ENHANCED CLASSIFYING CYCLONE PERFORMANCE FOR

ULTRAFINE PARTICLE SEPARATIONS

by
Francis Boaten
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of

Master of Science in Mining Engineering

University of Kentucky

2006

Approved by ___________________________________________________
Chairperson of Supervisory Committee
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Program Authorized
to Offer Degree _________________________________________________

Date _________________________________________________________

ABSTRACT
ENHANCED CLASSIFYING CYCLONE PERFORMANCE FOR ULTRAFINE
PARTICLE SEPARATIONS

The conventional techniques for ultrafine particle classification are plagued by

inherent inefficiencies, which limit the ability to achieve efficient size separations. A
major contributing factor to this problem is the significant amount of by-pass of
submicron particles to the coarse particle product stream as result of particle entrainment
in the water reporting to this fraction. Past studies have shown that increasing feed solids
concentration or apex diameter reduces by-pass. However, both of these measures result
in increased particle separations sizes and elevated viscosity effects, which have a
negative impact on efficiency. This study focused on ways to improve classifying
cyclone performance by improving classification efficiency at such fine particle sizes
The addition of viscosity modifiers at high solids concentrations improved
classification efficiency at decreased cutsizes and low ultrafine by-pass. Furthermore, it
was discovered that viscosity modifiers had the potential of eliminating roping conditions
in classifying cyclones thereby improving classification efficiency by up to 200%.

In-plant studies were carried on a two-stage classifying cyclone circuit at an Eastern

Kentucky coal mining operation. The goal of this study was to achieve a low ash clean
coal product. The circuit and test conditions emphasized the achievement of ultrafine
cutsizes (D50) while reducing the amount of hydraulically entrained material using 15-cm
(6-in) gMax classifying cyclones. The classification circuit achieved particle size
separations in the range of 25 50 microns while limiting ultrafine by-pass to values less
than 10%. The classification efficiency was excellent as indicated by a typical alpha
value of 2.75. As a result, the ash content was reduced from around 50% to values in the
range of 22% to 30% with a mass recovery of about 30%, which equates to 81% rejection
of the ash forming mineral matter. Further reductions in the coarse product ash content
were limited due to a density effect and the remaining presence of a significant quantity

of high-ash slime material in the coarse product. The typical D50 for the coal was 40
microns while the estimated value for mineral matter was 17 microns. As a result, the
ash contents for all particle size fractions below 75 microns increased in the cyclone
underflow streams. The ash content increase in the -25 micron fraction from 61% to 84%
indicates that true classification is achieved on a portion of the fraction rather than the
common opinion that 100% of the fraction reports as a function of water recovery to the
cyclone output streams

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES ...........................................................................................................5

LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................8
1.1

Background ....................................................................................................10

1.1

Goals and Objectives .....................................................................................15

1.3 Thesis Organization .............................................................................................16

2. LITERATURE REVIEW: ULTRAFINE SIZING...................................................17
2.1 Screening ...............................................................................................................17
2.1.1 Fundamentals ..............................................................................................17
2.1.2

Techniques ............................................................................................19

2.1.3 Industrial Practice ......................................................................................25

2.1.3
2.2

Problems ...............................................................................................29

Classification ..................................................................................................29
2.2

.1 Fundamentals .......................................................................................29

2.1.2 Techniques ...................................................................................................31

2.1.3 Industrial Practice ......................................................................................47
2.2.4 Problems ......................................................................................................50
3. EXPERIMENTAL .......................................................................................................54
3.1 Laboratory Classifying Circuit ...........................................................................54
3.2

In-Plant Classifying Circuit ..........................................................................57

3.3

Classifying Efficiency Determination ...........................................................60

3.4

Coal Characteristics.......................................................................................61

3.5

Viscosity Modification Tests .........................................................................63

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ..................................................................................66

4.1 Classifying Cyclone Parameter Evaluation .......................................................66
4.2 Classifying Circuit Evaluation ..............................................................................4
4.2.1

Operation Condition Effects .................................................................4

4.2.3 Coal and Mineral Matter Partitioning ......................................................95

4.2.4 Circuit Modeling .......................................................................................100

4.2.5 Viscosity Effects ......................................................................................107

5. CONCLUSSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................119
5.1 Conclusions .........................................................................................................119
5.2 Recommendations for Future Work ................................................................122
References .......................................................................................................................124

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Flowsheet of a Conventional fine coal cleaning circuit. ..................................11

Figure 2.1 Schematic of the Krebs Varisieve. ...................................................................21
Figure 2.2 Schematic of the Derricks Multifeed System. ..................................................22
Figure 2.3 Schematic of the Derrick Stack Sizer. ..............................................................23
Figure 2.4 Schematic diagram of the Pansep screen..........................................................25
Figure 2.5 Flowsheet of a fine coal cleaning circuit, which uses Derrick Multifeed
screens. ...................................................................................................................27
Figure 2.6 Flowsheet of a fine coal cleaning circuit, which uses Derrick Stack Sizers. ...28
Figure 2.7 Force balance diagram of a particle settling at terminal velocity. ....................30
Figure 2.8 A schematic diagram of a continuous Knelson Concentrator ..........................34
(Honaker et al, 2005) .........................................................................................................34
Figure 2.9 Classification performance curves achieved by the Knelson Concentrator
(Honaker et al, 2005) .............................................................................................35
Figure 2.10 Schematic diagram of the Counter-flow centrifugal classifier .......................38
(Heiskanen, 1996) ..............................................................................................................38
Figure 2.11 Schematic diagram of the TU Clausthal classifier (Heiskanen, 1996) ...........38
Figure 2.12 Schematic diagram of the Krebs gMax cyclone (Krebs, 2003) ......................40
Figure 2.13 Schematic diagram of the Krebs Cyclowash (Krebs, 2003) ...........................45
Figure 2.14 Schematic flowsheet of a fine coal classifying circuit. ..................................48
Figure 2.15 Schematic diagram of a fine coal classifying circuit. .....................................49
Figure 2.16 Schematic illustration of the operating principles of the Falcon Concentrator
(Honaker et al, 1996) .............................................................................................52
Figure 3.1 Schematic diagram of the experimental set-up used in the laboratory tests.....55
Figure 3.2 Schematic flowsheet of the two-stage Classifying cyclone circuit set-up. ......58
Figure 4.1 Comparison of the experimental and empirical models for cutsize(D50). ..........1
Figure 4.2 Comparison of the experimental and empirical models for ultrafine by-pass....1
Figure 4.3 Comparison of the experimental and empirical models for imperfection. .........2
Figure 4.4 Simulated results for cutsize. ............................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

Figure 4.5 Simulated results for ultrafine by-pass. ..............................................................2

Figure 4.6 Simulated results for imperfection. .................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 4.7 Performance curves showing the effect of apex diameter on classifying
cyclone performance. ...............................................................................................6
Figure 4.8 Performance curves showing the effect of solids concentration on classifying
cyclone performance. ...............................................................................................7
Figure 4.9 Partition curves for the two-Stage circuit with 1.27 cm apex in both primary
and secondary classifying cyclones. ......................................................................84
Figure 4.10 Performance curves for two-stage classifying cyclone with 0.635 cm apex in
primary and secondary cyclone. ............................................................................90
Figure 4.11 Performance curves for different two-stage classifying cyclone circuit
configurations at different dilution levels. .............................................................94
Figure 4.12 Coal and mineral matter size separation achieved by the classification circuit
according to the (a) Actual and (b) Corrected performance curves; primary apex =
0.635cm. .................................................................................................................97
Figure 4.13 Performance curves of the two-stage circuit models. ...................................104
Figure 4.14 Three Stage Circuits with (a) No Recycle (b) Recycle (c) Countercurrent. .105
Figure 4.15 Performance curves of the three-stage circuit models. .................................106
Figure 4.16 Effect of viscosity modifier addition on the classification performance
achieved with a feed solids content of 5% by weight and a relatively large apex
diameter................................................................................................................109
Figure 4.17 Effect of viscosity modifier addition on the classification performance
achieved with a feed solids content of 7.5% by weight and a small apex diameter.110
Figure 4.18 Interactive effect of modifier concentration and apex diameter on the
separation cutpoint; feed solids concentration = 7.5% by weight. ......................112
Figure 4.19 Interactive effect of modifier concentration and apex diameter on the
imperfection (I) value; feed solids concentration = 7.5% by weight. ..................112
Figure 4.20 Partition curves for two different feed solids concentration with and without
addition of sodium dodecyl sulfate. .....................................................................115

Figure 4.21 Partition curves for two different feed solids concentration with and without
addition of NALCO 9762 viscosity modifier. .....................................................115
Figure 4.22 Feed viscosity effect on the particle size cutpoint. .......................................116
Figure 4.23 Effect of Sodium dodecyl sulphate on the flotation rate of a West Virginia
coal sample...........................................................................................................117
Figure 4.24 Effect of NALCO 9762 on the flotation rate of an Illinois coal sample. .....118

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Size by size analysis results of a fine coal waste slurry sample on a dry basis. 13
Table 2.1 Test conditions for the particle size separation experiments with the Knelson
fluidized bed...........................................................................................................35
Table 2.2 Comparison of conventional classifying cyclone and Cyclowash test results...46
Table 2.3 Typical probable error values and specific gravity cut points achieved by
various enhanced gravity concentrators for the treatment of 210 x 37-m size
fraction of various coal samples (Honaker et al, 1996). ........................................53
Table 3.1 Dimensions and operating conditions used in the study for the primary and
secondary classifying cyclones. .............................................................................59
Table 3.2 Particle size analysis of the phase 1 and 2 laboratory classifying cyclone tests
feed. ........................................................................................................................62
Table 3.3 Particle size analysis of Phase 3 laboratory classifying cyclone tests feed. ......62
Table 4.1 Test results obtained from the experimental program evaluating the effect of
Apex diameter, modifier addition and feed solids on Classifying cyclone
performance. ..........................................................................................................67
Table 4.2 Statistical evaluation of the experimental error realized from the Classifying
Cyclone parametric test..........................................................................................69
Table 4.3 ANOVA table generated for the response variables associated with the
laboratory classifying cyclone tests. ......................................................................71
Table 4.4 Classification performance models and associated model fitness values ..........74
Table 4.5 Laboratory classifying cyclone Test Results .......................................................8
Table 4.6 Two-stage classifying cyclone circuit with no secondary cyclone feed dilution
data. ........................................................................................................................83
Table 4.7 Two-stage classifying cyclone circuit with secondary cyclone feed dilution
data. ........................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 4.8 Two-stage classifying cyclone circuit with secondary cyclone feed dilution and
no recycle data. ......................................................................................................89

Table 4.9 Particle size-by-size analysis data of overall circuit process stream samples
obtained using an apex diameter of 0.635 cm in the primary and secondary
classifying cyclones with no recycle......................................................................91
Table 4.10 Particle size-by-size analysis data of overall circuit process stream samples
obtained using an apex diameter of 0.635 cm in the primary and secondary
classifying cyclones with recycle...........................................................................92
Table 4.11 Summary of classification circuit performances achieved under various
operating conditions. ..............................................................................................95
Table 4.12 Summary of classification circuit performances achieved for coal and mineral
matter under various operating conditions. ..........................................................100
Table 4.12 Summary of the results obtained from classifying cyclone circuit modeling.106

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

The processing of fine coal is an important part of the overall plant recovery process.
This has however not always been the case. Past practices involved sending the entire
fine fraction to a thickener for dewatering and then pumping it out to a slurry
impoundment as plant waste. This was done because it was considered uneconomical to
recover this fraction. In addition, moisture concerns associated with the fine coal
provided little incentive for fine coal recovery. Since then, increased mechanization
fueled by the need for higher production rates to stay profitable has resulted in the
generation of higher quantities of fine coal. Improvements in fine particle separation
technologies such as flotation, sizing and gravity methods coupled with more efficient
dewatering techniques have made fine coal recovery a more attractive option.
Furthermore, permitting requirements for the construction of impoundments have become
increasingly stringent making it necessary for mine operators to reduce the volume of
solid material to be impounded. Thus, improved fine particle recovery achieves the dual
purpose of increasing the quantity of saleable coal produced as well as freeing available
impoundment space for tailings disposal.

Figure 1.1 shows a schematic flowsheet for fine coal processing. Feed to the fine
circuit generally consists of -1mm particle size material, which is usually fed to a
classifying cyclone to achieve a 0.15 mm size cut.

-150 m
-1mmFeed

Froth Flotation

O/F

Flotation
Reject
Flotation Product

Classifying
Cyclone

Circuit
Product

1 x 0.15mm

Screen Bowl
Centrifuge

U/F

Spirals
Concentrator

Thickener
Spiral Reject
Spiral Product
O/F

Feed
U/F

+25m
Clean Coal
Product

Circuit Reject

Figure 1.1 Flowsheet of a Conventional fine coal cleaning circuit.

The nominal 1 x 0.15 mm material is treated by spirals while the -0.15 mm fraction is
recovered by froth flotation. The flotation and spiral product combine to form the circuit
product that is dewatered using a screen bowl centrifuge. The spiral tailings are screened
and the underflow combined with the flotation tailings to make up the circuit rejects. This
is then dewatered using a thickener.

A common occurrence in the Central Appalachian coal field in the U.S. is the
existence of a relatively low ash material in the 150 x 37 m particle size fraction
reporting to the fine coal circuit of operating preparation plants. Particle size analysis
results of a typical fine coal waste sample collected from an eastern Kentucky coal
preparation plant are shown in Table 1.1. The plant processes coal from the Hazard No.
4 seam, which is a high-volatile bituminous coal with a dry-based heating value of
around 14,200 Btu/lb. The particle size-by-size data indicates that the +37 m material
has a low ash content of 5.97% and a moisture-free heating value of 13,950 Btu/lb. This
fraction represents 22.4% of the total material that is currently disposed into a slurry
impoundment at the eastern Kentucky operation, which equates to approximately 28 tph.
Currently, the only technology capable of efficiently removing the high ash ultrafine
fraction from the coal is froth flotation, which is a separation process based on surface
chemistry differences rather than particle size.

Froth flotation involves injecting air into a flotation cell filled with slurry composed of
a mixture of coal particles and air bubbles. The bubbles collide with the coal particles
within the cell resulting in bubble particle attachment between the bubbles and the
hydrophobic coal particles within the slurry.

Table 1.1 Size by size analysis results of a fine coal waste slurry sample on a dry basis.

Size
Fraction
(microns)

Weight
(%)

Ash
(%)

Total
Sulfur
(%)

Heating
Value
(Btu/lb)

+210

0.17

2.99

0.77

14520

210 x 150

0.62

3.00

0.77

14515

150 x 75

8.00

3.03

0.77

14431

75 x 44

9.26

6.39

0.74

13878

44 x 37

4.33

11.05

0.70

13101

-37

77.62

60.80

0.35

4850

Total

100.00

48.53

0.44

6886

This results in a low-density mineralized froth containing 70 to 80% air, which rises
to the top of the cell as flotation product. Wash water is employed to deslime the froth
and reduce hydraulic entrainment. Although flotation efficiently recovers the
hydrophobic coal, it suffers from poor selectivity, which negatively affects the quality of
the flotation product especially when treating mixed-phase particles. The selectivity
limitation is associated with its efficient collection whereby fine particles having only 5%
of its surface being hydrophobic are able to attach to the bubble surface and report as a
high-ash particle into the flotation product. In addition, froth flotation requires the use of
reagents, which add additional cost to the process. Collectors such as fuel oil are required
to enhance the surface hydrophobicity and increase the flotation rate of coal. Frothers
such as methylisobutylcarbinol (MIBC) reduce the surface tension of water enhancing
bubble formation whilst modifiers such as pH regulators provide the necessary surface
charge for collector adsorption. For efficient flotation, all these reagents must be added at
optimum dosages.

Excessive collector addition beyond the optimum often results in higher flotation rate
increases for gangue minerals than coal further reducing selectivity and may result in
overly stiff froth with poor water drainage and ineffective froth washing. Furthermore,
high collector dosages have a negative effect on frother performance increasing the
required frother dosage. Erol et al (2003) also report the occurrence of high product ash
for coal flotation at high MIBC concentrations. This was because of smaller bubble
formation leading to greater water recovery and increased entrainment of high-ash
particles. Furthermore, the finer bubbles generated at high frother concentrations result in
hydraulic entrainment of fine high ash particles further reducing product quality.
Changing coal surface properties also result in poor flotation. The normal pH for coal
flotation lies within a range 5-7. Weathered coal floats poorly due to the presence of an
oxide coating on the coal surface, which reduces the surface hydrophobicity of the coal
particle. According to Osborne (1988) however, weathered coal can be made to float at a
pH of 2 when deslimed and/or scrubbed. Thus, in addition to cost, flotation may provide
complex challenges, which have to be understood in order to achieve an efficient
separation.

Due to the potential for lower costs and a better understanding of the separation
principles by the operators, a classification system that provides an economical and
efficient ultrafine particle size separation would be preferred. Current trends in fine
particle separation involve the use of small diameter classifying cyclones. These cyclones
however, are unable to provide sharp size cuts at high feed rates due to the low residence
time experienced by particles within the cyclone body. Inefficiencies in fine particle
separation also typically occur due to Brownian motion, particle interaction effects as
well as viscosity that lead to the by-pass of fine particles into the coarse product. High
particle concentrations within the apex region of classifying cyclones leads to increased
viscosity and hindered settling effects that negatively impact classification performance,
especially at high feed solids concentrations. Minimizing these effects therefore, could
make classification a viable alternative to flotation for fine particle recovery in specific
applications such as those represented by the coal characteristics described in Table 1.1.

This study focuses on the enhancing the classification performance of small diameter
hydrocyclones that provide the potential for enhancing the classification performance for
particle size cuts in the 25-50 m size range.

1.2 Goals and Objectives

The goal of this project was to improve the efficiency of classifying cyclones for
ultrafine (25m) size separations while minimizing ultrafine by-pass. If successful, the
process could be used as an alternative or compliment to flotation process. Success will
be measured based on the ability to achieve a classification performance that will result in
a 25 micron cutsize and less than 5% ultrafine by-pass.

To achieve the project goals the following specific objectives were developed:

Evaluate a two-stage classifying cyclone circuit using 15-cm units in an operating

plant to treat -150 micron coal.

Quantify the circuit classification efficiency and particle cutpoints under different
operating conditions.

Minimize by-pass by reducing water recovery to the underflow stream of the

cyclones through high feed solids contents and small apex diameters.

Determine the ability of modifiers to reduce the effect of elevated viscosity values
on classification performance. The higher viscosities are due to the higher solids
concentrations in the feed and underflow streams.

1.3 Thesis Organization

This thesis is divided is divided into 5 (five) main chapters. Chapter 1 presents
information, which provides the background leading to the research. It also presents the
goals and objectives, which this study was designed to accomplish. Chapter 2 contains a
literature review of the fundamentals of screening and classification as well some
contemporary fine sizing techniques involving both screening and classification.
Explanations for the limits of screening in ultrafine sizing are discussed. Chapter 3
describes the experimental methods and conditions under which the various tests were
performed. A discussion of the experimental results is contained in Chapter 4 while
Chapter 5 presents the conclusions and recommendations for future work.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW: ULTRAFINE SIZING

The two most widely used methods for sizing are screening and classification.
Screening is generally used to effect separations on + 250 m particles. Classification
processes are employed for particle size separations below 250 microns where screening
is impractical due to low feed capacities and efficiencies.
The prevalent techniques in wet classification can be broadly grouped based on fluid
movement and particle settling directions (Heiskanen, 1993). Separation depends on the
ability of a particle to settle within a fluid medium. When the fluid movement is
horizontal and forms an angle with the particle trajectory, the classification is referred to
as sedimentation or cross flow classification. Classifiers operating under such conditions
include rake, spiral, bowl and tank classifiers. Centrifugal sedimentation involves
sedimentation under the influence of enhanced gravitational forces. The units include
classifying cyclones and solids bowl centrifuges. Hydraulic or counterflow classification
however is classification in which the fluid and the settling particle move in opposite
directions. In this case, clean water is injected into the classifier to maintain the counter
flow. Such classifiers include counter current classifiers, hydraulic tank classifiers, cone
classifiers and fluidized bed classifiers.
2.1 Screening
2.1.1 Fundamentals
Screening is the most commonly used particle-sizing technology. It is based on a
particles ability to successfully pass through an aperture of a particular size on a
vibrating screen. Particles with physical dimensions larger than aperture size are retained
on the screen while those with dimensions less than the aperture size pass through the
screen. During screening two basic processes, occur, i.e,
(1) Stratification which is the process whereby large particles migrate to the top of
the vibrating material bed while at the same time the fine particles sift through the

voids created by the larger particles. Without stratification, the particles would
have very little chance of passing through the screen.
(2) Probability of Separation, which describes the stochastic probability of a particle
passing through a given aperture once presented to the opening.
The ease with which a particle x passes through a screen of aperture size a depends
on how much aperture area is available for particle passage. A larger difference between
the particle and aperture size (a x) , results in easier screening. A particle in contact
with the screen surface encounters both the aperture a and wire diameter b , represented
by (a b) . The probability P of a particle passing through a screen represents the ratio
of the available aperture area to the screen surface encountered as shown below:

a x
P

a b

(2.1)

Equation (2.1) implies that P increases with increasing screen opening, decreasing
particle size, decreasing wire diameter and increasing number of screening trials m . For
fine particle screening, b becomes significantly greater than a, which results in a high
probability of retaining undersize particles in the screen overflow
The number of screening trials is a function of screen length, frequency and amplitude
and assumes good stratification. Increasing screen length increases P by increasing m . A
perfect separation could therefore be achieved by using an infinitely long screen. An
increase in frequency of vibration of the screen enhances the migration of particles to the
screen surface and reduces screen blinding. The amplitude of vibration also affects
screening in that high amplitudes at low feed rates result in some material bouncing too
high of the surface of the screen and reducing m . The ratio of the total aperture space to
the total area of the screen surface is called the open area. Increasing open area increases

P by presenting a greater surface area for screening.

2.1.2

Techniques

The practice of fine particle screening in industry employs a range of different

techniques. However, the effectiveness of screens for fine particle separations is
adversely affected by limited open area as well as blinding of the screen apertures, which
increases the by-pass of undersize material to the screen overflow and thus reduces
efficiency. Screening systems are generally limited to particle size separations coarser
than approximately 250 m due to these limitations associated with capacity and
blinding. For example, fine particle screening has a 45% probability of retention after 10
events, whereas coarse screening has less than 1% for an x/a ratio of 0.5 using typical
wire diameters. Increasing m by applying high frequency and longer screens provides
efficiency improvement; however, throughput capacity remains significantly lower than
coarse screens. The open area of a screen, which is the ratio of the aperture to the total
area of the screen mat, determines the underflow rate. Fine coal screening mesh typically
have an open area around 30% and a corresponding mass flux of 2 tph/m2, which is an
order of magnitude less than coarse screens. To increase the capacity, the wire diameter
can be decreased. However, screen wear rate requires an increasing amount of
maintenance as the wire diameter is decreased, thereby significantly elevating costs.

Sieve bends are less subject to screen blinding than other screens and have been
employed to achieve 150 m cutsizes on feed containing up to 45% solids. Screening
takes place on a concave screen surface made up of horizontal wedge-wires, which are
orientated in such a way that the open slots are perpendicular to the flow of the slurry.
The slurry flow across the concave surface creates a centrifugal force. This force
combined with retardation due to frictional drag of the fluid in contact with the screen
surface results in a shaving off the fluid through the open slots to the screen underflow.
This layer may have a thickness of 0.25 to 0.5 the slot width. Wills (1988) reports that
size separations down to 50m and screen capacities up to 180 m3/h can be achieved
using sieve bends. At low feed rates however, sieve bends are still susceptible to
blinding. Screen blinding effectively reduces the total open area of a screen and therefore
reduces efficiency by causing undersize particles to report to the overflow stream. On the

other hand, high volumetric flows typical of plant operations limit the proportion of feed
solids subjected to the sizing action. As a result, the efficiency of sieve bends for
screening is limited by the by-pass of -150m material to the oversize (Osborne, 1988).
In addition, screen wear deteriorates screening performance by reducing the achievable
separation size. Screen blinding, lack of open area due to build-up of material, high
maintenance cost and mesh wear commonly result in sub-par performance for the sievebends (Buisman and Reyneke, 2000).

The Krebs Varisieve (Figure 2.1) is a modified sieve bend design that improves on the
performance of traditional sieve bends for fine particle screening. The Varisieve
incorporates a manually adjustable head box feed throat as well as a variable position
screen frame into the traditional sieve bend design. The modified feed head box regulates
the feed rate to the Varisieve in such a way that flow rate fluctuations on the plant do not
adversely affect screen performance. As a result, the low feed rates that lead to screen
blinding and high feed rates, which in turn, result in feed box overflow and insufficient
particle screening time, are avoided. The variable screen frame reduces the effects of
screen wire wear by allowing the gradual lowering of the screen frame to expose new
sharp screen wires during operation. Previous test work performed by Mohanty et al
(2002) showed that the Varisieve could be used to achieve size separations in the 138m
size range with an imperfection of 0.15. However, this imperfection value was still
accompanied by a significant by-pass of 22 % of fine ash material, which typically
reported along with the sieve bend overflow, thereby significantly lowering the product
quality.
High frequency vibrating screens have also been employed to reduce the problems of
screen blinding and low capacity typically associated with fine particle screening by
allowing maximum repeated contact of particles with the screen surface. This increases
the probability of fine particle passage through the screen thus improving screening
efficiency.

Figure 2.1 Schematic of the Krebs Varisieve.

Vibrating screens, however still have several drawbacks. According to Mohanty

(2001), these drawbacks include inefficiency, short life of screen mesh due to shaking
and continuous feeding into one part of the screen, high maintenance cost, excessive
noise and large footprint.
The high frequency Derrick Multifeed system (Figure 2.2) developed by the Derrick
Corporation in Buffalo, New York takes advantage of the benefits provided by vibrating
screens thereby maximizing screening capacity. It is composed of three 40 x 30 in2
independent screening sections supported within a single frame and connected to a
vibrating unit. These sections are fed by a single feed source via distribution boxes
located at the head of each screen.

Figure 2.2 Schematic of the Derricks Multifeed System.

An oversize manifold situated beneath the screens allows the oversize from the first
two screens to by-pass and rejoin the oversize from the third screen into a discharge
hopper. This quick removal of the oversize prevents the overloading of the screen surface
thus maximizing screen area. Derrick (1984) reports that the Multifeed system increases
capacity by approximately 2.5 times as compared to typical values from a 4 x 8 ft2 feed
single deck derrick screens.

Derrick Stack Sizers or stacker units (Figure 2.3) represent a further improvement to
the Derrick Multifeed design. They operate on the principle that screen width is of
primary importance for separation performance. Therefore, stacker units employ screen
decks that are wider than they are long.

A Derrick stack sizer consists of five screen decks stacked on top of each other and
inclined downwards at angles between 15-25%. The screen stack is connected to a
vibrating motor that supplies a high frequency vibrating motion uniformly throughout the
entire width and length of the screen decks.

Figure 2.3 Schematic of the Derrick Stack Sizer.

The screens vibrate linearly extending the effective fluidized zone of the feed slurry
enhancing separations over a larger area of screen surface and convey screened material
out of the way of incoming feed Kelly (2005). A wash trough may also be added to
maximize fine particle removal. Kelly, 2005 reports data from a western Pennsylvanian
coal processing plant, which suggests that stack sizers can be used to achieve size cuts of
150 m at feed rates of 80 tons per hour while providing efficiencies of 88-91%.

A recent technology development reported by Praczkajlo (1998) has reduced the

occurrence of screen blinding by the use of a patented sandwich screen. When used in the
high frequency Derrick Multifeed system, 94% overall screen efficiency values were
obtained when achieving particle size separations as small as 100 m. Derrick(1984)
reports Multifeed screen efficiency values prior to the addition of the sandwich screen at
about 89%. A commercial installation of the technology processed about 45 tonnes/hr of
fine coal using a unit requiring a floor space of about 4.6 m2.

A recently commercialized technology that addresses both capacity limitations and

blinding is the Pansep Screen (Buisman, 2000).

The PANSEP screen (Figure 2.4)

efficiently achieves fine particle size separations at high capacity values by utilizing both
sides of a moving deck of pans that hold the screens. The screen has slotted openings,
which allow a relatively high open area that exceeds 40%. Patented spray bars are used to
rinse the screen upon removal of the coarse material in an effort to reduce or eliminate
blinding. A recently completed study involved an in-plant evaluation of a 0.5 m2 Pansep
unit for achieving a 150 m particle size separation (Kroeger and Mohanty, 2004). To
achieve the separation, the slot-size of the screen openings was 100 x 400 m. At a
volumetric capacity of around 350 lpm, the particle size separation averaged around 160
m. More importantly, the classification efficiency as measured by the imperfection
value, I, was found to be about 3 times better than the existing classifying cyclone bank (I
= 0.14 versus 0.43). Furthermore, the amount of by-passed undersize material to the
oversize stream was only 4.3% as compared to 33% for the classifying cyclones.
However, capital and operating costs as well as plant footprint of the Pansep screens are
higher than that of classifying cyclones. Also previous tests conducted by Mohanty
(2002) suggest that, at high feed rates, the pansep screen is still susceptible to fine
particle by-pass. In addition, the spray water, which does not pass through the screens,
runs off the overflow carrying fine particles to the coarse particle stream. High by-pass
values of about 35% using a smaller unit at a relatively high feed rate of 210 lpm have
been observed (Mohanty, 2001).

Figure 2.4 Schematic diagram of the Pansep screen.

2.1.3 Industrial Practice

Fine particle screening in industry serves to provide a uniformly sized feed to a unit
process and/or to generate a product. In coal operations, fine screening may be employed
to provide the required feed consist to a flotation process. Figure 2.5 represents a
flowsheet in which Derrick Multifeed screens are used. The underflow from a set of 30cm (12-inch) cyclones that receive the fine circuit feed is fed to a set of sieve bends. The
oversize is subsequently dewatered in a centrifuge as the circuit product whilst the
undersize is combined with the classifying cyclone overflow as feed to the flotation
circuit.

Figure 2.6 represents a fine coal circuit that uses screening to deslime a clean coal
product stream from spiral concentrators. In this circuit, the underflow from the
classifying cyclones is fed to a set of triple start spirals. The spiral product is screened
using a set of Derrick Multifeed screens with the objective of providing a particle size
cutpoint of around 150 microns. The screen overflow is dewatered using screen bowl

centrifuges while the screen underflow is combined with the cyclone overflow and screen
bowl effluent as circuit rejects which report to a thickener.

Overflow

Classifying
Cyclone

Underflow
Distribution
Box

Derrick
Multifeed
Oversize

Undersize

Thickener
Overflow

Froth
flotation
Screen
Bowl
Centrifuge

Thickener

Clean coal

Circuit rejects

Figure 2.5 Flowsheet of a fine coal cleaning circuit, which uses Derrick Multifeed
screens.

-1mm
Feed
Classifying
Cyclone
Underflow

Refuse Screen
Refuse
Distribution
Box

Spiral
Product

Derrick
Stack Sizers
Oversize
Screen
Bowl
Centrifuge

Thickener
Overflow
Undersize

Effluent
Clean Coal

Thickener
Underflow

Figure 2.6 Flowsheet of a fine coal cleaning circuit, which uses Derrick Stack Sizers.

2.1.4 Problems

Problems associated with ultrafine particle screening typically result from lack of open
area and screen blinding. An increase in the amount of near cutsize particles within the
feed increases the extent of blinding and further reduces screen performance. Increasing
open area by reducing wire diameter results in increased screen wear, which increases
cost. Solutions to such problems include vibrating screens, using a stacked arrangement
of several screens and applying wash water to the screen surface to reduce screen
blinding. The flow of wash water however, should be controlled to prevent run-off of fine
particles from the screen surface.

2.2 Classification

2.2.1 Fundamentals

Classification is the separation of particles based on differences in their settling

velocities in a fluid medium. The fluid medium usually has an upward velocity such that
particles with settling velocities higher than the medium velocity settle while particles
with lower settling velocities are carried upwards with the rising current of fluid medium.
In this manner, a coarse particle size product and a fine particle sized product are
obtained. Because separation is based on relative velocity, classification does not separate
particles according to size directly but indirectly. Relative velocity is obtained by
allowing different forces to act upon the particles. As a result, classification is considered
an indirect means of size separation.

The free settling of a particle within a fluid is due to the resultant effect of three
fundamental forces (Figure 2.7). The gravitational force, Fg that influences the
downward motion of a particle is opposed by upwards acting drag and buoyancy forces,
Fd and Fb due to the fluid.

Fd

Fg

Direction
of Particle
Movement

Fg

Figure 2.7 Force balance diagram of a particle settling at terminal velocity.

The particle initially accelerates until the force balance on it due to the effect of these
opposing forces is zero. From then onwards, it settles at a uniform velocity known as the
terminal settling velocity. The balance of forces around the particle is:
Fg Fd Fb

(2.2)

For a spherical particle of diameter d p and density, s the mass can be defined as:

d p 3 s
6

(2.3)

The force due to gravity, g acting on the particle can therefore be determined to be:

Fg

d p 3 s g
6

(2.4)

Fb , which is a function of the fluid displaced by the particle can also be expressed as

Fb

d p 3 s g
6

(2.5)

where f is the fluid density. For a fine particle settling within a fluid under laminar
conditions, the drag force results only from viscous forces. These viscous forces depend
on the particle diameter d p , the terminal settling velocity of the particle, Vt and the fluid
viscosity as shown below:

Fd 3d pVt

(2.6)

By substituting equations 2.4, 2.5 and 2.6 into equation 2.2 and solving for Vt , Stokes
law is obtained:

Vt

d P2 g P f
18

Based on Eq. (2.7) the free settling ratio

(2.7)
da
of two different particles to be separated by
db

classification can be expressed by:

d a b f

d b a f

1/ 2

(2.8)

where d a and d a are the effective diameters of the two particle types, a and b their
respective densities and f is the density of the fluid medium. This equation clearly
indicates that density has an effect on fine particle classification. Sometimes
classification takes place under hindered settling conditions. These conditions usually
occur at high particle volume concentrations. Hindered settling magnifies the effect of
density on classification.

2.2.2 Techniques

Hydraulic classifiers, both static and centrifugal, are still generally the devices of
choice for particle size separations below 250 m. This is mainly due to the deterioration
in efficiency of prevailing screening techniques at fine particle sizes due to reduced open

area and screen blinding. In addition, current classification techniques employed in

industry have higher throughputs and smaller plant footprints than most sizing devices.
Furthermore, screen wear increases the operating cost of screening devices over that of
existing classifiers.

In contrast to screening, particle size separation using classification principles is based

on differences in the settling rates of the particles in the system. These rates ultimately
determine the size of the classification units and their overall effectiveness. Although
classifiers are generally considered to be more effective than screens for fine sizing, the
conventional techniques employed for sizing ultrafine

particles (i.e., - 150 m) in the

coal and mineral processing industries have inherent inefficiencies that negatively impact
separation performance and production costs. These inefficiencies occur because of
viscosity, Brownian motion forces and particle interaction effects. Consequently,
classifiers commonly suffer from by-pass, which occurs when a portion of the ultrafine
particles (slimes) are misplaced by hydraulic carryover into the oversize product. The
unwanted misplacement can have a large adverse impact on downstream separation
processes.

Osborne (1988) groups classifiers into three broad types based on the mechanism by
which particle separation is effected, i.e., settling classifiers, mechanical classifiers and
centrifugal classifiers. Settling classifiers employ quiescent reservoirs of fixed volume to
achieve separation. Separating conditions are varied by continuously or intermittently
varying the underflow flowrate (Osborne 1988). Experiments conducted by Thompson
and Galvin (1996) on a laboratory-scale settling classifier called the Counter-Flow settler
yields promising results

for fine particle separations in terms of reducing by-pass.

Particle size separations in the range of 2.6 m to 116m with ultrafine by-pass values as
low as 5% were achieved for the feed solids concentration range of 2.4% to 21.7% tested.
Partition curve data provided for 10% feed solids at varying feed rates of 1.686 g/s to
6.809 g/s reveal that separation efficiency increases with increasing feed rate within the
range tested. The best classification performance was obtained at a feed rate of 6.809 g/s

at which a separation size of 78 m was achieved with an imperfection value of 0.40 with
5% by-pass. However, at low feed rates, both imperfection and by-pass were very high.
Moreover, industrial scale up of settling classifiers can be difficult.

Fluidized-bed separators used for particle size separations employ the use of an
upward flow of water to carry particles having a settling velocity lower than the fluid
velocity into an overflow stream. The coarser material settles into the underflow stream.
However, as the particle size decreases to below 150 microns, the settling rates become
too slow to allow acceptable throughput capacity. The application of a centrifugal field
accelerates the particle movement and provides the potential for ultrafine size separations
to be achieved at relatively high mass flow rates.
The Knelson Concentrator is essentially a fluidized bed system operating in a
mechanically applied, enhanced gravity field. As shown in Figure 2.8, the unit consists of
a rotating cone into which water is introduced through a series of fluidization holes
located in the concentrate ring. The feed enters through the central inlet. When the slurry
reaches the bottom of the cone, it is forced outward and driven up the cone wall towards
the fluidizing ring. The slurry fills the ring against the inward movement of elutriation
water, which creates a fluidized particle bed. Pinch valves are actuated allowing the
coarsest material to be drawn from the ring at a controlled rate into a dedicated launder.
The ultrafine particles flow out the top of the cone into an overflow launder.

Honaker et al (2005) evaluated the ability of the Knelson Concentrator to achieve

ultrafine particle size separations by installing a pilot-scale, continuous discharge model
in an eastern U. S. coal preparation plant. The unit was fed a split stream from the
underflow of a secondary classifying cyclone bank, which was nominally 150 x 44 m.
The solids concentration averaged around 22% by weight in the classifying cyclone
underflow stream.

Feed
Overflow
Product

Overflow
Product

Underflow
Tailings

Underflow
Tailings

Tailings
Elutriation
Water

Figure 2.8 Schematic diagram of a continuous Knelson Concentrator

(Honaker et al, 2005)

The performance curves produced under the conditions listed in Table 2.1 are
provided in Figure 2.9.The volumetric feed rate and solids concentration were maintained
at 74 lpm and 25% by weight, respectively. A significant finding was that the separator
provided relatively low quantities of ultrafine by-pass. In all tests, ultrafine by-pass to the
coarse underflow stream was less than 10% with a low value of 3%. The cutsize (D50)
decreased with an increase in the applied centrifugal force (i.e., rotational speed), which
was expected due to enhanced particle settling rates. A similar trend was also observed
with a reduction in the fluidization water rate.

Although the overall efficiency appears to be inferior to the typical performance of a

classifying cyclone, the concentrator has adequate effectiveness while decreasing the
amount of ultrafine by-pass. Under the maximum rotation speed for the unit and a
moderate fluidization water rate, a relatively low cutsize of about 45 microns was
achieved. Decreasing the rotational speed improved classification efficiency substantially
as indicated by a respectable I value of 0.34.

Table 2.1 Test conditions for the particle size separation experiments with the Knelson
fluidized bed.
Test
No.

Bowl Speed
(rpm)

Fluid Rate
(lpm)

Valve Open
(sec)

Valve Close
(sec)

1100

7.5

0.16

4.5

1100

10

0.16

4.5

1100

12

0.16

4.5

700

0.16

4.5

700

10

0.16

4.5

1.00
Test 3
Test 4
Test 5
Test 6
Test 7

0.90

Probability to Underflow

0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
1

10

100

1000

Particle Size (microns)

Figure 2.9 Classification performance curves achieved by the Knelson Concentrator

(Honaker et al, 2005)

However, the cutsize increased significantly. The data therefore indicates that the
fluidized Knelson unit may be an effective tool for desliming in combination with a
classifying cyclone.

Mechanical classifiers employ some sort of mechanical action to effect separation.

They include Spiral and Rake classifiers. Feed is introduced at the central part of the
trough of the spiral or rake classifier and flows towards the discharge weir. Coarse
particles settle within the trough before reaching the weir and are drawn upwards using
rakes or scrolls to a coarse product discharge outlet whilst fine material overflow a weir
or launder as a fines product.

The spiral classifier is a mechanical classifier, which consists of an inclined round

bottom trough and a raking spiral. The lower end of the trough forms a pool with an
overflow weir, which allows the discharge of fine particles. The ratio between the pool
depth and the spiral diameter is called submergence. Spirals may be grouped based on
submergence as low weir, high weir or submerged. Low weir spirals have the entire
length of the spiral exposed above the pulp surface and are considered to be 90%
submerged. High weir spirals are 120% submerged while spirals located deep below the
pulp surface are 150% submerged. The extent of submergence also determines the
separation size. According to Heiskanen (1993), low weir spirals achieve size cuts in the
840m to 210m range while high weir and submerged spirals achieve separations
within the ranges of 300m to 74m and 200m to 50m, respectively. Heiskanen
(1993), Salter (1959), Salter and King (1957) report ultrafine by-pass and imperfection
values of about 15% and 0.25-0.5 respectively for spiral classifiers. Water jets can be
directed at the coarse product to further reduce by-pass and limit the amount of fine
particle misplacement. Spiral classifiers are however prone to sanding, which is the
excess build up of coarse material within the spiral trough. Furthermore, a decrease in
sand raking capacity or increase in pulp density leads to surging which results in poor
separation efficiencies and an increase in cutsize.

Centrifugal classifiers employ forces that magnify the gravitational force on particles
to effect the separation of coarse particles from fine particles. They include classifying
cyclones and various centrifugal classifiers such as the screen bowl centrifuge and the
Counter-flow centrifugal classifier. Bickert et al (1996) report that the counter-flow
centrifugal classifier developed mostly in Germany as capable of performing ultrafine
classification with separation sizes less than 10 m (Figure 2.10). The slurry feeding the
classifier is introduced into the classifying chamber a, under pressure. Due to restriction
of the coarse product outlet, the slurry is forced into the spaces, d between rotor blades c,
where it experiences centrifugal accelerations in the range of 200 to 1800 times g-force
(Heiskanen, 1996). The particles within the spaces d are therefore under the influence of
inward radial forces and outward centrifugal forces. The net effect of centrifugal forces
on coarse particles causes them to move outwards back into the classifying chamber,
while the fine particles are drawn by an inward flow into the hollow shaft f, through the
spaces in the rotor and flow out as a fines product. Even though this design is described
as versatile and capable of handling feed percentages up to 40% by volume (Heiskanen,
1996), it has poor separation efficiency. This is because only the portion of the feed that
actually enters the rotor spaces is classified. This significant by-pass of feed material
causes the product to be similar to the feed.

A counter flow classifier developed by TU Clausthal (Heiskanen, 1996) can be used to

achieve sharp cuts and low by-pass. As shown in Figure 2.11, it is made up of a bowl
centrifuge into which clean fluid is introduced through a porous media. Comparison of
this classifier with a conventional 10mm cyclone (Vesanto et al., 1992) shows cutsizes of
approximately 2.0m and 7.0m and imperfections of 0.36 and 0.42, respectively.
Classification at such fine particle sizes usually involves the use of banks of small
diameter cyclones fed by a distributor. More often than not, the feed to these individual
cyclones vary due to inefficiencies in the slurry distribution process resulting in a reduced
overall classification performance from the cyclone bank.The TU Clausthal classifier
could therefore provide the benefit of allowing ultrafine particle separations within a
single classifier.

Figure 2.10 Schematic diagram of the Counter-flow centrifugal classifier

(Heiskanen, 1996)

Figure 2.11 Schematic diagram of the TU Clausthal classifier (Heiskanen, 1996)

The classifying cyclone is one of the most widely used classifiers in the coal and
mineral processing. Its high capacity, versatility and small plant footprint make it the
ideal tool for classifying the fine particulate material, which comprise the fine circuits of
most mineral and coal processing circuits. The classifying cyclone has relatively simple
design and operation and has no moving parts. Figure 2.12 shows a diagram of a
conventional classifying cyclone. It consists of a cylindrical upper section and a conical
lower section. Feed is introduced into the cyclone at the cylindrical section through a
tangential feed entry, which forces it into a spiraling flow within the cyclone. The coarse
particles move under the effect of the resulting centrifugal force towards the wall of the
cyclone and spiral via the fluid motion towards the constricted apex, which limits the
amount of feed volume reporting to the underflow stream. As a result, a portion of the
stream is forced to reverse direction and is caught up in a zone of low pressure that
carries it up to a cylindrical tube, which extends some distance into the cylindrical section
called the vortex finder. Coarse material is discharged through the spigot or apex.

The classifying cyclone has existed as an important unit operation for over a century
and has been a subject of numerous studies. Previous studies have involved developing
mathematical models to predict the cutsize as well as investigating the effects of various
geometric and operational parameters on the cutsize. As a result, various theories, which
predict classifying cyclone performance, have been proposed. These include the
equilibrium orbit theory, retention time theory, the turbulent diffusion theory, and the
crowding theory. Among these, the equilibrium orbit theory is the most widely accepted
for predicting cyclone performance. Various researchers such as Yokioka and Hotta
(1995), Lilge (1962), Bradley (1958, 1960, 1965), Smith and Coghin (1984), Pericleous
et al (1984), Kawatra et al (1996) describe this theory as that which best predicts cyclone
performance. The theory assumes that each particle within a cyclone is in equilibrium
under the effect of two opposing forces. These are an outward acting centrifugal force
due to the tangential flow within the cyclone and an inward acting drag force that is due
to radial, inward velocity.

Pressure
Gauge

Overflow Stream
(fine particle stream)

Vortex Finder
Cylindrical
Feed
Chamber

Feed

Cylindrical
Section

Feed
Inlet

Conical Section

Apex

Underflow
(coarse particle stream)

Figure 2.12 Schematic diagram of the Krebs gMax cyclone (Anon, 2003)

Particles of different size will therefore have different equilibrium orbit radii. Particles
near the inner wall of the cyclone report to the apex whilst particles close to the axis of
the cyclone report to the vortex finder. This suggests that the vertical velocities of these
particles are opposite to each other. Therefore, at some point within the cyclone there
exists a plane where the vertical velocity of particles is zero. This plane is called the
envelope of zero velocity (Kawatra et al, 1996). A particle at the envelope of zero
velocity therefore has an equal probability of reporting to the apex or vortex finder. The
particle size at the envelope of zero velocity is referred to as the cutsize. This theory
assumes that flow conditions within the cyclone are laminar (Trawinski, 1972).

Most theoretical methods of predicting the performance of cyclones are based on the
equilibrium orbit theory. A more successful approach however, relies on relationships
derived from empirical data. The most popular relationships were developed by Plitt
(1971, 1976), Plitt et al. (1980) and Lynch and Rao (1975), Lynch (1977), Rao (1966).
Lynch and Rao (1975) and Plitt (1976) using data from large diameter hydrocyclones and
high percent feed solids. The models provide versatility in the prediction of cutsize in
actual plant situations. The Lynch equation was based on a series of regression
parameters K1 to K6 and feed percent solids by weight, V and is of the form
log d 50( c) K1 Do K2 Du K3 Di K4 DcV K5Q K6

(2.9)

where Do is the vortex finder diameter, Du the apex diameter, Di the feed inlet diameter
and Dc and Q are the cyclone diameter and the volume flow rate to the cyclone in m3/hr
respectively. For the different size distributions, values for the different K values fall
within the range of 0.0344 to 0.0637 for K1 , 0.0190 to 0.0712 for K 2 , 0.0220 to 0.0513
for K3 ,0.0255 to 0.0390 for K 4 , 0.00005 to 0.000008 for K5 and -0.06623 to 0.0806 for
K6 .

Lynch and Rao used weight percent solids to develop their model whilst Plitt used
volume percent solids, which provides a more accurate estimate of slurry rheology than

weight percent solids (Plitt, 1976; Plitt and Kawatra, 1979; Kawatra, 1996). The Lynch
model is described as:
d 50( c )

14.8 Dc0.46 Di0.6 Do1.21 exp 0.063V

Du0.71h 0.38 Q 0.45 s m

0.5

(2.10)

Where s are the average density of the feed solids and m the density of the medium.
while V is the percentage volumetric solids content and h is the distance from the top of
the apex to the bottom of the vortex finder.

Increasing Dc increases the separation cutsize by increasing particle travel distance to

the cyclone wall. The resultant centrifugal forces on fine particles are therefore
insufficient to allow them to move through this increased distance to the cyclone wall and
therefore, they are carried inwards and caught up within the vortex created at the apex of
the cyclone and report to the cyclone overflow. Di influences the cutsize because of its
effect on the feed inlet velocity. A large Di decreases the inlet velocity resulting in a
reduced centrifugal force, which results in coarser cutsize. Changing Do changes the
diameter of the vortex created within the cyclone. A larger Do results in a larger vortex
which captures greater amount of fine particles to the cyclone overflow resulting an
increased separation cutsize. Du controls the removal of the coarse particle product from
the cyclone. Reducing Du results in the reversal of more fine material towards the vortex
finder of the cyclone thus yielding a coarser product. Increasing V results in increased
viscosity effects that limit the movement of fine particles towards the cyclone wall and
results in a coarser cutsize. Increasing h , decreases cutsize by increasing particle
retention time within the cyclone, which allows fine particles sufficient time to report to
the cyclone wall. An increase in Q increases the centrifugal force of separation and
allows fine particles to reach the cyclone wall resulting in a finer cutsize while an
increase in m leads to hindered settling effects which limits the settling of fine particles
and results in an increase in particle cutsize.

Inherent inefficiencies in classifying cyclone operation such as energy losses in the

cyclone body and misplacement of particles to the wrong product streams also affect
cyclone performance. This misplacement can be due to the short-circuiting of coarse
particles to the overflow stream or commonly the hydraulic entrainment of fine particles
to the underflow. In coal processing plants, the short-circuiting of coarse particles, results
in the loss of coarse coal or a reduction in the efficiency of downstream unit processes.
Hydraulically entrained ultrafines commonly contain high levels of clay and/or pyrite that
can greatly reduce the quality of the underflow product. In addition, high solids
concentrations near the cyclone apex leads to hindered settling conditions. Hindered
settling increases the density effect on particle classification and results in an increased
recovery of fine, high ash mineral matter and or pyrite.

Recent studies, which were initiated by advances in computational fluid dynamics

modeling have focused on classifying cyclone design (Rong and Napier-Munn, 2003;
Olson and Ommon, 2004). Rong and Napier-Munn (2003) at the Julius Kruttschnitt
Mineral Research Center have developed a new classifying cyclone called the JKCC. The
JKCC has certain unique features that distinguish it from the conventional cyclone.
Unlike the conventional cyclone which has both a cylindrical vortex finder and upper
section, the vortex finder of the JKCC tapers downwards and outwards while the upper
section angles inwards. As a result, feed flow within this upper section is accelerated,
thereby increasing the centrifugal force. Hence, unlike conventional cyclones, effective
particle separation can be achieved within the upper section of the JKCC. The JKCC
vortex finder has a thicker wall than that of the conventional cyclone. This, combined
with its unique shape increases the tangential velocity gradient within the JKCC and
reduces particle misplacement. The apex is designed with a shoulder directly above it.
This feature in addition to other benefits, decreases ultrafine by-pass. Data form tests
conducted by Rong and Napier-Munn (2003) on both JKCC and conventional cyclones
show that the -value for the JKCC lies in the range of 4.0 to 6.0 while the -value for
the conventional cyclone was less than 4.0. Water recovery to the underflow for the

JKCC was in the range of 18-24% at a corrected cutsize of 40-50 m compared to 26% in
the conventional cyclone at a 53-m cutsize.

Research conducted by Honaker et al (2001) on a modified cyclone called the

Cyclowash provided encouraging results for the improvement of cyclone performance.
This cyclone, which was developed by Kelsall and Holmes (1960), incorporates a water
injection component that lies above and near the apex of the cyclone and below a
truncated cone as shown in Figure 2.13. Feed initially enters into the section of the
cyclone above the truncated cone where primary classification takes place. The classified
coarse size fraction of the feed then enters the chamber below where tangential water
addition is used to displace the medium that entered in the feed stream and the
hydraulically entrained particles. In this way, the Cyclowash achieves a two-stage
classification in a single stage operation. Results of a parametric study conducted by
Honaker et al. (2001) revealed that use of the Cyclowash results in significant ultrafine
by-pass reduction. However, this reduction was accompanied by increased cutsize. The
performance provided by the Cyclowash also compared favorably with a conventional
10-cm cyclone at the same cutsize (Table 2.2)

Overflow

Vortex Finder
Feed Inlet

Truncated Cone
Water injection

Truncated Cone
Spigot

Underflow

Figure 2.13 Schematic diagram of the Krebs Cyclowash (Krebs, 2003).

Table 2.2 Comparison of conventional classifying cyclone and Cyclowash test results.

Parameter

D50C = 19 microns

D50C = 26 microns

Conventional

Cyclowash

Conventional

Cyclowash

Apex Diameter (cm)

1.75

1.27

1.75

2.54

Vortex Finder
Diameter (cm)

1.95

1.91

2.54

2.54

Feed Pressure (Kpa)

172

207

138

172

Truncated Cone
Diameter (cm)

1.91

2.54

Cyclowash Water
Rate (lpm)

31.0

46.5

By-pass (%)

35

19

15

Imperfection

0.404

0.411

0.399

0.324

The JK three-product cyclone is another innovative cyclone design developed and

tested by the Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Center (Obeng and Morrell, 2003). It
was designed with an aim to reduce the density effect in cyclones that results in small
dense particles reporting to the cyclone underflow. This effect, which has been observed
by researchers such as Lynch(1977), Plitt et al (1980), Firth et al (1998), Firth and
OBrien(2003), results in contamination of the cyclone product and overgrinding in ball
mill circuits. This cyclone makes use of both an inner and outer vortex finder in addition
to an apex to generate three products from a single cyclone. The internal vortex finder
descends some distance beyond the external vortex finder into the conical section of the
cyclone. The JK three product cyclone has a small apex that serves to limit the flow of
material out of the cyclone. The feed stream to the cyclone contains a relatively large
amount of solids. In tests conducted by Obeng and Morrell (2003) on a 15-cm threeproduct cyclone, a feed content of 52% solids by weight was used. This creates a high
solids concentration near the cyclone apex, which results in hindered settling conditions.
The coarse, dense particles are able to migrate to the apex as coarse product while a bed
of fine dense particles forms above them. The fine, dense particle bed is then carried

upwards by the vortex created by the inner vortex finder as inner overflow whilst the fine,
light particles are carried out through the outer vortex finder.

In addition to the aforementioned novel classifying cyclone designs previously

discussed, different cyclone circuits have also been tested to maximize classifying
cyclone efficiency. The circuits have primarily involved using two or more cyclones in
series whereby the underflow stream is retreated in subsequent stages. Results from a
classifying cyclone circuit achieving a particle size separation of about 100 m revealed a
60% decrease in ultrafine by-pass and 12% increase in classification efficiency when
using a circuit arrangement as compared to a single classifying cyclone unit (Firth and
OBrien, 2003).

2.2.3 Industrial Practice

Classification in industry may be used to produce a particular sized feed to the next
stage in a process or to generate saleable product. In the coal industry, fine particle
cleaning processes generally require pre-classification which is commonly achieved
using cyclones. These include spiral and flotation feeds as well as tailings material sent to
thickeners. The typical location of classifying cyclones within a coal cleaning circuit is
shown in Figure 2.14.

The cyclone underflow stream serves as the feed to the spiral circuit while the
overflow stream provides a fine sized feed to the froth flotation. Figure 2.15 represent a
classification circuit in which a two-stage cyclone arrangement is used to generate a
circuit product. The 38-cm diameter cyclone underflow stream is the feed to the spirals,
while the overflow serves as the feed to a two-stage 15-cm diameter classifying cyclone
circuit. The underflow of the primary 15-cm cyclone bank provides the feed to the
secondary cyclone.

Froth Flotation Cells

Circuit
Reject
Feed
38-cm
Classifying
Cyclone

Underflow

Spirals
Circuit
Product

Centrifugal
Dryer
Spiral
Product
Spiral Reject
Sieve
Bend

Oversize
Effluent

Undersize

Figure 2.14 Schematic flowsheet of a fine coal classifying circuit which uses classifying
cyclones, spirals and froth flotation.

Overflow

To
thickener

Overflow
Feed

15-cm
Classifying
Cyclone

38-cm
Classifying
Cyclone

Overflow

15-cm
Classifying
Cyclone

Underflow
1mm x 150 m

Spirals

Underflow
Spiral Product
Effluent

(a)
Spiral
Reject

Clean
Coal

Figure 2.15 Schematic diagram of a fine coal classifying circuit, which uses spirals, and
classifying cyclone circuit.

The primary cyclone overflow serves as the two-stage cyclone reject whilst the
secondary underflow is the circuit product. The purpose of the two-stage cyclone circuit
is to achieve a particle size separation of around 25 microns that would lead to the
generation of a clean coal product after dewatering.

2.2.4 Problems

Factors that can have a negative effect on classification performance are viscosity and
yield stress (Agar and Herbst, 1966; Klimpel, 1982, 1983; Kawatra et al., 1996). Both of
these factors increase sharply as the particle size decreases and particle population (solids
content) increases. Yield stress has the ability to prevent particles from moving
independently within a non-Newtonian fluid and may account for the by-pass of
ultrafines typically observed in classifying cyclones. Ultrafine particle suspensions
having solids contents as low as 10% by volume may be subject to yield stresses, which
may be overcome by applied vibration and chemical treatments. This by-pass is a result
of the inability of this fine material to move independently of the fluid medium. Hence,
fine particles are trapped by the water associated with the coarse product. Such particles
therefore report to the underflow of the cyclone without undergoing classification thereby
contaminating the coarse product. Particle density effects result in low-density coal
reporting to the overflow stream despite having a particle size that is greater than the
overall particle cutsize (D50).
This is because such particles have sufficient density to settle to the apex of the
cyclone and report with the coarse product. The turbulence and instability of flows within
cyclones also contribute to reduced efficiency. It is even more undesirable in settlers
since settlers require quiescent flow of water in order to achieve good separation.
Insufficient retention time also limits the ability of classifiers used in industry to achieve
optimum separations.

2.3 Potential Industrial Applications

Previous studies have found that density-based processes provide higher efficiencies
for treating coals with high middlings concentrations than froth floatation. However, the
ability of gravity separators to treat fine particles is limited by the lack of particle inertia
relative to the surface drag forces (Honaker et al, 1996). These surface drag forces can
however be overcome by the use of an enhanced gravitational field. Based on this
knowledge, several enhanced gravity separators capable of achieving density-based
separations on ultrafine particles have been developed and tested for their potential as
coal cleaning units. These centrifugal units include the Knelson and Falcon concentrators,
the Altair and Kelsey jigs and the Mozely Multi-Gravity separator. Among these
separators, the Falcon concentrator indicates the most potential for near term use in coal
processing plants.

The Falcon concentrator consists of vertically inclined, open-topped cylindrical bowl

supported on a revolving shaft (Figure 2.16). Feed slurry is introduced through a central
feed inlet to the bottom of the revolving bowl. An impeller propels the slurry to the walls
of the bowl and causes the differential acceleration of the particles within the slurry. As a
result, the particles stratify along the lower section of the bowl referred to as the
migration zone. Two force components govern particle movement within the
stratification zone. One of them is a strong concentrating gravity, which provides the
strong gravity forces while the other is a weak force parallel to the wall of the bowl that
moves particles upwards along the bowl surface. Thus, a particle layer is formed which is
composed of an outer layer of coarse and dense particles in contact with the bowl surface
and an inner layer of fine particles. The angle of inclination of the rotor surface changes
near the top of the he bowl making it parallel to the axis of rotation. This eliminates the
weak upwards driving force on the moving particle. As a result, dense and coarse
particles migrate into a slot, which exists around the circumference of the bowl where
they are withdrawn using pinch valves. Fine, light particles move with their previously
acquired momentum across the slots and report in the overflow stream as fines product.

Figure 2.16 Schematic illustration of the operating principles of the Falcon Concentrator
(Honaker et al, 1996)

Previous work done by Honaker et al(1996) on a 25-cm diameter Falcon concentrator

provided a low density cut point of 1.6 for a 210 x 37 m size fraction at feed rates of up
to 2.2 tonnes per hour. In addition, ash rejection values of between 60% to 75% at
combustion recovery values in excess of 85% and organic efficiencies of around 90%
were achieved. Ash rejection in the -37m fraction however was negligible suggesting
that the high centrifugal force provided by the Falcon concentrator was insufficient to
influence particle motion at such fine size ranges. Other enhanced gravity concentrators
have varying levels of efficiency in treating fine coal. Table 2.3 shows the performance
of various enhanced gravity separators for treating 210 x 37m particle size coal.

Table 2.3 Typical probable error values and specific gravity cut points achieved by
various enhanced gravity concentrators for the treatment of 210 x 37-m size fraction of
various coal samples (Honaker et al, 1996).
Parameter

Falcon

Knelson

MGS

Kelsey

Max. Centrifugal Force

300

60

30

60

Gravity Cur Point

1.5 - 1.8

1.9

2.1

2.0

Probable Error

0.10 - 0.15

0.10

0.10

0.12

The principles of density-based separators are well understood by plant operators,

which is in contrast to flotation. Given an effective unit, operators prefer the densitybased unit especially considering the differences in operating costs. However, an inherent
problem with enhanced gravity units is the recovery of colloidal particles in the clean
coal product stream, which significantly suppresses the product grade. An efficient
classifying performance would allow enhanced gravity units to produce a clean coal
product.

3. EXPERIMENTAL

3.1 Laboratory Classifying Circuit

The laboratory classifying cyclone circuit tests were conducted using a 10-cm
diameter Krebs classifying cyclone with a 5.5-cm2 inlet area, a 4-cm diameter vortex and
a 12-degree cone angle. Inlet pressure was maintained at 140 kPa. Three different apex
diameters of 1.27-cm, 1.66-cm and 2.05-cm were used under various test conditions
studied. Figure 3.1 is a schematic diagram of the experimental set-up used for the tests.
Both the overflow and underflow streams of the classifying cyclone were collected were
collected in the feed sump. A part of the cyclone feed was by-passed to the feed sump at
a high flowrate to enhance mixing within the sump through continuous agitation of the
feed sump contents.

During all tests, underflow and overflow samples were collected at precisely the same
time. A time interval of 15 minutes was allowed between sample collections to ensure
steady state conditions and to allow the complete dispersal of the added modifiers within
the slurry. The samples collected were analyzed for ash content using one gram
representative samples put through an ash furnace. The samples were also wet screened
or analyzed using a Cilas Quantum particle size analyzer to obtain the size distributions
of the feed, underflow and overflow material. These analyses were used to generate
partition curve data for the various test conditions.

The laboratory classifying cyclone tests was conducted in three phases. The initial
tests were conducted using a coal sample from an Illinois based processing plant that
treats Illinois No 6 coal. Upon arrival, the coal sample was crushed and screened to -150
m.

Overflow

Classifying
Cyclone

Underflow
Fine Coal

Feed Sump

Pump

Figure 3.1 Schematic diagram of the laboratory classifying-cyclone set-up.

A three-parameter Box-Behnken statistical experimental design was employed to

conduct a series of tests whose objectives were to:

Study the effect of three previously identified parameters namely the apex
diameter, feed solids concentration and dosage of the viscosity modifier on
classifying cyclone performance for treating fine coal using a range of parameter
values which were chosen with aim of providing measurable differences in the
response variables as shown in Table 3.1.

Obtain experimental data that could be used to develop a model, which describes
the effect of the aforementioned parameters on selected response variables used
to describe classifying cyclone performance.

The second phase of tests was conducted using samples of Illinois coal. The aim of
these tests was to investigate the effect of viscosity modifier type and their ability to
maintain a high level of classifying efficiency when the cyclone was operated under
roping or near roping conditions.

The third set of tests was conducted using feed slurry obtained from the Supreme
Energy Coal processing plant located in Knott County. In order to produce a high solids
content slurry, which could be used to prepare feed of different solids concentrations at
constant ash content to the classifying cyclone, the coal sample was taken through a first
stage of classification in the laboratory. This was done using a 10-cm classifying cyclone
fitted with a 1.27 cm apex at a feed pressure of 15psi (103 kPa). The cyclone underflow
was then collected and used to carry out the test work. Samples of this underflow product
were diluted and used to prepare feed slurry of different percent solids, which were used
as feed for different tests.

Table 3.1 Range of parameter values evaluated in the laboratory classification test
program.
Independent Variables
Apex diameter (cm)
Feed solids (%)
Viscosity modifier (Kg/t)

-1 level
12.7
5
0

Range
0 level
16.6
7.5
0.5

+1 Level
20.5
10
1

3.2 In-Plant Classifying Circuit

The in-plant classifying circuit tests were performed within the fine coal circuit at the
Supreme Energy coal processing plant located in Knott County in Eastern Kentucky. A
two-stage classifying cyclone circuit comprised of 15-cm diameter Krebs G-max
cyclones were installed and evaluated for the treatment of the overflow of a bank of
38-cm classifying cyclones (Figure 3.2). The 38 cm cyclones were used to effect a
150m (100 mesh) size cut from a nominal -1mm particle size coal .The 1mm x 0.15mm
size fraction reporting to the underflow was treated using spirals while the -0.15 mm size
fraction reporting to the cyclone overflow provided the feed to the 15-cm classifying
cyclone circuit.
Two U6-gMax cyclones were used in the primary cyclone stage. The goal of the
primary 15-cm diameter cyclones was to maximize the rejection of the -37 m material
to the overflow stream while recovering nearly 100% of the +37 m coal to the
underflow stream. The primary cyclone underflow stream was retreated in a Secondary
15-cm diameter gMax cyclone, which was operated to maximize the removal of the -37
m material from the final underflow product stream. The objective of the in-plant tests
was to produce a clean coal product by achieving an efficient 37 m separation. The
physical dimensions of the inlet and outlet ports of the G-max units used in this study as
well as the operating pressures are provided in Table 3.2.

Circuit Overflow
- 0.15 mm
- 1mm
Feed

15-cm G-max
Classifying
Cyclone

38-cm
Classifying
Cyclones
Dilution
Water

Feed
sump
Spiral Feed
1 x 0.15 mm

15-cm
G-max
Classifying
Cyclone

Circuit
Produc
t
Figure 3.2 Schematic flowsheet of the two-stage Classifying cyclone circuit set-up.

Table 3.2 Dimensions and operating conditions used in the study for the primary and
secondary classifying cyclones.
Parameter

Primary Cyclone

Secondary Cyclone

No. of U6-gMax Units

Inlet Area

9.7-cm2 (1.5-in2)

9.7-cm2 (1.5-in2)

Apex or Spigot Diameter

1.25-cm (0.5-in.) or 0.635-

0.635-cm (0.25-in)

cm (0.25-in)
Vortex Finder Diameter

5.1-cm (2.0-in)

3.8-cm (1.5-in)

Volumetric Feed Rate

42 m3/hr (185 gpm)

50 m3/hr (222 gpm)

Inlet Pressure

193 kPa (28 psi)

207 241 kPa (30 35 psi)

Incremental samples of all the different process streams were taken at 5-minute
intervals for a period of 30 minutes for each of the test conditions evaluated. To ensure
steady state conditions, a time interval of 30 minutes was allowed between subsequent
tests. Pulp density readings were measured using a Marcy Density gauge previously
calibrated to provide a reading of 1(one) for the density of water. Solid concentration was
determined from the weight of the slurry before and after filtering it and drying the filter
cake at 100c. The samples were then wet screened and the material in each size fraction
analyzed for ash content. Mineral matter content was estimated using the Parr formula.
Due to the high solid concentrations in the primary underflow stream, dilution water was
added in some tests prior to being fed to the secondary cyclone. However, the amount of
water could not be measured which resulted in the inability to quantify a circuit water
flow balance.

3.3 Classifying Efficiency Determination

Classifying cyclone performance is characterized by a partition curve obtained by

plotting the probability of particles to report to the underflow of the cyclone as a function
of particle size. The particle size analysis results obtained from the sample were used to
generate partition curves for the various test conditions evaluated. From these curves, the
cutsize ( d 50 ), corrected cutsize ( d 50( c ) ), imperfection value (I) and the ultrafine by-pass
associated with the classification were quantified.

d 50( c )
The cutsize is the particle size corresponding to the particle size, having a 50%
probability of reporting to the underflow stream. The corrected cutsize was determined
from the corrected curve which is developed by adjusting the actual partition values to
eliminate the effect of ultrafine by-pass using Equation 3.1., i.e.,

Y'

Y R1
1 R1 R2

(3.1)

in which Y' is the corrected partition number, Y is the actual partition number, R1 is the
fraction of ultrafine by-pass to the underflow stream and R2 is the fractional amount of
by-passed coarse particles to the overflow stream. The slope of the classification curve
describes the efficiency of the classification and is referred to as alpha value (). An
efficient classification is characterized by a high -value. Another efficiency
measurement is the imperfection value, (I) which is determined from the corrected
partition curve according to the following expression:

d 75 d 25
2d 50( c )

(3.2)

where d 75 and d 25 are the particle sizes that have a 75% and 25% chance of reporting to
the underflow stream. As such, a perfect separation corresponds to a value of zero (0) and
increases with declining efficiency. The yield to the underflow stream can be determined
based on ash analysis of the feed, underflow and overflow stream material using the
following relationship:

Yield (%)

o
x100
u o

(3.3)

where f , u and o are the ash contents of the feed, underflow and overflow respectively.

Other performance parameters used were combustible recovery R determined from

Equation 3.4 as:

o
Y
f

(3.4)

and volumetric yield to the underflow stream:

y volume

Qu f o

Qf
u o

(3.5)

where f , o and u are the pulp density values of the feed, overflow and underflow
streams, respectively. The pulp density values were determined using a Marcy density
gauge.

3.4 Coal Characteristics

The coal used for the first and second phase laboratory plant tests was obtained by
crushing and grinding run-of-mine coal obtained from the Illinois No.6 seam. The -100
mesh (-150 microns) coal was prepared using a laboratory jaw crusher and hammer mill.
The particle size weight and ash distribution of the coal are provided in Table 3.3.

The subsequent group of tests was conducted using coal obtained from the Supreme
Energy coal processing plant located in Knott County in Eastern Kentucky. Samples of
the feed to the two stage circuit was collected as a 5% solids content slurry ,which was
further classified using a 10-cm laboratory Krebs cyclone fitted with a 1.27 cm apex
from which a slurry of about 24 % solids was obtained after initial classification.

Particle size analyses of the feed samples were achieved by wet sieve analysis and the
data presented in Table 3.4.

Table 3.3 Particle size analysis of the phase 1 and 2 laboratory classifying cyclone tests
feed.
Weight
(%)

Ash
(%)

150 x 105

26.45

27.95

105 x 75

17.37

37.36

75 x 63

10.71

44.21

63 x 44

3.45

47.33

44 x 37

4.02

48.06

37 x 25

4.35

49.59

-25

33.65

66.47
46.71

Particle Size
(Microns)

100.00

Table 3.4 Particle size analysis of Phase 3 laboratory classifying cyclone tests feed.

Particle Size
(Microns)
+212

Weight
(%)
0.25

Ash
(%)
3.92

212 x 150

0.83

2.70

150 x 75

7.29

2.92

75 x 45

7.37

6.87

45 x 37

2.56

12.58

37 x 25

4.39

23.89

-25

77.32

69.84
56.12

100.00

The -500 mesh material contained 66% ash, which implied that the fraction has the
greatest amount of ash forming material. It was therefore realized that the solution to
generating a low ash product was the removal of this high ash content fraction by
achieving an efficient size separation. Further analysis of the size-by-size data indicated
that complete removal of this size fraction would generate a 9.4 % ash content product.

3.5 Viscosity Modification Tests

A major problem in ultrafine particle classification is the significant amount of

submicron particle by-pass to the coarse particle stream. The amount of solids reporting
to the underflow stream due to hydraulic entrainment is proportional to the amount of
water recovered. Submicron particle by-pass to the underflow stream can therefore be
reduced by decreasing water recovery. Past studies have shown that such a reduction can
be realized when the feed solids concentration is increased or the apex diameter is
reduced. However, both adjustments tend to have a negative impact on slurry rheology by
increasing viscosity. Slurry viscosity is known to have a negative impact on the
performance of classification processes (Laskowski, 2001). This results in an increase in
particle size cut point and negatively affects classification efficiency.

The classifying cyclone model developed by Bradley (1965) indicates that an increase
in viscosity elevates the particle size cutpoint (d50) as indicated by the expression:

d 50

Dc3

s
m

0.5

(3.6)

where is the medium viscosity, K a geometry constant, Dc cyclone diameter, Q feed

volumetric flow rate, s the solid density and m the apparent medium density. Several
other models also describe an increase in d50 as a function of the square root of medium
viscosity (Agar, 1996, Plitt 1980). Kawatra et al (1996) investigated the effect and found
that the relationship was 0.35 and, in subsequent studies, discovered that increasing the
medium temperature could counter the viscosity effect (Kawatra et al, 1988). A rise in

temperature however requires a large energy input that is generally not cost effective or
practical for commercial circuits. A more practical adjustment to a given classifying
cyclone would be to increase inlet pressure. However, the higher pressure would elevate
maintenance requirements and would not significantly negate the viscosity effect on
efficiency.

A more promising approach for reducing slurry viscosity is to employ a surfactant to

alter slurry rheology (Zaman et al., 2000). Previous studies conducted by Klimpel (1982,
1983) found that viscosity modifiers can reduce the cyclone separation cutsize (d50). This
approach can be particularly cost effective if the surfactant employed is already used by
downstream unit operations.

An investigation was performed to evaluate the feasibility of reducing hydraulic

entrainment to the underflow stream by minimizing water recovery and using viscosity
modifiers to counter the negative effects of high solid concentrations within the
separation zone of the classifying unit. This investigation was carried out as an integral
part of the laboratory classifying circuit tests previously described. The modifiers used
were sodium dodecyl sulphate and Nalco 9762 provided by Nalco Company Limited.
The amount of modifier was varied while also changing the feed solids concentration and
apex diameter according to a statistically designed test program in an effort to identify the
conditions providing the optimum classification performance.
.
The froth flotation tests followed a standard ASM procedure for determining flotation
rate. A laboratory Denver flotation unit with a 1-liter cell was used for the tests. The
feed solids concentration was 5% by weight. Methylisobutylcarbinol (MIBC) and fuel
were used as the frother and collector, respectively, at concentrations of 30 ppm and 1
lb/ton.

The viscosity of the feed slurry was measured using a Cannon LV-2000 Rotary
Viscometer. The system consists of a removable cylindrical spindle connected to a

measuring device and suspended at the axis and above the bottom of a hollow cylinder. A
spindle was used that allowed the detection of viscosity changes as low as 1 centipoise. A
rotational speed of 60 revolutions per minute was employed in all measurements. Upon
initiating spindle rotation, the dispersed sample was quickly transferred into the space
between the spindle and the cylinder. Each reading was taken five (5) seconds after the
introduction of the sample to ensure that all measurements were taken while the particles
were in complete suspension. The sample readings were reasonably stable, provided
good repeatability and provided sufficient basis for comparing the viscosities of the
different samples.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Classifying Cyclone Parameter Evaluation

Many parameters influence classifying cyclone performance. These include among

others, feed rate and feed percent solids, pressure drop, cyclone diameter, apex diameter
and vortex finder diameter. However, the aim of the classifying cyclone parameter
evaluation was to identify and evaluate the effect of parameters that could be easily
adjusted in an existing classifying circuit with minimum effort on the part of plant
operators. Feed percent solids and apex diameter were therefore chosen as the parameters
to be evaluated. Dosage of the viscosity modifier sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) was
also included in this study to determine the effect of changing viscosity on classification
performance.

The data obtained from the study is presented in Table 4.1. A general look at the data
suggests that increasing percent solids within the range studied decreased solids yield and
increased both cutsize and the imperfection value. This was due to the higher solids
population and the resulting hindered settling effect created within the cyclone as a result
of these conditions. The result was a decreased ability of fine particles to move to the
coarse product stream. The higher imperfection value was because of increased viscosity
and particle interaction effects occurring at high solids concentrations.

Decreasing feed solids concentration and increasing apex diameter resulted in a

general increase in both solids yield and a reduction in cutsize and imperfection value.
This was due to the reduction in viscosity and other effects under these conditions.
However, ultrafine particle by-pass to the underflow stream was increased as a result of
increased water recovery to the coarse product stream. The addition of viscosity modifier
resulted in a general reduction in cutsize, by-pass and imperfection with a corresponding
increase in yield. The decrease in cutsize is much more prominent in the higher solids
concentration and smaller apex diameter case with the addition of the viscosity modifier.

Table 4.1 Test results obtained from the experimental program evaluating the effect of
apex diameter, modifier addition and feed solids on classifying cyclone performance.

Test
No.

Apex
Diameter
(mm)

SDS
(kg/t)

Feed
Solids
(%)

d50(c)
(m)

Bypass
(%)

Imperfection

52.00

Yield to
Underflow
(%)
61.27

12.7

7.5

9.80

0.490

12.7

7.5

42.50

67.61

8.50

0.277

16.6

36.00

68.98

12.5

0.361

16.6

0.5

7.5

43.80

66.78

9.90

0.457

16.6

10

43.00

67.40

11.5

0.454

20.5

0.5

29.00

79.61

22.2

0.379

12.7

0.5

37.50

69.57

8.50

0.300

16.6

0.5

7.5

42.80

66.36

10.5

0.491

12.7

0.5

10

39.00

68.51

11.00

0.324

10

16.6

0.5

7.5

45.00

65.96

10.00

0.433

11

20.5

0.5

10

25.50

84.14

30.00

0.422

12

20.5

7.5

31.10

79.66

17.50

0.389

13

16.6

0.5

7.5

44.00

65.51

14.50

0.398

14

20.5

7.5

29.20

80.22

22.70

0.428

15

16.6

10

40.50

66.83

10.00

0.386

16

16.6

0.5

7.5

44.00

66.04

11.00

0.455

17

16.6

35.00

68.99

7.50

0.278

Previous research conducted by Williamson et al (1984), Williamson and Bott (1984)

as well as Kawatra et al (1988, 1996) support the above observations. It was proposed
that this reduction in cutsize was due to a reduction in the viscosity of the slurry that
enhanced particle movement relative to the fluid and allowed fine particles to move
outwards to the cyclone walls as well as improving their settling kinetics within the fluid.
As a result, the ability of fine particles to report to the apex of the cyclone was increased.

However, not all past research investigating the effect of viscosity observed the same
trends. Klimpel (1981, 1982) using an anionic polymer to modify pulp viscosity obtained
a small increase in cutsize with decreasing viscosity. This increase was due to particle
aggregation, which reduced particle population within the cyclone. Yopps (1986) and
Yopps et al (1987), on the other hand, did not observe any change in cutsize with
reducing viscosity. Therefore, the observed effects of viscosity modification might be
specific to the modifier.

The experimental results obtained from the statistical test program together with the
operating variable values were entered into a commercial statistical analysis software
package called Design Expert .This was used to develop empirical models that describe
the effect of the parameter values on the cutsize, solids yield to the underflow of the
cyclone, ultrafine by-pass and imperfection value.
.
The 17 tests that were conducted involved five repetitive tests (Test No. 4, 8, 10, 13,
and 16) which corresponded to the central parameter values. These values were used to
quantify the normal error associated with the experimental procedure and sample analysis
and show the degree of repeatability of the test results. Table 4.2 shows the variability in
the various response variables resulting from experimental error. The data revealed the
existence of a small degree of randomness in the measured response variables. This is
evident in the measured d50(c) values of tests 8 and 10, which marginally fall out of the
determined confidence interval corresponding to 43.92 m 0.97. The other measured
responses however show a lower degree of variability.

Table 4.2 Statistical evaluation of the experimental error realized from the Classifying
Cyclone parametric test.
Test Number

D50(c) (microns)

Yield (%)

By-pass (%)

Imperfection

43.80

66.78

9.90

0.457

42.80

66.36

10.50

0.491

10

45.00

65.96

10.00

0.433

13

44.00

65.51

14.50

0.398

16

44.00

66.04

11.11

0.455

Mean

43.92

66.13

11.18

0.4468

95 %
Confidence
Interval

0.97

0.59

2.37

0.0425

Quadratic expressions were found to be suitable for the prediction of the response
variables. The forms of the quadratic models for the various response variables
considered were:

d 50( c) 86.90 1143

. AD 25.63 MC 15.29 PS 0.47 AD 2 7.99 MC 2
117
. PS 2 0.97( AD)( MC) 0.21( AD)( PS ) 0.30( MC)( PS )

(4.1)

Bypass 11326
. 1169
. AD 1152
. MC 501
. PS 0.36 AD 2 8.21MC 2

0.20 PS 2 083
. ( AD)( MC) 014
. ( AD)( PS ) 0.70( MC)( PS )

(4.2)

Imperfection 0.59 0.061AD 0.54MC 0.15PS 0.0021AD 2

0.0750 MC 2 0.0093PS 2 0.032( AD)( MC)

(4.3)

in which AD is apex diameter in millimeters (mm), MC modifier concentration in

kilograms per tonne (kg/t) and PS the feed solids concentration by weight (%).

To develop a statistical model, it is first necessary to prove that the observed results
are a direct product of the changing parametric values rather than experimental error.
This suggests that the variances associated with experimental procedures should be less
than the variance in the response variables for all tests. Anything other than this would
render the model meaningless. Evaluating the effects of parameter changes on a response
variable involves the use of the F-statistic. The F-statistic is used to test the null
hypothesis that the variance observed for all tests can be explained by pure error variance
and is expressed as:
SS yy
F

df r
SSE

(4.4)

df e

where SS yy is the sum of squares residuals for the response variables, df r the degrees of
freedom associated with the calculation of SS yy , SSE is the sum of squares of the
experimental error and df e is the degrees of freedom associated with the determination of
the SSE value which is obtained by subtracting the number of measured
responses(n=17), from the parameters(k=9). In order for the model to be accepted, the
null hypothesis should be rejected. The calculated F-value is therefore compared to an
F0.05, which corresponds to the 95% confidence interval for the calculated value. The Fvalue is determined from the F-Table for (k=9) and (n-k+1). If the F-value exceeds the
calculated F0.05, the model is accepted. All the F-values shown in Table 4.3 are greater
than the calculated F-value of 3.68 determined from the models considered and therefore
the models were considered adequate.

The model was also tested using the probability Prob >F value, which represents the
probability of falsely rejecting the null hypothesis and is used as the indicator of level of
significance.

Table 4.3 ANOVA table generated for the response variables associated with the
laboratory classifying cyclone tests.
Degree of

Source

Freedom

F Value

Prob > F

R2

Adjusted
R2

By-pass Model
Model

8.33

<0.0053

Lack of Fit

3.46

0.1307

0.92

0.81

0.88

0.78

0.98

0.96

Imperfection Model
Model

9.32

<0.0017

Lack of Fit

0.76

0.6210

Cut Point Model

Model

49.13

<0.0001

Lack of Fit

6.64

0.0535

Low Prob > F values correspond to a lower probability of falsely rejecting the null
hypothesis and hence suggest a strong relationship between the parameter changes and
the response variables. Prob > F values around 0.10 or less are associated with terms
which that are considered to have a significant effect on the response variable. As shown
in Table 4.3, all the models had Prob > F values less than 0.10 suggesting a strong
relationship between the parameter effects and response variables.

The significance of the parametric effects and associated interactions can be

determined by using the model lack of fit test, which tests the null hypothesis that
coefficients present in the model are all equals to zero. The test statistic employed for this
analysis can be described as:
SSE
F

SSR

n k 1

(4.5)

where SSE is the model sum of squares ,SSR the sum of squares of the residuals, n is the
number of data points and k the number of model parameters. For a model to pass the
lack of fit test, the calculated F-value should be less than the F0.05. The F-value is
determined from the F-table for n-k-m (3) and m-1(4) degrees of freedom. The calculated
F-values for the by-pass and imperfection were less than 6.59 with high Prob > F
suggesting adequate model fit. Some outliers were discovered during the analysis of the
cutpoint model which resulted in an F-value of 28.70 and a low Prob > F-value of 0.0036
suggesting some lack of fit. However, when the data was re-analyzed without the two
outliers, the model provided a better fit and the lack-of-fit significance disappeared. The
yield to underflow model however, did not pass the lack of fit test and is thus not
presented as a viable model for prediction in this study.

A measure of the ability of a model to accurately predict the response parameter

values is the coefficient of determination, R 2

value. The R 2 value was determined

using the following expression:

R2 1

^
yi

y y
i

(4.6)

where yi is the observed value, y is the predicted response variable value for each test

and y is the mean experimental value obtained from all available data. An R 2 value of
1.0 means that 100 % of the response parameter variability within the range of parameter
values tested can be explained by or more of the parameters and parameter interactions
considered in the model. As shown in Table 4.3 the by-pass, imperfection and cutsize
models have high R 2 values of 0.92, 0.88 and 0.98 respectively.

A high R 2 value, however, does not adequately quantify the ability of the model to
predict the response variable. This is because the R 2 value can be high due to the
presence of added parameters or interaction terms that do not contribute to the models

ability to predict. The adjusted coefficient of determination Radj 2 is to account for the
presence of excessive terms within the model and is calculated as:

Radj 2 1

n 1
1 R2

n k 1

(4.7)

where n is the number of data points and k the number of parameters in the model. It is
evident from Eq.(4.7) that Radj 2 must always be always less than R 2 with a high relative
difference between the two values indicating the presence of excess parameters. As
shown in Table 4.3 the Radj 2 values were 0.81, 0.78 and 0.96 for the by-pass,
imperfection and cut point models respectively, which are considered reasonable. As
shown in Figures 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 the final models obtained provided good prediction of
the experimental data.

The significance of a model parameter is indicated by Prob > F-values less than 0.100.
As such, the values in Table 4.4 indicate that the viscosity modifier has a significant
effect in the determination of the particle cutpoint (d50(c)) and the classification efficiency
as measured by the imperfection value. A significant interactive effect was noted between
modifier concentration and apex diameter, which is likely due to the apex diameter effect
on the underflow solids concentration. Interestingly the modifier did not interact with
feed solids concentration in the same significant manner. The reason may be that the
change in apex diameter in the test program resulted in a greater range of underflow
solids concentrations as compared to the fairly narrow range of feed solid concentrations.
However, both apex diameter and feed solids concentration were found to have a
significant effect on particle cutsize. In terms of ultrafine by-pass reduction, only apex
diameter had a statistically significant effect.

As shown in Table 4.4 some variables in the imperfection model where considered
insignificant and thus where removed in order to arrive at the final model presented in
this study.

Table 4.4 Classification performance models and associated model fitness values;
AP=apex diameter,MC=viscosity modifier concentration and PS=feed solids
concentration by weight.
Parameter

By-pass (%)

Imperfection

Cut Point (m)

F Value

Prob > F

F Value

Prob > F

F Value

Prob > F

8.33

0.0053

9.32

0.0017

42.68

< 0.0001

AP

49.85

0.0002

6.32

0.0331

228.60

< 0.0001

MC

0.11

0.7466

12.96

0.0058

15.74

0.0074

PS

2.33

0.1709

8.81

0.0157

26.88

0.0020

AP2

17.02

0.0044

4.27

0.0687

98.44

< 0.0001

MC2

2.37

0.1674

1.44

0.2612

7.53

0.0335

PS2

0.88

0.3803

14.09

0.0045

100.50

< .00010

AP x MC

1.41

0.2733

15.58

0.0034

8.19

0.0287

AP x PS

0.94

0.3647

4.94

0.0679

MC x PS

0.41

0.5425

0.32

0.5927

Lack of fit

3.46

0.1307

6.64

0.0535

Intercept

0.76

0.6210

Simulations of the various parameter effects represented by Figures 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6
showed that the response variables were dependent on the parameters considered and
revealed the trends in the effects of the parameters on classifying cyclone performance.
As shown in Figure 4.4 decreasing apex diameter had a positive effect in limiting
ultrafine particle by-pass. Ultrafine by-pass decreased from about 28% to 11% with
decreasing apex diameter within the range of 13-mm to 21-mm considered in the model.

Predicted D50 (m)

52.00

45.38

38.75

32.13

25.50
25.50

32.13

38.75

45.38

52.00

Actual D50 (m)

Figure 4.1 Comparison of the experimental and empirical models for cutsize(D50).

Predicted Bypass (%)

30.00

23.96

17.92

11.89

5.85
5.85

11.89

17.92

23.96

30.00

Actual Bypass (%)

Figure 4.2 Comparison of the experimental and empirical models for ultrafine by-pass.

Predicted Imperfection

0.49

0.43

0.38

0.32

0.26
0.26

0.32

0.38

0.43

0.49

Actual Imperfection

Figure 4.3 Comparison of the experimental and empirical models for imperfection.

This finding was in agreement with fundamental knowledge and was due to the
reduced water recovery to the classifying cyclone underflow. Increasing solids
concentration and decreasing apex diameter both have the negative effect of increasing
particle cutsize. However, due to the greater range of change in underflow solids
concentration with changing apex size than to changing feed solids concentration the
effect of changing apex diameter was more pronounced (Figure 4.5). Furthermore,
reducing apex diameter as shown in Figure 4.6 had the added effect of depreciating
classification efficiency. In a subsequent section of this thesis, the addition of a viscosity
modifier to eliminate or reduce the negative impacts of a decreasing apex diameter will
be discussed in greater detail.

28

Bypass (%)

23
18
14
9

10

Fe
ed
S

21

oli
ds

19
8

Co
n

m)
m
(
r

17
6

c.(
%
)

15
5

13

ex
Ap

ete
m
a
Di

Figure 4.8 Simulated results for ultrafine by-pass.

D50(c) (Microns)

52
46
39
32
26

21

Apex 19 17
Diam
15
eter
(mm
)

13

10

Feed

c.
Con
s
d
i
So l
8

Figure 4.4 Simulated results for cutsize.

(%)

Imperfection

0.48
0.42
0.37
0.32
0.26

0.00

Mo

13
0.25

dif
ier

)
mm
(
r

15
0.50

Co
nc 0.75
. (k
g/t
o

17

19
1.00

n)

21

e
Ap

ete
am
i
xD

Figure 4.6 Simulated results for imperfection.

4.2 Classifying Circuit Evaluation

4.2.1

Operation Condition Effects

Based on the results from the parametric study, two classifying cyclone parameters
were selected for further study. Since this phase of the test work involved in-plant
studies, it was important that the selected operating parameters be easily controlled in an
operating plant environment. As a result, feed percent solids and apex diameter as well as
two different in-plant classification circuits were selected as the parameters to be tested.
Viscosity modifier concentration was not studied due to concerns regarding the effects on
downstream processes.

Prior to performing the in-plant circuit study, preliminary tests were conducted in the
laboratory using a 10-cm classifying cyclone to obtain results that were used to guide the

in-plant test program. Figure 4.7 shows the partition curves obtained from the laboratory
classification tests using feed coal obtained from the Knott County Coal processing plant
under different operating conditions. Solids concentration to the classifying cyclone was
varied at 5% and 10% solids by weight using two apex diameters of 1.27-cm and
1.66-cm. As shown in Figure 4.8, lower cutsizes of 20 m and 36 m where achieved
using the 5% solids as compared to the 30 m and 73 m values obtained when
employing 10% feed solids feed content for apex diameters of 1.66-cm and 1.27-cm,
respectively. Cutsize also increased for the same feed solids concentrations when apex
diameter was reduced from 1.66-cm to 1.27-cm. This was due to higher solids population
at the cyclone apex under both high solids content and reduced apex conditions resulting
in increased viscosity effects and an elevated hindered settling environment. These
conditions resist particle movement within the slurry and favor the settling of coarse
particles.

Ultrafine by-pass decreased with an increase in feed solids concentration and a

decrease in apex diameter. Ultrafine by-pass values of 27% and 11% were achieved at
5% solids feed concentration when using 1.66-cm and 1.27-cm apex, respectively, while
values of 15% and 9% were obtained for the same apex diameters at 10% feed solids
concentration. Imperfection at 5% solids increased from 0.49 to 0.53 as apex diameter
was reduced thereby indicating a suppressed classification efficiency. This trend however
was not observed at 10% solids where imperfection reduced from 0.64 to 0.46 at 10%.
As expected, the changes in operating conditions also affected the yield of solids to the
underflow stream. Yield decreased with an elevation in feed solids concentration from
75.4% to 69.8 % with the 1.66-cm apex and 70.9% to 51.9% using the 1.27-cm apex. A
comparison of these values also reveals that yield was depressed with a decrease in apex
diameter. A summary of the results obtained from laboratory testing is presented in
Table 4.5.

100

Partition Value (%)

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
1.66-cm Apex
1.27-cm Apex

20
10
0
1

10

100

1000

Particle Size (Microns)

100

(b)

90

Partition Value (%)

80
70
60
50
40
30
20

1.66-cm Apex
1.27-cm Apex

10
0
1

10

100

1000

Particle Size (Microns)

Figure 4.7 Performance curves showing the effect of apex diameter on classifying
cyclone performance under (a) 5% and (b) 10% feed solids concentration by weight.

(a)

100

Partition Value (%)

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20

10% Feed Solids

5% Feed Solids

10
0
1

10

100

1000

Particle Size (Microns)

(b)

100

Partition Value (%)

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10% Feed Solids
5% Feed Solids

10
0
1

10

100

1000

Particle Size (Microns)

Figure 4.8 Performance curves showing the effect of solids concentration on classifying
cyclone performance using (a) 1.27-cm and (b) 1.66-cm apex diameters.

Table 4.5 Laboratory classifying cyclone test results showing the effect of feed solids
concentration and apex diameter.
Percent Solids by
weight (%)

10

Apex Diameter (cm)

1.66

1.27

1.66

1.27

Cutsize (m)

20

36

30.

73

By-pass (%)

27

11

15.

Imperfection

0.49

0.53

0.64

0.46

Yield (%)

75.4

70.9

69.8

51.9

The conditions evaluated under the laboratory tests conditions were repeated in an inplant study conducted on a two-stage 15-cm classifying circuit. Two apexes with
diameters measuring 0.64-cm and 1.5-cm were evaluated under varying rates of dilution
water addition to the feed to the secondary cyclone in two different circuitry
arrangements. The circuitry arrangements involved one in which the secondary cyclone
overflow was recycled back to the feed to the primary cyclone and another case when
there was no recycle.

The feed to the circuit was the overflow of a bank of 38-cm classifying cyclones,
which was used to achieve a 150 m separation. The goal of the primary 15-cm diameter
cyclone in this circuit was to maximize the rejection of the -37 m material to the
overflow stream, while recovering nearly 100% of the +37 m coal to the underflow
stream. The primary cyclone underflow stream was retreated in a secondary 15-cm
diameter cyclone, which was operated to provide a near complete removal of the -37 m
material from the final underflow product stream. To minimize ultrafine by-pass due to
entrainment, water recovery to the underflow was restricted by the use of a 1.27-cm
diameter apex, which is significantly smaller than the typical size.

The feed pressure to each cyclone was maintained at around 160 kPa. The initial test
performed on the circuit did not add dilution water to any process stream within the
circuit. As a result, the feed stream to the secondary cyclone, which was supplied by the
primary underflow, had a relatively high solids concentration of 23.59% by weight.

As shown in Table 4.6, the ash content was reduced significantly from 47.14% in the
feed to 28.65% in the circuit product stream, which is the secondary cyclone underflow.
With a mass yield to the secondary underflow of about 34%, the amount of ash material
rejected to the circuit reject stream (i.e., primary overflow) was about 79% of the total
that entered in the circuit feed. The overall corrected cutsize, D50(c) for the circuit
determined from partition curve data shown in Figure 4.9(a) and (b) was about 37 m
with an imperfection value of approximately 0.473. This represented an efficiency
improvement of about 14% over that of the primary cyclone, which had an efficiency of
0.549. The corresponding increase in the -value was from 2.00 to 2.32. In addition,
ultrafine by-pass was reduced significantly from about 25% to less than 9%. As such, the
objective of obtaining a 37m cutsize was achieved.

Although the D50(c) achieved was very close to the target cutsize and the ash reduction
was significant, two concerns were identified. A density differential effect had a
significant impact on the final product ash content. The density effect is evident in Table
4.6 by the elevated ash contents in the 44 x 37 m, 37 x 25 m and -25 m particle size
fractions from the initial feed to the primary underflow and the secondary underflow.
Somewhat unexpected was the magnitude of the increase in the -25 m fraction from
65.38% to 89.14%.

Table 4.6 Two-stage classifying cyclone circuit with no secondary cyclone feed dilution data.

Feed
Particle Size
(m)
Wgt (%) Ash (%)

Primary
Underflow
Wgt (%) Ash (%)

Secondary
Underflow
Wgt (%) Ash (%)

Primary
Overflow
Wgt (%) Ash (%)

Secondary
Overflow
Wgt (%) Ash (%)

+ 212

0.60

2.93

1.26

2.33

1.79

2.72

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

212 x 150

2.16

1.94

5.08

1.78

5.91

2.08

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

150 x 75

13.04

2.48

25.13

2.34

39.46

2.65

0.53

3.16

5.84

2.30

75 x 44

9.52

5.90

20.24

6.72

23.67

8.14

2.84

1.85

1.51

1.56

44 x 37

4.44

13.29

5.20

19.35

6.14

27.80

2.69

3.79

6.17

3.15

37 x 25

5.14

23.87

6.89

36.33

6.75

61.43

3.95

4.48

6.21

5.53

-25

65.08

60.97

36.20

66.78

16.28

83.82

89.99

58.58

80.27

56.96

Total

100.00

42.44

100.00

29.75

100.00

22.64

100.00

53.06

100.00

46.42

Solids (%)

6.37

14.48

43.21

3.09

1.17

100

(a)

90

Partition Value (%)

80
70
60
50
40
30

Primary Cyclone

20

Secondary Dilution
No dilution Secondary

10
0
1

10

100

1000

Particle Size (Microns)

(b)

100
90

Partition Value (%)

80
70
60
50
40
30

Primary Cyclone

20

Secondary Dilution

10

No dilution Secondary

0
1

10

100

1000

Particle Size (Microns)

Figure 4.9 Classification performance curves based on (a) actual data and (b) corrected
values obtained from the primary cyclone and the circuit with and without dilution.

This finding indicates that the ultrafine, high-density particles have adequate mobility
to concentrate toward the apex area of the cyclone. The unfortunate result is that the
product ash content of the circuit product is sensitive to the incremental recovery of the
finest fractions. It is believed that the high ultrafine by-pass amounts realized from the
secondary cyclone was due to the high feed solid concentration, which provided an
elevated viscosity environment and hindered-settling conditions throughout the cyclone.
Under typical conditions, the recovery of the hydraulically, entrainable solids to the
underflow stream is limited as a result of an inward movement of fluid toward the center
of the cyclone as a result of coarse particles reporting to the outer cyclone wall. Under
hindered-settling conditions, the amount of solids moving toward the cyclone wall and,
thus to the apex, reduces. As a result, the amount of ultrafine by-pass increases. Based on
this hypothesis, the feed solids concentration to the secondary cyclone was reduced by
the addition of water into the process stream.

As shown in Table 4.7, the solids concentration of the secondary feed was reduced
from 23.59% to 14.48% as a result of the water injection. This resulted in a reduction in
the product ash to 22.64%. The amount of ash rejected to the circuit tailings was
improved to 81% while the mass yield to the circuit product slightly increased to 34.9%.
Figure 4.9 shows that the overall classification performance of the circuit resulted in a
D50(c) of about 37 m and an improved classification performance relative to the no
dilution circuit represented by an imperfection value of 0.466 and -value of 2.36 while
still maintaining a low ultrafine by-pass value of less than 9%. Thus, the primary goal of
achieving a 37m cutsize from the two-stage circuit was achieved. Furthermore ultrafine
particle by-pass was reduced to below 10%. It was also evident that circuit with the
secondary feed dilution was the more efficient circuit, likely due to a higher degree of
particle free settling. However, approximately 6 weight units of + 25 micron (+500 mesh)
material with an ash content less than 4% reported to the cyclone overflow stream which
would be rejected to the fine coal waste stream in a typical operating plant. This
observation is critical for a number of plants that are currently using a single stage of
classifying cyclones to deslime flotation feed.

Table 3.7 Two-stage classifying cyclone circuit with secondary cyclone feed dilution data.

Feed
Particle Size
(m)
Wgt (%) Ash (%)

Primary
Underflow
Wgt (%) Ash (%)

Secondary
Underflow
Wgt (%) Ash (%)

Primary
Overflow
Wgt (%) Ash (%)

Secondary
Overflow
Wgt (%) Ash (%)

+ 212

0.60

2.55

1.33

2.36

2.12

2.41

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

212 x 150

2.69

1.69

6.16

1.75

10.04

1.74

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

150 x 75

11.69

2.68

27.67

2.73

43.79

2.88

0.71

3.09

3.39

1.81

75 x 44

9.34

7.93

17.13

9.32

13.61

14.46

3.50

2.24

19.47

2.12

44 x 37

3.35

16.27

5.11

28.57

4.76

58.50

2.17

3.14

5.93

4.37

37 x 25

5.24

30.90

6.82

51.84

8.21

83.26

3.72

6.00

7.13

9.36

-25

67.09

65.38

35.78

72.22

17.47

89.14

89.90

62.53

64.08

63.30

Total

100.00

47.14

100.00

33.33

100.00

28.65

100.00

56.61

100.00

41.96

Solids (%)

8.02

23.59

51.21

86

5.28

3.41

The economical significance can be realized by considering a 1000 tph plant being fed
coal containing 8% -150 micron (-100 mesh) material. Using a 15-cm (6-in) diameter
Gmax cyclone under the same conditions of this study would result in a loss of nearly 5
tph of 4% ash coal. Assuming 5000 hrs annually for plant operating time and a sales
price of $50/ton, the annual revenue loss is $1.25 million. A previous study found that the
addition of a classifying cyclone to retreat the primary overflow stream has the potential
to recover a significant portion of the by-passed coal (Firth and OBrien, 2003).

When the circuit was operated without the recycle stream very little change in
performance was observed. This finding was in contrast to fundamental predictions
provided by classifying cyclone circuit simulation studies conducted by Honaker et al
(2006) which indicate that circuits which do not incorporate recycle streams have lower
efficiencies than circuits that do. However, the higher feed pressure to the secondary
cyclone may have provided a near 100% recovery of the particles having a size greater
than about 40 microns to the underflow stream.

As such, recycling would not be

beneficial to circuit performance.

The overall classification performance of the circuit resulted in a D50(c) of about 40 m
and an imperfection, -value and by-pass values of 0.394, 2.78 and 9% respectively. A
relatively small increase in the corrected particle cutsize was realized, i.e., 35 to 40
microns for the no-recycle circuit. As shown in Table 4.8, product ash was reduced from
43.09% to 22.73%. The tailings ash rejection was 79.4% while the mass yield to the
circuit product was slightly reduced to 33.9%.

The overall reduction in ash content did not meet the targeted goal despite the
achievement of a particle cutsize of 37 microns, excellent ultrafine classification
efficiency and a relatively low ultrafine by-pass amount of 9%. Two reasons accounted
for this. These included the recovery of a significant amount of -25 micron (-500 mesh)
material into the secondary underflow stream and a solid density effect on classification
performance as previously described.
89

Table 4.8 Two-stage classifying cyclone circuit with secondary cyclone feed dilution and no recycle data.

Particle
Size
(m)

Primary
Secondary
Primary
Secondary
Underflow
Underflow
Overflow
Overflow
Wgt (%) Ash (%) Wgt (%) Ash (%) Wgt (%) Ash (%) Wgt (%) Ash (%) Wgt (%) Ash (%)
Feed

+ 212

0.55

2.63

1.27

2.28

1.93

3.64

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

212 x 150

1.96

1.64

4.24

1.95

6.64

1.98

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

150 x 75

13.11

2.42

29.07

2.47

40.09

2.48

0.69

2.32

1.79

2.17

75 x 44

10.24

6.27

19.54

7.00

22.26

7.84

3.43

2.24

5.60

2.43

44 x 37

3.18

13.01

5.75

20.48

6.32

31.32

2.75

6.41

4.72

3.30

37 x 25

5.06

23.87

6.22

40.39

4.62

61.08

3.56

5.07

6.21

6.32

-25

65.91

61.39

33.91

66.88

18.14

82.59

89.56

59.77

81.67

58.42

Total

100.00

42.68

100.00

28.90

100.00

22.73

100.00

53.13

100.00

48.43

Solids (%)

6.38

15.41

40.51

89

4.10

0.90

The recovery of ultrafine material to the underflow stream of a classifying cyclone is

typically described to occur as a result of hydraulic entrainment. However, it is apparent
from the data obtained that true classification occurs on a portion of the -25 micron
material. The ash content of this fraction increased from around 60.97% in the feed to
83.82% in the secondary cyclone underflow. In fact, the ash contents of all particle size
fractions below 75 microns increased in the same manner. The elevated ash contents
played a significant role in limiting the ability to achieve an acceptable product ash value.
If the ash contents for each size fraction in the secondary underflow stream were the
same as those in the feed, the circuit product ash content would be 14.9% rather than
22.6%, which would likely be acceptable after drying using a screen-bowl centrifuge
assuming an additional loss of -25 micron material through the process.

In an effort to reduce ultrafine by-pass from the overall circuit, the apex size on the
primary cyclone unit was reduced from 1.27-cm (0.5-in) to 0.635-cm (0.25-in). Water
recovery and thus hydraulic entrainment to the underflow stream of the primary cyclone
was significantly reduced. Figure 4.10 shows that the ultrafine by-pass was decreased
from the 25% value obtained from the primary cyclone using the larger apex to 14%.As a
result, the amount of by-pass achieved from the 2-stage circuit without recycle reached a
low value of 6% while recycling produced a by-pass of 9%. In this case, however, the
recycling of the secondary cyclone overflow stream to the circuit feed had a significant
impact on circuit efficiency.

The imperfection and -values for the 2-stage circuit without recycle were 0.47 and
2.32, while the imperfection and values for the circuit with recycle were 0.41 and 2.67
respectively, which is a 15% efficiency improvement. The particle cutsize was 37
microns for the circuit with recycle and 56 microns without recycle, which is a negative
impact associated with the no recycle circuit.

89

100

(a)

2-Stage with Recycle Primary

Probability to Underflow (%)

90
2-Stage Circuit with Recycle
80
2-Stage Circuit without Recycle
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1

10

100

1000

Particle Size (microns)

(b) 100
2-Stage with Recycle Primary

90

Probability to Underflow (%)

2-Stage Circuit with Recycle

80
2-Stage Circuit without Recycle
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1

10

100

1000

Particle Size (microns)

Figure 4.10 Classification performance curves based on (a) actual values and (b)
corrected values for two-stage classifying cyclone with 0.635 cm apex in primary and
secondary cyclone.
90

The particle cutsize and the classification efficiency provided by using a smaller apex
in the primary cyclone were nearly equal to those obtained by the larger apex and the
amount of ultrafine was significantly reduced. The expectation from the performance
improvement was a decrease in the circuit ash content reporting from the secondary
cyclone underflow stream. However, the circuit ash content increased to around 29.00%
in both cases as shown in Tables 4.9 and 4.10. This finding was due to an elevation in the
amount of -25 micron material in circuit feed, a greater quantity of mineral matter in the
same size fraction and thus an increase in the overall feed ash content to 57.33%.

Table 4.9 Particle size-by-size analysis data of overall circuit process stream samples
obtained using an apex diameter of 0.635 cm in the primary and secondary classifying
cyclones with no recycle.

Feed

Circuit Product

Circuit Reject

Size
Fraction
(microns)

Wgt %

Ash %

Wgt %

Ash %

Wgt %

Ash %

+ 212

0.25

3.92

3.64

8.64

0.00

0.00

212 x 150

0.83

2.70

5.10

6.66

0.00

0.00

150 x 75

7.29

2.92

32.90

4.20

0.57

2.26

75 x 45

7.37

6.87

24.04

10.31

3.49

2.79

45 x 36

2.56

12.58

6.72

33.88

2.45

4.56

36 x 25

4.39

23.89

6.58

65.53

3.03

7.32

-25

77.32

69.84

21.02

86.98

90.46

68.72

Total

100.00

56.12

100.00

29.39

100.00

62.61

91

Table 4.10 Particle size-by-size analysis data of overall circuit process stream samples
obtained using an apex diameter of 0.635 cm in the primary and secondary classifying
cyclones with recycle.

Feed

Circuit Product

Circuit Reject

Size
Fraction
(microns)

Wgt (%)

Ash (%)

Wgt (%)

Ash (%)

Wgt (%)

Ash (%)

+ 212

0.24

3.61

1.12

4.36

0.00

0.00

212 x 150

0.72

2.48

3.29

3.32

0.00

0.00

150 x 75

6.46

2.78

29.20

2.88

0.29

2.40

75 x 45

7.72

6.28

27.81

7.71

2.19

2.76

45 x 36

3.71

12.40

7.08

22.36

1.72

4.02

36 x 25

3.18

24.11

6.98

52.49

3.21

6.51

-25

77.97

71.07

24.52

85.20

92.58

70.46

Total

100.00

57.33

100.00

29.28

100.00

65.58

The ash rejection achieved by the circuit was increased to slightly over 90% but the
recovery of ultrafine material and the density effect resulted in the high circuit product
ash value. The overall mass yield to the secondary cyclone underflow was 19.5% with no
recycle and 22.7% with recycle, which is lower than the previously reported values in
earlier sections of this document, due in part, to the higher amounts of mineral matter in
the feed.

As shown in Figure 4.10, the use of a 0.635-cm (0.25-in) diameter apex in the primary
and secondary cyclones provided lower circuit ultrafine by-pass values in the range of
6-7% as compared to 9-10% obtained using a 1.27-cm (0.50-in) in the primary cyclone
apex and 0.635-cm (0.25-in) apex in the secondary unit. Also, a slightly higher
classification efficiency was realized using the smaller apex. The lower yield and
92

elevated ash rejection values are reflective of a greater amount of -25 micron mineral
matter in the feed coal as compared to the feed coal provided during the tests involving
the 1.27-cm (0.5-in) diameter apex.

A study to investigate the effect of varying the level of feed dilution to the secondary
classifying cyclone was incorporated into test program. The classification performance
curves shown in Figure 4.11 indicate that diluting the feed to the secondary cyclone
provided a better classification performance and a lower separation cutsize than when no
dilution water was added. This was likely due to an improved degree of free settling
among the particles at the lower solids concentration as well as reduced viscosity effects.

Performance comparisons of the various circuits and conditions studied is provided in

Table 4.11. As shown in Table 4.11, the use of a 0.635-cm (0.25-in) diameter apex in the
primary and secondary cyclones tended to provide lower ultrafine by-pass and slightly
higher classification efficiency. The lower yield and elevated ash rejection values are
reflective of a greater amount of -25 micron mineral matter in the feed coal as compared
to the feed coal provided during the tests involving the 1.27-cm (0.5-in) diameter apex.

93

Partition Number

(a) 100
90

Medium Dilution With Recycle

80

Medium Dilution No Recycle

High Dilution With Recycle

70

High Dilution No Recycle

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1

10

100

1000

Particle Size (microns)

(b) 100
Medium Dilution With Recycle

90

Medium Dilution No Recycle

Partition Number

80

High Dilution With Recycle

70

High Dilution No Recycle

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1

10

100

1000

Particle Size (microns)

Figure 4.11 Classification performance curves based on (a) actual values and (b)
corrected values achieved using an apex diameter of 0.635-cm for different two-stage
classifying cyclone circuit configurations at different dilution levels.
94

Table 4.11 Summary of classification circuit performances achieved under various

operating conditions.
Apex
Diameter
(primary x
secondary)

0.5 x 0.25

0.25 x 0.25

Classification Performance
Condition

By-Pass
(%)
Value

Circuit
U/F
Yield
( %)

Circuit
Ash
Reject
(%)

D50(c)
microns

Imp.
Value

Primary Only

35

0.549

2.00

25

45.5

68.1

Dilution-No
Recycle

40

0.394

2.78

10

34.9

81.6

DilutionRecycle

37

0.466

2.36

34.9

81.4

No DilutionRecycle

37

0.473

2.32

33.9

79.4

Primary Only

35

0.497

2.21

14

26.4

81.1

High Dilution Recycle

37

0.387

2.84

22.4

88.8

Med. Dilution Recycle

56

0.334

3.29

15.1

90.1

Hi DilutionNo
Recycle

47

0.386

2.84

19.3

90.6

Med. Dilution
No Recycle

50

0.359

3.07

21.0

88.9

4.2.2 Coal and Mineral Matter Partitioning

To provide a clearer understanding of the particle density effect, the data the data
obtained from the various tests were used to determine the mineral matter and coal
distributions and subsequently their respective classification partitioning. Mineral matter
content for each size fraction was estimated using the Parr formula defined as:
MineralMatter (%) 108
. Ash(%) 0.55Sulfur (%)

95

(4.8)

By definition the amount of pure coal can be determined by subtracting the

percentage mineral matter (Eq.(4.8)) from 100. This methodology assumes that the coal
and mineral matter are completely liberated. Although this assumption may not be 100%
correct, liberation below 100 microns is nearly complete.

Classification efficiency achieved on the coal particles was exceptional as indicated by

the high I-value and -values obtained from each test. Figure 4.12 shows that, in the tests
using the 0.635-cm apex in the secondary cyclone, low imperfection and high -values of
0.274 and 4.01, respectively, were achieved. Efficiency achieved on the coal particles
was 44% better than the overall classification performance described by the curves in
Figure 4.9.

The data for the mineral matter has some randomness in the middle size fractions due
to the relatively small amounts of mineral mass and the elevated sensitivity to
experimental error. However, a comparison of the mineral matter and coal classification
curves provided useful information in understanding the effect that these two components
had on classification performance.

The particle cutsize (D50(c)) for the mineral matter (< 25 microns) was significantly
lower than the cutsize achieved on the coal particles (around 40 microns). This finding is
in agreement with fundamental reasoning. According to the Plitt equation, the difference
in the cutsize between the coal and mineral matter in a given classifying cyclone is:
D50( c ) MM D50( c )COAL

COAL 1

MM 1

0.5

0.3
40
1.7

96

0.5

17 microns

(4.9)

(a)

100
90

Partition Value (%)

80
70
60

Primary Cyclone - Coal

50

Primary Cyclone Mineral Matter "

Circuit With Recycle Coal
Circuit With Recycle Mineral Matter
Circuit Without Recycle Coal
Circuit Without Recycle Mineral Matter

40
30
20
10
0
1

10

100

1000

Particle Size (Microns)

(b)

100
90

Partition Value (%)

80
70
60

Primary Cyclone - Coal

50

Primary Cyclone Mineral Matter

Circuit With Recycle Coal
Circuit With Recycle Mineral Matter
Circuit Without Recycle Coal
Circuit Without Recycle Mineral Matter

40
30
20
10
0
1

10

100

1000

Particle Size (Microns)

Figure 4.12 Coal and mineral matter size separation achieved by the classification circuit
according to the (a) Actual and (b) Corrected performance curves; Primary apex = 1.27cm, Secondary apex = 0.635cm.
97

In Equation 4.9 previously described, COAL is the relative density of coal (=1.3) and

MM the relative density of the mineral matter (=2.7). In addition, the recovery of mineral
matter to the underflow stream was significantly greater than coal for all particle size
fractions below 75 microns.

In addition to increased viscosity effects, a transition from Newtonian to nonNewtonian conditions occurs as solids concentrate towards the apex as a direct result of
the classification process. This implies the presence of a yield stress within the slurry,
which opposes the relative movement between the particle and the fluid. The ability to
overcome the yield stress is subject to the gravitational or centrifugal force exerted on the
particles, which is a function of particle size and density. As such, a critical particle size
exists below which particles of a given density cannot supercede the yield stress and thus
become hydraulically entrained and unclassifiable. An expression that can be used to
determine the critical size is:

dc

3 o
2 g c m

(4.9)

where c is the particle density m the medium density and 0 is the yield stress of the
medium and g is the acceleration due to gravity.

As stated in the above paragraph, a particle having a size below the critical value will
be entrained and thereby be recovered to the cyclone underflow stream at a rate
corresponding to water recovery. Assuming a yield stress of 20 centipoise, the critical
particle size for pure coal (c = 1.3) is 32 microns and the value for mineral matter (c =
2.65) is 6 microns. Particles having a size below these critical values would therefore be
hydraulically entrained under this rheological condition and report with the water into the
cyclone output streams.

It is therefore evident that this critical particle size is strongly dependent on particle
density with the critical size for high-density particles being smaller than that of low98

density particles. The data provides evidence of this by showing that coal is entrained at a
coarser size than mineral matter, a finding, which is in agreement with fundamental
theory.

A comparison of the coal and mineral

partition curve data achieved under various

circuit conditions indicated the following trends (Table 4.12). The efficiency of the coal
particles as compared to the overall partition curves was higher in the tests in which the
1.27-cm apex in the primary and 0.635-cm apex in the secondary was used. This circuit
provided efficiencies that were up to 66% better than the overall circuit efficiency. Using
the 0.635-cm apex in both the primary and secondary classifying cyclone gave
efficiencies that were up to 34% better than the overall classification curve. This suggests
that increased viscosity and other particle interaction effects brought about by increased
solids concentration within the cyclone at the smaller apex diameter had significant
negative impact on coal classification performance. Furthermore particle cutsize for coal
was generally higher in the circuit in which the 0.635-cm apex was used both cyclones
than in the 1.27-cm primary and 0.635-cm secondary apex circuit.

99

Table 4.12 Summary of classification circuit performances achieved for coal and mineral
matter under various operating conditions.
Apex
Diameter
(primary x
secondary)

0.5 x 0.25

0.25 x 0.25

Coal
Condition

By-Pass
(%)
Value

Mineral matter
D50(c)
By-Pass
microns
(%)

D50(c)
microns

Imp.
Value

Primary Only

40

0.388

2.84

20

8.5

27

Dilution-No
Recycle

43

0.274

4.01

8.8

13

DilutionRecycle

41

0.287

3.83

8.6

12

No DilutionRecycle

51

0.284

3.86

12

41

0.293

3.75

58

0.275

3.99

11

48

0.297

3.70

10

49

0.265

4.14

10

High Dilution Recycle

Med. Dilution Recycle
Hi DilutionNo
Recycle
Med. Dilution
No Recycle

4.2.3 Circuit Modeling

Studies conducted in the minerals industry have shown that the performance of
classifying cyclones can be improved using multi-stage circuits. The capabilities of these
circuits can be mathematically simulated using an empirical partition model. The model
is used to calculate the probability (P) that a particle of diameter (D) reports to the
oversize product. A popular partition model for classifying cyclones is given by:

exp{D / D( 50C ) 1

P (1 )
exp{D / D

exp{

2
50( C )

100

(4.10)

in which D50C is the particle cutsize, is the sharpness of the separation and is the
fractional by-pass of fines to the cyclone underflow stream. The value of is typically in
the range of 1-6 for mineral classification circuits. The value of is usually assumed to
be equal to the fraction of feed water reporting to the underflow. Once the partition
function is defined, the sizing performance of circuits incorporating multiple units can be
mathematically calculated if the partitioning behavior of each unit is the same. This
provision dictates that all particles of the same size have the same probability of reporting
to the oversize stream in all units.

The total by-pass (*) for the actual circuit can be calculated for any number (N) of
downstream units using:

* N .

(4.11)

The ultrafine by-pass values for the individual classifying cyclone units in the 1.27-cm
primary apex with 0.635-cm secondary apex circuit were first determined. Then using
Eqn.(4.11), the by-pass for the overall circuit

with recycle and no recycle were

calculated. The calculated by-pass values were 10 % in both cases, which were in close
agreement with the 10% and 9% obtained using the recycle circuit and no recycle
circuits, respectively. The partition curves for the individual classifying cyclones units
were then determined and used to model various circuitry arrangements using linear
analysis (Table 4.13).

Models were first developed for the no recycle circuit in order to compare the
theoretical performance of that circuit with actual performance. The effect of recycling
on this circuit was then also modeled. The recycle circuit was modeled using the
relationship below:
P* P1 P2

(4.12)

in which P1 and P2 are the partition factors for the single stage primary unit and
single stage secondary unit respectively while P * is the partition factor obtained from the
two-stage circuit involving both units.

101

Table 4.13 Corrected partition numbers for 1.27-cm and 0.635-cm classifying cyclone
units.
Partition number (%)
1.27-cm apex

0.635-cm apex

100

100

100

100

96

98

76

87

50

67

45

49

The no recycle circuit was modeled using the following relationship:

P*

P1 P2
1 P1 P1 P2

(4.13)

Results of the simulation and experimental test work presented in Figure 4.13 showed
that use of two stage cyclones in place of a single cyclone resulted in higher cutsizes and
lower by-pass values and improved efficiency. A cutsize of 47 m was achieved for the
no recycle circuit which is comparable to the of 48m cutsize predicted by the model.
Even though the model predicted a better classification performance with an imperfection
of 0.370 and an -value of 2.97, these values were still sufficiently close to the
imperfection of 0.394 and -value of 2.78 achieved in experimental test work.
According to Honaker et al (2006), using a recycle stream has the benefit of improving
the overall sharpness of the partition curve and lessens the impact of the circuit on
increasing particle cutsize.

102

100

(a)

90

Partition Value (%)

80
70
60
50
40
30
20

Recycle
No Recycle

10
0
1

10

100

1000

Particle Size (Microns)

(b) 100
90

Partition Value (%)

80
70
60
50
40
30
20

Recycle
No Recycle

10
0
1

10

100

1000

Particle Size (Microns)

4.13 Performance curves of the two-stage circuit models based on (a) actual values and
(b) corrected values.

103

The circuit simulation that involved recycling the secondary overflow back to the
primary cyclone had a positive effect on classification performance. Imperfection values
of 0.360 and -values of 3.05 as well as a cutsize of 43m were obtained from the
model. This represents an improved performance over that of the no recycle circuit while
allowing a lower separation cutsize. It was believed that the difference between the
experimental and model results was influenced by the density effect, which according to
Firth and OBrien, 2003 may lead to misleading results in circuit simulations if neglected.
However, the analysis showed that the simulated results provided trends, which were in
agreement with the observed data.

The performance advantages in employing three stage circuits was also simulated and
evaluated. The three circuits shown in Figure 4.14 were modeled. The three-stage circuit
with no recycle, Figure 4.14(a) was modeled using the relationship:
P* P1 P2 P3

(4.14)

Another three-stage circuit configuration, incorporating the recycle of the overflow

stream to the feed of the previous unit (Figure 4.14(b)) was modeled using the
relationship:
P*

P1 P2 P3
1 P1 P1 P2 P3

(4.15)

According to Firth and OBrien (2003), the three-stage counter flow circuit (Figure
4.14 (c)) appears to be capable of achieving reasonable coal recovery while at the same
time restricting the amount of ultrafine mineral matter. This circuit employs a rougher,
scavenger and a cleaner unit with recycle. A simulation of the classification performance
achievable by using this circuit was also modeled using the relationship described below
as:

P*

P1 P2

1 P 1 P P P
1

(4.16)

104

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 4.14 Three Stage Circuits with (a) No Recycle (b) Recycle (c) Countercurrent.

The simulation results shown in Figure 4.15 indicate that three-stage circuits should
provide an improved performance over that achieved by two-stage circuits. The threestage circuit with no recycle configuration would result in a lower by-pass of 4% but
higher cutsize of 54 m and an better efficiency represented by an imperfection of 0.263
and -value of 4.18 when compared to the two-stage no with no recycle configuration.
The three-stage circuit with recycle, according to the simulation provided even better
results by reducing by-pass to 4 % while at the same time improving the imperfection and

-value to 0.255 and 4.30 respectively at a cutsize of 46m. The counter current circuit
provided the benefit of providing the lowest cutsize of all the circuits of 32 m. However,
it provided an imperfection of 0.318 and an -value of 3.46 making it the least efficient
of the three-stage circuits. The results obtained from the simulation models are
summarized Table 4.14.
105

100

Partition Number (%)

90
80
70
60
50
40
30

No Recycle
Recycle
Counter current

20
10
0
1

10

100

1000

Particle Size (Microns)

100

Partition Number (%)

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
No Recycle
Recycle
Counter current

20
10
0
1

10

100

1000

Particle Size (Microns)

Figure 4.15 Simulated performance curves of the three-stage circuit models based
on (a) actual values and (b) corrected values.
106

Table 4.14 Summary of the results obtained from classifying cyclone circuit modeling.
Model Results
2-Stage

2-Stage

3-Stage

3-Stage

Counter

No Recycle

Recycle

No Recycle

Recycle

Current

D50C

47

43

54

48

32

Imp

0.370

0.360

0.263

0.255

0.318

-Value

2.97

3.05

4.18

4.30

3.46

By-Pass

10

10

Value

%)
4.3 Viscosity Effects

The magnitude of the viscosity effect on classification efficiency is not very clear
based on published data. If elevated medium viscosity affects all particles in the same
manner regardless of particle size, no impact on efficiency would occur. In tests
investigating the impact of temperature on classification performance, increasing
temperature reduced viscosity and thus d50. However, efficiency was not improved
(Kawatra, 1988). On the other hand, it is well documented that the separation efficiency
achieved by particles settling in a dense medium varies according to the following
expression (Scott, 1988):

d 75 d 25
k d in
2d 50

(4.17)

in which I is the imperfection value for particle size di which has a value of zero for
perfect separations, k a function of medium viscosity and cycle geometry, n a constant,
and d75 and d25 the particle sizes having a 75% and 25% chance of reporting to the
underflow stream, respectively. As such, an increase in medium viscosity reduces
107

efficiency by an amount that is subject to the characteristics of the feed solids and
medium.

An additional effect of an increase in solid concentration is the development of a shear

stress when the system is not subjected to shear, which marks the transition from a
Newtonian to a non-Newtonian suspension. According to an expression developed by
Laapas (1983), the critical solid concentration by volume (c) corresponding to the
transition is a function of the particle size, surface area and density, i.e.,

38.03d 0.39 0.87

(4.18)

s2.23

where d is the mean particle size in mm and the particle sphericity. In coal applications,
kaolin clay is commonly the major mineral present in the ultrafine size fraction, which
typically represents greater than 60% of the feed solids. If a relative solid density of 2.7
and a sphericity factor of 0.1 are assumed, the critical solids concentration for a kaolin
suspension with a mean particle size of 5 microns is 7.4% by volume or 17.5% by
weight. The typical classifying cyclone feed has a solids content between 5% to 10% by
weight while the underflow solids content varies from 30% to 50% by weight. As such, a
typical classifying cyclone in the coal industry experiences a transition from Newtonian
to non-Newtonian characteristics during the classification process.

As a result of the presence of a yield stress (o), particles having a size below a critical
value (dc) will not be able to penetrate the fluid and thus will bypass the classification
process. This implies that the transition to non-Newtonian flow will result in an increase
in the amount of material reporting to the cyclone product streams as a function of the
water split. The critical particle size can be determined using the expression:

dc

3 o
2 g c m

(4.19)

108

in which g is gravitational acceleration. Assuming a yield stress of 20 centipoise, the

critical particle size for pure coal (c = 1.3) is 32 microns and the value for mineral
matter (c = 2.65) is 6 microns. Particles having a size below these critical values are
hydraulically entrained under this rheological condition and report with the water into the
cyclone output streams. It was therefore expected that the use of the modifier would limit
the yield stress and enhance the movement of these fine particles.

A test performed using a relatively low feed solids concentration and large apex
diameter resulted in a particle size cutpoint (d50) of around 38 microns while bypassing
approximately 16% of the ultrafine material to the underflow stream as shown in Figure
4.16. Adding the viscosity modifier under this condition provided a reduction in by-pass
by 4 absolute percentage points and improved efficiency but had minimal effect on d50.

Probability to Underflow (%)

100

75

50
5% Solids, Apex Diameter = 16.6 mm
No Chemical
SDS 1.0 kg/t

25

0
10

30

50

70

90

110

130

150

Particle Size (microns)

Figure 4.16 Effect of viscosity modifier addition on the classification performance

achieved with a feed solids content of 5% by weight and a relatively large apex diameter.

109

However, when the apex diameter was reduced to limit the by-pass to around 10%, the
modifier addition converted the roping of the underflow stream to a more effective
condition, significantly improved efficiency and decreased d50 as shown in Figure 4.17.
The models developed based on the data acquired indicated that the addition of the
viscosity modifier decreased d50 and the amount of ultrafine by-pass while significantly
decreasing the imperfection value, which indicates an improvement in classification
efficiency.

Probability to Underflow (%)

100

75

50
7.5% Solids, Apex Diameter = 12.7 mm
No Chemical
SDS 1.0 kg/t

25

0
10

30

50

70

90

110

130

150

Particle Size (microns)

Figure 4.17 Effect of viscosity modifier addition on the classification performance

achieved with a feed solids content of 7.5% by weight and a small apex diameter.

110

The cutsize (d50) reduction was consistent with existing cyclone models and a previous
study that used elevated medium temperatures (Kawatra.1988) to reduce viscosity. As
described by Equation (4.19), high solid concentrations results in a non-Newtonian slurry
that possesses a yield stress. As a result, critical particle size below which hydraulic
entrainment occurs thereby causing an increase in the amount of bypassed solids to the
underflow stream. The by-pass model indicates that the addition of the viscosity modifier
reduces the amount of by-pass, which may be due to a reduction in the yield stress and
thus the critical particle size.

To assist in better understanding the impact of viscosity modifiers the experimental

models described in Eqs.(4.1)-(4.3) were used. As indicated previously, viscosity
modifier concentration was significant in the determination of the particle cutsize,
imperfection and by-pass. As shown in Figure 4.18, the viscosity modifier had minimal
affect on d50 when a large apex diameter was used, which was likely due to the low solid
concentrations in the underflow stream (i.e., ~30% by weight). Decreasing the apex
diameter from 20 to 12 mm restricted the underflow stream, which increased the
underflow solid concentration to values exceeding 50% by weight and elevated d50. The
elevated solids concentration within the cyclone increased viscosity and depressed
classification efficiency as indicated by a rise in the imperfection value shown in Figure
4.19.

When the viscosity modifier is added, the d50 decreased from about 50 to 40 microns
while improving efficiency by nearly 200%. As a result of using the small apex, ultrafine
by-pass was limited to about 5%, which equates to a significant decrease from the 20%
value achieved using the larger apex sizes.

111

d50 (Microns)

51
46
41
35
30

13

0.00

Mo

dif0.25
ier 0.50
Co
nc. 0.75
(kg
/to

15

ter
e
iam

17
19
1.00

21

n)

e
Ap

xd

m)
m
(

Figure 4.18 Interactive effect of modifier concentration and apex diameter on the
separation cutpoint; feed solids concentration = 7.5% by weight.

Imperfection

0.48

0.42
0.37
0.32
0.26

0.00

Mo

13

15
m)
dif
m
(
ier 0.50
17
ter
Co of modifier concentration and
e
Figure 4.19 Interactive effect
apex diameter on the
nc 0.75
19
iam
. (k
D
x
1.00
21
g/t solids
imperfection (I) value; feed
concentration
= 7.5% by weight.
pe
on
A
)
0.25

As previously discussed, limiting water recovery to the underflow stream minimizes

the amount of ultrafine by-pass material. However, restricting water recovery typically
112

leads to a condition that is commonly referred to as roping, which results in the

elimination of the air core and low classification efficiencies. The addition of two
viscosity modifier types, i.e., sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and NALCO 9762, was
investigated in an effort to reduce the negative effects of the high-density underflow
stream. In these tests, feed solid concentrations greater than 10% by weight were used
along with a small apex (12.7-mm). The experimental conditions, feed slurry viscosity
values and the underflow solids concentrations are shown in Table 4.13.

Solids concentrations greater than 50% by weight were generated in the cyclone
underflow stream during each test. However, when no viscosity modifier was added,
roping conditions were observed which result in poor classification efficiencies as
indicated by the slopes of the partition curves in Figures 4.20 and 4.21.

Table 4.13 Experimental conditions used to generate a high-density classifying cyclone

underflow; apex diameter = 12.7 mm.

113

Modifier

Feed

Underflow

Feed

Dosage

Solids

Solids

Viscosity

(kg/t)

(% wght)

(% wght)

(cp)

None

0.0

10

50.71

2.16

None

0.0

12.5

51.58

3.12

None

0.0

15

52.59

3.96

None

0.0

18

53.48

4.26

SDS

0.8

18

53.83

4.09

SDS

0.8

15

52.86

3.71

SDS

0.8

12.5

51.78

3.02

SDS

0.8

10

50.85

2.01

None

0.0

10

50.67

2.12

None

0.0

12.5

51.86

3.20

None

0.0

15

52.77

3.78

None

0.0

18

53.51

4.33

Nalco 9762

0.5

18

54.72

3.95

Nalco 9762

0.5

15

53.65

3.57

Nalco 9762

0.5

12.5

51.93

2.66

Nalco 9762

0.5

10

50.97

1.98

Modifier

114

75

75

Partition Value (%)

100

Partition Value (%)

100

10% Solids
No modifier
SDS: 0.8 kg/t

50

15% Solids

No modifier
SDS: 0.8 kg/t

50

25

25

0
10

60

110

10

160

60

110

160

210

260

Size (microns)

Size (microns)

Figure 4.20 Partition curves for two different feed solids concentration with and without

100

100

75

75

Partition Value (%)

Partition Value (%)

addition of sodium dodecyl sulfate.

50

12.5% Solids

50

18% Solids

25

25

No modifier

No modifier

NALCO 9762: 0.5 kg/t

NALCO 9762: 0.5 kg/t

0

0
10

60

110

160

210

260

Size (microns)

10

60

110

160

210

Size (microns)

Figure 4.21 Partition curves for two different feed solids concentration with and without
addition of NALCO 9762 viscosity modifier.

115

260

After adding the viscosity modifier, the roping condition was eliminated and an air
core established. As a result, classification efficiency improved significantly. Ultrafine
by-pass to the underflow stream was maintained within the range of 5% to 10% for all
tests. Using the viscosity modifier, excellent classification efficiencies were realized at
elevated feed solids concentrations, which indicates the potential to increase mass
throughput per cyclone.

The effect of the feed slurry viscosity on the particle size cutpoint under the conditions
described in Table 4.13 is shown in Figure 4.22. The logarithmic plot yielded a straight
line with a slope of about 0.62. This value is in contrast to the results of an earlier study
Kawatra et al (1996) where the reported slope was 0.35. The difference may be explained
by the significantly different test conditions between the two studies. The results reported
in this publication were generated under conditions providing very high underflow solid
concentrations whereas the previously reported data was obtained over a broader range of
conditions.
2.5

log(d50)

2.0

1.5

1.0
0.25

0.35

0.45

0.55

0.65

log(viscosity)

Figure 4.22 Feed viscosity effect on the particle size cutpoint.

116

0.75

(min)
The downstream concentration processTime
used
to treat classifying cyclone product
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

streams is typically froth flotation. The effect of the two viscosity modifiers on flotation
0.0

performance was evaluated on the flotation feed from two preparation plants. As shown
in Figure 4.23 and 4.24, the flotation kinetics were not significantly changed due to the
-0.5

addition of the viscosity modifiers. In the case of West

SDSVirginia
addition
Coal at a concentration of 0.8

ln(1-R)

-1
kg/ton, the initial rate constant changes from 1.78 No
minModifier
with no addition to 1.58 min-1.
-1.0
The final rate changes from 0.42 min-1 with no addition to 0.31 min-1 (Figure 2.23). In the
SDS: 0.8 kg/t
case of NALCO 9762, the initial rate remained same at 3.63 min -1 (Figure 2.24).

-1.5 rate changes from 0.05 min-1 with no addition to 0.12 min-1 with 0.5
However, the final

kg/t of modifier addition.

-2.0

Time (min)

-2.5

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

0.0

-0.5

ln(1-R)

-1.0

Illinois Coal

-1.5

No Modifier
-2.0

Nalco 9762: 0.5 kg/t

-2.5

-3.0

-3.5

Figure 4.23 Effect of Sodium dodecyl sulphate on the flotation rate of a West Virginia
coal sample.

117

Figure 4.24 Effect of NALCO 9762 on the flotation rate of an Illinois coal sample.

118

5. CONCLUSSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions

The objective of this project was to find novel ways to improve classification
performance in the ultrafine particle size range. The study involved the evaluations using
both laboratory scale and in-plant tests. The laboratory tests were conducted in three
phases using two coal samples and a 10-cm classifying cyclone. The effects of different
apex diameters were evaluated as well as different feed solids. Tests were also conducted
to evaluate the potential benefits to be achieved with rheology modification at high feed
solids concentrations. The plant tests involved a two-stage classifying cyclone circuit at
an Eastern Kentucky coal processing plant. Different circuitry arrangements were tested
using different apex diameters. Using linear analysis, different circuit arrangements were
simulated and evaluated to determine any potential classification benefits.

The objective of the laboratory studies was to evaluate the effect of apex diameter,
feed solids concentration and viscosity modifier concentration on classification
performance. A Box- Behnken statistical test program, which resulted in 17 tests, was
designed and used to evaluate the various parameter effects considered. Based on the
results of the statistical tests, a model was developed which described the effects and
interactions of the various parameters on the particle size cutpoint (d50), imperfection
value and ultrafine by-pass. Test results showed that adding the modifiers resulted in
lower separation cutsizes and improved efficiencies and lower ultrafine by-pass. These
improvements were more significant at high solids concentrations and small apex
diameters were high particle populations results in non-Newtonian slurry that posses a
yield stress which restricted the ability of fine particles to move independently of the
fluid. Using a smaller apex reductions in by-pass from about 20% to 5% were achieved
Using viscosity modifiers reduced particle cutsize by about 20% from 50 to 40 m while
improving efficiency by 200%. A possible explanation is the reduction in yield stress due
to the addition of the viscosity modifier. Data obtained from viscosity measurements
119

conducted on feed slurries with varying solid concentrations show that the modifiers
reduce the viscosity of the slurry, thereby, decreasing the particle size cutpoint.

A second phase of laboratory tests involved efforts to reduce water recovery to the
underflow stream using high solids concentrations and a small apex diameter, which
resulted in roping conditions that negatively affected classification performance. The
potential benefit of rheology modification under such conditions was evaluated using
sodium dodecyl sulfate and the commercial modifier Nalco 9762 to alter the slurry
rheology. The viscosity modifiers eliminated the roping conditions and significantly
improved classification efficiency while maintaining low ultrafine by-pass values.

The aim of the in-plant classifying cyclone tests was to achieve an efficient 25 m
cutsize separation and, as a result, generate a low ash classifier product. To achieve this
aim, two 15-cm gMax classifying cyclones where employed under various conditions,
including the addition of dilution water to the secondary feed at different rates and the
variation in the apex diameter. Recycling of the secondary overflow to the primary feed
was also investigated.

The particles having a size greater than 25 microns in a flotation feed stream had ash
content less than 5% and an energy value of about 14000 Btu/lb on a dry basis. As such,
efficient classification to achieve a particle cutsize of around 25 microns could potentially
result in a clean coal product without the use of froth flotation. The inherent problem of
ultrafine particle by-pass to the underflow of classifying cyclones and the relatively large
amount of ultrafine material in the flotation feed stream are significant issues that hinder
the ability to achieve the objective in a single classification stage.

The 2-stage circuit provided a particle cutsize (D50(c)) under various conditions that
was consistently in the range of 37 to 40 microns while reducing the ultrafine particle
by-pass to less than 10% with a low value of 6%. Classification efficiency was also
improved by 40% over the single stage unit. The imperfection and alpha values were
120

typically in the range of 0.400 and 2.75, respectively. The classification partitioning
achieved on coal and mineral matter separately revealed that the performance achieved
on the coal particles was exceptional. The average imperfection and alpha values were
0.281 and 3.91, respectively, which represents a very sharp particle size separation.
Ultrafine by-pass was also significantly lower than the overall performance with values
less than 3%.

Despite the excellent classification efficiency, a significant portion of the coal

particles reported to the cyclone overflow stream. This finding is important for current
coal preparation plants that use single-stage classifying cyclones to deslime flotation
feed. Based on the classification performances obtained in this study, the amount of high
quality coal reporting to the overflow stream could amount to 5 tph for a preparation
plant having a capacity of 1000 tph. The estimated value of the lost coal is $1.25 million
annually in todays market.

The ability to achieve an acceptable product grade in the circuit coarse particle stream
was hindered mostly by a density affect that resulted in a coal cutsize of 40 microns and
an estimated mineral matter cutsize of 17 microns. As a result, the ash contents of the
particle size fractions below 75 microns (200 mesh) increased significantly from the feed
stream to the secondary cyclone underflow stream, which was the circuit coarse product.
The trend was especially apparent for the -25 micron (-500 mesh) fraction for which the
ash content increased from 61% to 84%. As such, true classification does occur on a
portion of the -25 micron fraction rather than the common opinion that the fraction is
hydraulically entrained and thus reports with the water to the cyclone output streams.

A significant amount (80% - 90%) of ash-forming material was rejected using the 2stage cyclone circuit, which resulted in ash content reductions from feed values of 40%50% to values in the secondary underflow between 20%-30%. The mass yield to the
secondary underflow stream ranged from 15% to 35%. Interestingly, if the density effect
was eliminated and the secondary underflow ash contents in each size fraction was equal
121

to those in the secondary underflow stream, the ash content of the circuit coarse product
would be around 15%. Reducing hydraulic entrainment further has the potential to
significantly lower this value.

Using linear analysis, various circuitry arrangements were modeled and simulated.
These circuits included the two-stage circuit with recycle and no-recycle conditions
evaluated in the experimental program as well as the simulation of the potential benefits
of adding a third stage of classification. The results of the simulations showed that
multiple stage circuits provide the benefit of reduced ultrafine by-pass. An evaluation of
the 2-stage circuit with recycle and no recycle models show revealed the same trends
observed in experimental data. The two-stage circuits provide better efficiencies than
single stage units do while providing elevated particle cutsizes. A third stage of
classification under these conditions resulted in improved efficiency over both the twostage circuits and single stage units with the three-stage circuit with recycle providing the
best performance. Circuit modeling of the three-stage counter flow circuitry arrangement
revealed that it had potential to provide the lowest cutsize among all the circuits
considered.

5.2 Recommendations for Future Work

Based on a review of the previous investigations and findings of the research

described in this thesis, the recommendations for future study are as follows:

Verifying the test results obtained in the rheology modification study using a 15cm classifying cyclone as practiced in industry.

Exploring the potential benefits of adding viscosity modifiers to the feed to the
secondary cyclone in a two-stage classifying cyclone circuit to improve
classification performance.
122

Evaluate the benefits of using the three-stage counter flow circuit for classifying
coal fine circuit feed.

Evaluate the potential benefits of tangential water addition via small apertures at
the lower conical section of the classifying cyclone in order to reduce solids
concentration at the apex therefore reducing the effect of increased cutsize due to
viscosity and hindered settling as well as the density effect. The tangential
addition of water could possibly reduce the effect of particle size increase
experienced by other water injection systems.

123

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130

LIOGRAPHY

131

132

INDEX