Professional Documents
Culture Documents
IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-102, No. 2, February 1983
All overcurrent ground relays installed to protect transmission lines on the Georgia Power Company
system are very inverse. Ground relay tap is generally selected to give a relay pickup value of from
one-fifth to one-tenth of the far-end fault with all
breakers closed. Consider the Bonaire terminal. If
we select a tap of 0.8 for the primary ground relay,
the pickup value will be 0.8 x 160 = 128 amperes, so
that the far end fault of 700 amperes is approximately
5.5 times the tap setting. A lower tap may be
selected, with the understanding that the additional
burden may result in C. T. saturation and degrade relay action for high current, close-in faults. In general, unless a high C. T. ratio can be employed (above
1000/5), it is wise to avoid using the minimum taps on
most electromechanical ground relays. This is because
the small additional sensitivity may be gained at the
expense of poor relay performance for faults approaching 100 secondary amperes.
421
BONAIRE
21,000
NORTH TIFTON
700
815
la
230-k V
1,
19,600
rM
76 MILES
(SOURCE)
(SOURCE)
21,815
20,300
(TOTAL)
(TOTAL)
FIGURE 1
(3)
(4)
non-directional ground
In order to prevent
this unit from misoperating on the asymmetrical value
of fault current, it must be set for at least 170% of
the maximum line-end fault in either direction. With
this setting, it is converted into a high speed (one
The calculated
cycle) directional ground relay.
setting for both terminals is (1.7 x 815)/160 = 8.66
Ground faults in the middle
amperes (use 9 amperes).
75% of the line will be cleared by the non-directional
IOC units at Bonaire and North Tifton. Faults near
either terminal will be cleared by the non-directional
IOC unit at that terminal, and the directional IOC
unit at the remote terminal.
The important element of
In order to provide redundancy, the non-directional ground relay at each terminal should be connected to a separate set of current transformers and
separate PCB trip coil(s) from the directional ground
relay; and at EHV substations, the ground relays on
all lines should be connected to separate control
batteries.
422
for a fault near PCB "C". This may make it difficult
for directional ground relays to select without excessive "tpile up" of the TOC unit curves. Directional
relays on PCB "E", facing East Social Circle, will
restrain, and will not have to be coordinated for
this fault. It is generally wise to permit only one
mid-point station between any two source buses. For
example, the temptation to install breakers on either
side of station "G" should be firmly resisted, unless
the local transformer provides a source of zerosequence current, in which case they will be required.
Otherwise, due to curve "pile up", directional overcurrent relays will provide poor protection for most
faults, and expensive alternatives will be necessary.
(trip).
PORTE RDALE
3900-1
(SOURCE)
6000
(TOTAL)
If directional overcurrent relays are to be applied to this type of line configuration, setting
calculations should always commence with the mid-point
station. The settings for PCB "E", followed by those
for PCB "C" may be determined first, for faults moving
from left to right. Next, an entirely independent
set of calculations for PCB "D", followed by PCB "F"
may be taken in hand. Non-directional overcurrent
relays cannot be applied on these lines, except for
PCB "F", which has weak back-feed. It also has a
fairly strong source, and a fairly good fault current
slope toward Hercules (14,000 down to 2800 amperes).
There is no way a non-directional overcurrent relay
can be made to select on either breaker at Hercules
and such a device will have only minimal value at
Porterdale. For instance, the IOC unit at the latter
location would have to be set for (1.7 x 2600) = 4420
primary amperes. Since the source behind the relay
is only 3900 amperes, this setting effectively removes
the IOC element from service.
The Porterdale - Hercules - East Social Circle
line is constructed of a mixture of conductor sizes,
principally 336 MCM ACSR. For ease of calculation,
consider the current transformer ratio on all circuit
breakers to be 600/5. The coordination of directional
ground relays on PCB's "C" and "E" will be fairly
routine, due to the great difference in line-end
faults. (PCB "C" is looking at 2600 amperes, while
between "E" and "F", the current slopes down to 780
amperes.) An "E" relay can be set as follows:
1000%.
EAST SOCIAL
HERCULES
2600
2100
CIRCLE
1 15-kV
6MILE S
C.~J
At
'11hA4
780)
2800
15 MILES
(SOURCE,
z
LOAD
5400
14,780
(TOTAL)
(TOTAL)
LOAD
FIGURE 2
14,000
423
Consideration of these problems has led Georgia
Power Company to install a directional-comparison
carrier relaying system on the Hercules - East Social
Circle line. This has two very beneficial effects.
First, it reduces maximum ground relay time from 36
cycles to less than 3 cycles, and second, it permits
a relaxation of the very tight directional overcurrent
relay settings, since these relays now are relegated
to a back-up role. Unfortunately, these improvements
are somewhat offset by substantial additional installation and maintenance costs, and by a reduction in
security against over-tripping.
MUTUALLY-COUPLED LINES
Primary Ground Relaying
Figure 5 is an example of an elementary mutual
coupling problem. Three 115 kV lines are constructed
close together on the same right-of-way between Plant
Arkwright and South Macon 230/115/12 kV transmission
substation. Due to the zero-sequence mutual impedance
between the circuits, unbalanced current (normally
31o) flowing in any one circuit induces a current of
opposite polarity in the other two circuits. This
causes the ground fault currents in each line to vary
over a wide range, according to fault location and
circuit breaker status.
Most protection engineers will prefer some type
of pilot relaying as the primary protection for this
type of configuration. Four types may be recommended:
CURRENT IN AMPERES
CURRENT IN AMPERES
rq~~0
o_
07)
0an or
0 0ah
O4r r-qXqn0 a-
r 1 1IIIIq9800
6000
500
700
O o
8 o 0OOOOOO
'D
ZD -q, 6
0 0 0 0 00c
1000
900
800
600
300
100
900
800
S t 0 !4
~CB
'C"X
60
50
30
10
U
70
60m
40
==
=~~~~l
=_
-_
_ _ \_
=~~~~~~
__
\
_ _
___
1111~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~6
5
=-____I=\
=
_ _
4111
90
30
(.
424
(1)
(2)
Co I
CV) I
FL
ARKWRIGHT
ARKWRIGHT
3
o3
]
r
ZOM2
Z OM3
#2
0
a
0
0
qE
II
CD
S. MACON
(5A)
S. MACON
ARKWRIGHT
(5B)
..t
w
0-
O
C
cc
ooj
c o43
@~~
(5C)
ARKWRIGHT
'T
LC)
0
(N
10
0
a
0
Fr-
S-rr)
S. MACON
ARKWRIGHT
.c
EN
II
oi
Ep
S. MACON
NOTES:
0 = PCB OPEN
Co~~~~~~~~~~~~
0C0n-)
4oM1
#i1
ARKWRIGHT
(oi
a)
0
0
0
c
,CD
(5E)
2~~~~~~~~~--
S. MACON
(5F)
0-
fault conditions:
(1)
(2)
(3)
Consider the case of two parallel lines terminated at the same stations at both ends. In order
for ground overcurrent relays to properly select for
any fault location, the TOC units must be set the
This means that the resame at all four terminals.
lay requiring the highest setting will control the
setting on the other three relays. Figure 5 shows
the fault current flows on the Arkwright - South Macon
115 kV lines for five possible fault conditions. The
highest through-fault current is the 2092 amperes
flowing in Line #2 from Arkwright to South Macon
("C" to "D", Figure 5E) for a line-end fault off
PCB "A". This value is substantially higher than
the amount for a fault at South Macon with all
breakers closed (1334 amperes, Figure 5B), or the
amount for a fault at South Macon with Line #1 out
of service (1960 amperes, Figure 5C). If the C. T.
ratio for breakers "A", "B", "C", and "D" is 1000/5
(200/1), the TOC units on all four directional ground
relays may be set on tap 1.0 (= 200 primary amperes),
24 cycles at 1000% of pickup. The IOC unit for PCB
"C" should be set for (1.2 x 2092)/200 = 12.6 amperes.
Rounding up to 13 amperes gives a setting of 13 x 200
= 2600 primary amperes.
This setting will permit a
sequential-instantaneous operation, as shown by
Figure 5D, which indicates that the line-end fault
near "D" increases to 3859 amperes after "D" opens.
The maximum through fault in breakers "A",
"B", and "D" is slightly less than for "C", but not
425
enough so that the setting required for "C" results
in unacceptable settings at the other locations.
This is not always true, however, particularly in
cases where three or four lines of different voltages are involved. For example, if two identical
115 kV lines are closely coupled to two parallel
230 kV lines, the fault currents in the two 115 kV
lines may differ considerably from each other,
according to the degree of coupling with the two
higher voltage circuits.
An interesting effect of zero-sequence mutual
coupling is shown by the fault current in the line
from Gordon to Arkwright. A fault near Arkwright on
the line itself produces 172 amperes (Figure SB).
Only when the fault is moved away, toward PCB "D",
does the maximum through-fault of 405 amperes appear
(Figure 5D). This result occurs because of the transformer action between adjacent circuits. The 3859
amperes flowing from "C" to "D" induces a current
in phase with the current entering PCB "E" so that
the total current in the Gordon - Arkwright line is
increased, For the Arkwright fault in Figure 5B,
however, the Line #2 current is reversed, and this
produces a "choking" effect on ground fault current
entering PCB "E". This fact must be taken into
account when setting a ground overcurrent relay at
Gordon, or overtripping may occur. It could also
cause overreach of a zone 1 ground distance relay,
unless a conservative setting is applied.
Directional overcurrent relays should be polarized by negative-sequence voltage for the same reasons
as the ground relays in directional comparison systems. This will prevent incorrect relay action during
unexpected reversal of zero-sequence polarizing quantities. Large systems with many strong grounding
sources are especially vulnerable to this phenomenon,
particularly during line-end fault intervals caused
by unequal PCB operating times.
EXTRA HIGH VOLTAGE LINES
In designing ground relay protection for EHV
transmission lines, the engineer must not only strive
for reliable, high-speed protection, but carefully
consider the need for security against false operation. This latter requirement is much more important
for EHV lines than for lower voltage circuits, due to
their very large power transfer capability. (Some
500 kV lines on the Georgia Power Company system
regularly carry over 1000 megawatts under normal
load conditions.) An incorrect relay operation that
causes the simultaneous loss of two or more EHV circuits due to a single line fault could result in a
widespread system disruption. In general, for EHV
lines, given the necessity of making a choice between slightly higher ground relay speed, and increased security, it is nearly always wise to opt
for the more secure system. In most instances, a
two-cycle ground relay will provide just as satisfactory protection as a one-cycle relay will, and
the slower relay will be much less likely to trip
incorrectly. Note, however, that this rule may not
apply to phase faults, where very high speed may be
required due to stability consideration. Fortunately, phase faults are rare on well designed EHV
circuits; and since such faults almost never occur,
the security problem is not acute.
The four watch-words for relaying on EHV systems
RELIABILITY, SECURITY, SPEED and REDUNDANCY.
These criteria also apply to lower voltage lines, of
course, but are much more important on EHV circuits
due to the high power transfer levels and very large
short circuits involved. These four criteria are
closely related, and all depend on proper design of
are
426
the instrument transformer circuits. The very best
relaying systems available today will not perform
properly unless supplied with accurate replicas of
the primary current and voltage quantities.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Secondary Protection
Ground Distance: Both solid state and electromechanical types work well. The solid state versions
are faster, the electromechanical types are considerably more secure. If the Zone 1 reach is limited to
70% of the line, accidental overreach will be rare,
even with strong mutuals. The Zone 2 setting can
range from 175% of the protected line for long lines,
to 300% for short ones, in order to accommodate fault
resistance. Caution No. 1: Ground distance relays
may not respond to some very high resistance faults
(green trees in line, for example). Therefore, whenever they are installed on a line breaker, sensitive
ground overcurrent relays are also required. Caution
No. 2: All solid state relays on EHV circuits should
have a contact output. Relays with a thyristor output are subject to false operations in EHV substations, even when connected to well shielded cables
and protected by a properly designed capacitor "surge
fence".
427
22,000
VI LLA
R ICA
(TOTAL)
6600
'II'
4200
5000
'II
10,400
I
SEQUOYAH
PLANT
BOWEN
(T. V. A.)
FIGURE 6
As on lower voltage circuits, the effectiveness
of EHV directional overcurrent relays is generally
directly proportional to the length of the protected
line. However, this effect is more pronounced at the
500 kV level due to the very low per unit line impedance for these circuits. Refer to Figure 6. On
the fairly long line from Bowen to Union City, the
fault current slopes from 40,000 amperes to 2100
An IOC unit setting of 2800 amperes at
amperes.
Bowen will provide instantaneous tripping for about
90% of the line length, and sequential instantaneous
protection for the remainder. The TOC unit can be
set on tap 0.6 (= 240 primary amperes), and will give
sensitive backup for faults not cleared by the primary
relays. An IOC will not be as effective on the Villa
Rica - Union City line, since the current slope is not
so steep (17,000 down to 4200 amperes for a far-end
fault). However, an IOC setting at Villa Rica of
5200 amperes will still reach over 60% of the line,
and will overlap the IOC unit at Union City. As before, a sensitive TOC setting is required for standalone service.
Non-directional
useful on long
Sequoyah and Bowen
not be installed at
very
CONCLUSION
This paper has given a brief outline of some of
the more important principles of ground fault protection for high voltage and extra high voltage
428
Discussion
C. E. Ojanen (Detroit Edison Company, Detroit, MI): The author is to
be commended for preparing a report on the important principles when
designing ground fault protection. Several questions and comments
arise from some of the example calculations. Setting the instantaneous
overcurrent (IOC) unit 120% of the far end fault does not appear to
provide a sufficient safety margin against overtripping. What tolerance
for errors in circuit parameters, settings, etc., is recommended to prevent tripping for faults beyond the far end? We are concerned that
reclosing of breakers on other lines at North Tifton could result in false
tripping at Bonaire due to appearance of end-of-line fault current to the
Bonaire relay.
Setting of IOC to provide instantaneous or "sequential instantaneous" tripping appears to jeopardize security for fast clearing of low
fault current. Want benefits does the author expect by not waiting for
the TOC unit to operate in 25-30 cycles for these low currents? The
800/5 current transformer ratio on the 230 kV lines must also be used
for the load carrying phase relays. Is the loading on the 230 kV lines
restricted by the phase relay thermal limits?
On the EHV system, is the two cycle clearing time you obtain on the
500 kV system a design criteria? If so, what breaker failure time do you
require? Are these operating times required on all the 500 kV system?
The Detroit Edison EHV system (345 kV) consists of mostly short
lines (less than 30 miles). Protection for these lines are provided by
duplicate pilot systems. The pilot systems used are directional comparison carrier, directional comparison permissive overreaching
unblock on micro-wave channels and pilot wire relaying. These schemes
are generally designed as you describe. Directional IOC and TOC
ground relays are used as added backup for the duplicate pilot systems.
Redundancy is maintained by duplicate batteries, breaker trip coils,
current and potential sources to the protective relays.
Manuscript received August 2, 1982.
REFERENCE
[1] "Ground Relaying Practices and Problems, A Power System Relaying Committee Survey," IEEE Committee Report, IEEE Transac-
cylinder).
Also three CTI criteria for TOC units are stated:
Line
Directional?
Time-s
Fault
HV
YES
0.4
Line End
HV
NO
0.6
Not Stated
EHV
YES
0.3
Not Stated
Would the author explain his reasons? Also, why is the line-end fault
used, since operation is desired for this fault?
The author's company uses ground distance relays on EHV, a common practice. I agree with his statement that a ground overcurrent
relay should complement the distance relay to clear high-resistance
faults. The failure of the line relaying to detect a high-resistance fault
could be disastrous if back-up overcurrent relays elsewhere can detect
the fault. For example, it is common to apply a neutral TOC relay on
generation step up transformers. These must not be allowed to operate
for a transmission line fault barring a total failure of the line relaying.
The author's recommendation of using negative-sequence polarization
is a good one to minimize the possibility of incorrect polarization from
mutual induction.
Ground distance relays have a number of advantages compared to
overcurrent. These include: more stable reach and less tendency for the
settings to become obsolete as the power system is re-configured. One
disadvantage of some distance-relay designs is their susceptibility to
operation on swings. It is common practice to rely on a ground overcurrent fault detector to block swing tripping. This is dangerous, because a
sound-phase relay can operate during a swing and an external ground
fault. For example, a swing could result from an external ground fault;
an unsuccessful reclosure could catch one of the sound-phase relays in
the operate condition.
Manuscript received June 25, 1982.
units.
Our experience indicates that a cylinder unit will display an overreach
of no more than 10% for a circuit having an angle typical of EHV lines.
429
A clapper unit will have a 50%1 maximum overreach on a comparable
circuit. The multipliers being used by the author provide a comfortable
margin. Does the author agree that in many cases, the increased
coverage by a cylinder unit instantaneous relay will justify its use in a
non-directional overcurrent application?
Under "Non Directional Ground Overcurrent Protection", the
author indicates a CTI of 0.6 should be used. Why is this different from
the 0.4 seconds recommended earlier?
Does the author feel that pilot relaying is justified for systems smaller
than the Georgia Power System where no substantial 500 kv overlay exists and the 230 kv system performs the bulk transmission function?
The author mentions that the Hercules - East Social Circle line is an
ideal candidate for a two-zone ground distance scheme. Others should
be cautioned that the zone 1 setting suggested is dependent on the tapped load bank having substantially higher impedance than either line
section. A longer line, or other than mid-tap configuration or a very
large bank may force other settings to be used.
Comparing figures 3 and 4, a much wider separation between curves
is noted in 3. This is partly due to the smaller CTI in figure 4, but it is
also due to the ratio of the settings chosen for C and E and for D and F.
Could not a much lower tap setting have been chosen for C while still
retaining the 0.36 second CTI.
It is interesting to note that Mr. Griffin correctly defines CTI differently in figures 3 and 4. In Figure 3 it is defined at the maximum current level "seen" by "C" and "E" (2600 amperes). In figure 4, it is
defined at the instaneous trip pick up level (2520 amperes). Coordination must exist at both levels, of course. The 0.1 second pickup time used for the IT (Mr. Griffin's IOC) is quite conservative and assures some
additional margin.
The experience described for the negative sequence polarized directional ground relays is gratifying. In addition to the absence of a "reversal" problem, negative sequence directional units afford another advantage. Negative sequence voltage is generally lower at the fault point
for phase-to-ground faults than the zero sequence voltage, but the product V212 tends to vary less at a given relay location than 9VOlo as fault
location varies and will in general be higher for far-end terminal faults.
What is meant by the term "reverse-throw"?
"Dependability" has come to a wider acceptance than "Reliability"
as used in describing the ability of a device to operate when it is required
to. "Reliability includes both "Dependability" and "Security".
Under "Pilot Relay Protection" the author recommends a ground
unit setting of 0.6 ampere or more. With the burden of solid state relaying systems being so very low, irrespective of settings, this criterion is
probably not based on similar considerations to that expressed earlier in
the paper. Is the lack of transmission line transpositions, and the zero
sequence current resulting from positive sequence load flow through the
unbalanced phase impedances, behind this recommendation?
There is no question that time overcurrent relays have a place in HV
and EHV relaying and can be coordinated but Mr. Griffin will probably
agree that it is not an inconsequential task to maintain the settings as
system variations occur and as fault magnitudes change over a period of
years. Distance relays, with or without pilot support, minimize this
problem while at the same time decreasing tripping times to a low and
reasonably fixed value.
Manuscript received August 2, 1982.
430
D. R. Volzka (Wisconsin Electric Power Company, Appleton, WI):
The author is to be congratulated on the development of a very fine
paper that provides excellent insight into the-reasons relaying is considered both an art and a science. The experience factors contained in
this paper make it worthy of study as opposed to casual reading.
I would, however, raise several issues for clarification. The author
has mentioned two different figures for the setting of the instantaneous
overcurrent element (IOC); 120o for the Directional Overcurrent unit
and 170Wo for the nondirectionsl overcurrent element. The treatment of
assymetrical fault current varies across the industry with some using the
maximum offset factor of 1.62 and others essentially ignoring its effect.
Proper application lies in between and is a function of system X/R
ratio, the speed of the relay, and the design of the relay element. Is there
a specific reason for the different settings on your system?
The author has also stated that it is wise to avoid using the minimum
taps on most electromechanical ground relays. Perhaps a better statement would be to avoid using a lower tap than is absolutely necessary
and to assure that the total burden connected to the current
transformers is within their capability. Verification that burden is
within limits is critical to proper relay performance.
The usage of current transformers with a C800 rating on the 2000/5
tap of a 3000/5 full winding is quite interesting. Were there specific
reasons or problems that prompted such CT's to be used? Are any
special test procedures or equipment required?
Mr. Griffin also advocates several concepts with which I fully agree
and wish to emphasize. The first is usage of continuous type carrier
systems as opposed to quiescent systems. Carrier failures are detected
much more reliably resulting in improved security. The second area I
wish to emphasize is in utilizing sequence of events recorders to analyze
relay/communications system performance. We do not utilize this
technique at present and are missing extremely valuable information in
analyzing relay operations and in trouble shooting. I feel that one cannot really do a complete analysis without information of this type.
Manuscript received August 4, 1982.
J. E. Stephens (Illinois Power Co., Decatur, IL): This paper will serve
as a very good reference and guide. It brings out many important points
that may be easily overlooked by the less experienced.
Although Mr. Griffin does not specifically state, the discussion and
examples are for two terminal lines. Some of the points raised may not
apply to 3 terminal lines. For example, it is correctly stated that long (2
terminal) HV lines may, and should, have a non-directional overcurrent
ground relay at each end. However, this is usually not practical with
multiterminal lines even though each line section is "lomg". Pilot relays
are not required for long two terminal HV lines but may well be required for a 3 terminal line.
Mr. Griffin has indicated many of the practices of the Georgia Power
Co. Other operators may use different practices. For example, in setting
the IOC relay, there is a significant difference in rounding up to the next
integer at 6 amperes than at 30 amperes. Some users may prefer to
choose the desired margin and set at that value. Also, calibration of the
TOC unit at 10 times pickup may be above the IOC unit setting at which
the TOC unit is not needed. For instance, in the example of Bonaire terminal of Figure 1, the setting is based on a time requirement of 27 cycles
at 700 primary amperes. The operating time of the TOC unit at higher
currents is of no concern but calibration is specified at 1280 primary
amp. (8A. sec.), or nearly double the current at which timing is of interest. Other users may prefer to calibrate the TOC unit at an integer
multiple of pickup and integer amperes (to minimize curve and ammeter
reading errors) just under the IOC setting or approximately at the
critical coordination current on which the required time setting is based.
The 0.4 second coordination time interval (CTI) suggested by Mr.
Griffin is quite conservative and may not be justified with short network lines unless it is essential to coordinate with breaker failure clearing of the remote fault. CTI consists of three nearly independent factors:
a. Breaker interrupting time - 2, 3, or 5 cycles. (Double if reclosing
time is under 1 sec.)
b. Effective relay coasting time - from .02 to .05 sec. depending on
relay type, tap setting, and magnitude of current.
c. Safety margin - 20% or more of the sum of all known time factors
depending on accuracy of the available data.
If a time delayed relay is backing up instantaneous tripping of a
remote breaker, the breaker rated interrupting time is known, the instantaneous relay time is known and very small, and the local relay effective coasting time is known. Therefore, only a small safety margin,
431
ble, however, that we may have to consider single-pole tripping for
some of the new 500-kV lines now in the planning stages, particularly in
the case of proposed ties to Florida.
I appreciate the thoughtful discussion by Mr. Elmore, and I will try
to answer the questions he has raised. First, the paper says that GPC
policy is to allow about 0.4 second coordination time. 27 cycles is 0.45
second. I believe that this would qualify as "about" 0.4 second. Also, I
agree that 0.3 second plus breaker time is a suitable CTI. Since there are
a large number of 5 cycle breakers in service, this works out to (18 + 5)
= 23 cycles 0.4 second total time.
Both Mr. Ehmore and Mr. Volzka invite discussion on the setting of
instantaneous overcurrent units. Most clapper-type non-directional
IOC units operate in less than one cycle. During this interval, the
assymetrical value of the fault current on HV and EHV systems can
range up to 1.5 times the symmetrical value. The ground IOC unit must
be set high enough to ride through this transient. The IOC cylinder unit
on directional overcurrent ground relays cannot trip until after the
directional unit operates (see above). On an electromechanical relay,
this takes from 2 to 5 cycles, during which time the assymetrical offset
substantially decays. Since, as Mr. Elmore points out, a cylinder unit is
much less susceptible to false operation on dc offset anyway, it is usually perfectly safe to set these devices for 1200o of the maximum far-end
fault; and, as Mr. Elmore suggests, there definitely are cases where it
would be advantageous to have cylinder-type non-directional IOC
units, particularly on lines with a shallow end-to-end fault current
slope. A cylinder unit would permit considerably improved high-speed
coverage on these lines.
Georgia Power Company feels that pilot relaying is required on many
transmission lines below the 230-kV level, with or without a 500-kV
overlay. Mutually-coupled lines, three-terminal lines, and very short
lines are typical examples. The general rule is that "all buses must appear as instantaneous buses when viewedfrom all adjacent buses". This
means that there must be no zone-two overlap on phase or ground line
relays. Also, system stability frequently requires that all line terminals
be tripped simultaneously. This can only be accomplished with some
type of pilot relaying.
I certainly agree with Mr. Elmore's reminder that the impedance of
transformers tapped to lines protected by phase distance relays should
be substantially higher than the impedance of the line itself. This is
almost always the case. I suspect that this may also be true for ground
distance relays, although I am not sure how these relays will respond to
ground faults on the low side of a delta-wye transformer bank.
With regard to the tap setting on the PCB "C" ground relay, the farend fault seen by this relay is 2600 amperes. A 240 ampere tap is about
one-tenth of this value, which is usually a desirable setting. It might be
possible to reduce this tap to 1.5 (= 180 amperes primary), but the timedial setting would have to be increased to compensate.
I am glad to have Mr. Elmore's comments on negative-sequence versus zero-sequence polarizing quantities. "Reverse throw" is utility relay
engineer's jargon that indicates that a directional relay trips incorrectly
for a fault behind the relay and not on the protected line.
The recommendation for using 0.6 ampere as a minimum setting for
pilot relay overcurrent units is, as Mr. Elmore suspects, based on the
fact that most HV and EHV transmission lines are not transposed. As a
result, residual currents of 0.4 ampere and higher may be present in the
ground relays, particularly during heavy load periods. A setting of 0.6
ampere for the pilot ground fault detectors will usually provide security
against accidental trip during testing, etc., and will prevent spurious
carrier alarms due to unbalanced phase currents.
Georgia Power Company is well aware of the advantages of ground
distance relays, particularly the fact that they do not have to be reset as
system conditions change. However, they are expensive, and they are
complex; and, as stated in the paper, ground overcurrent relays are still
required "to protect for high resistance faults that may not be detected
=
432