Re D =
3.99
10
=

6.36 107

turbulent

L
2
=
= 78.7 > 10
D 0.0254

f .d.

Dittus-Boelter correlation (8.60)

Nu D = 0.023(Re D )

0.8

( Pr )

0.4

(n = 0.4 for heating,Q Ts > Tm )

= 195
h = 4867 W/m 2 K

Use Eq. (8.43) to get exit temperature (Eq. 8.41

would be for qs = constant)

Px h
Ts Tm (x)
= exp

&
Ts Tm ,i
m
C
p

for Ts = constant

@ x = L, Tm (x) = Tm ,L = Tm ,o

D 2
& = um
m
4

P = D;

PL h
4L
h
4L
=
=
St
& Cp
m
D u m Cp
D

where St = Stanton #

195
St =
=
= 0.0017
4
Re Pr 3.9910 4.16
Nu

PL h
= 0.3685
& Cp
m

360Tm,o
= 0.692
360 280

not 350K as assumed!

Tm,o = 304.6 K

now recalculate with new T

m

304.6+ 280 exercise, not

=
done here
2

 Total heat transfer rate,

D 2
= Cp u m
Tm
4

& p Tm
Q = mC

= 9911 (0.0254)2 4179 (24.6) = 51622 W

Tm
Alternatively, we can calculate this as:
(Eq. 8.44)

q conv = h As Tlm
Tlm

for Ts = constant

24.6
Ti To
=
=
Ti
360 280
ln
ln

360304.6
To

giving q = 51853 W Same answer!!

(with slight calculation difference)