Professional Documents
Culture Documents
University of Kentucky
2006
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ABSTRACT
ENHANCED CLASSIFYING CYCLONE PERFORMANCE FOR ULTRAFINE
PARTICLE SEPARATIONS
of high-ash slime material in the coarse product. The typical D50 for the coal was 40
microns while the estimated value for mineral matter was 17 microns. As a result, the
ash contents for all particle size fractions below 75 microns increased in the cyclone
underflow streams. The ash content increase in the -25 micron fraction from 61% to 84%
indicates that true classification is achieved on a portion of the fraction rather than the
common opinion that 100% of the fraction reports as a function of water recovery to the
cyclone output streams
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Background ....................................................................................................10
1.1
Techniques ............................................................................................19
Problems ...............................................................................................29
Classification ..................................................................................................29
2.2
.1 Fundamentals .......................................................................................29
3.3
3.4
Coal Characteristics.......................................................................................61
3.5
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.21 Partition curves for two different feed solids concentration with and without
addition of NALCO 9762 viscosity modifier. .....................................................115
Figure 4.22 Feed viscosity effect on the particle size cutpoint. .......................................116
Figure 4.23 Effect of Sodium dodecyl sulphate on the flotation rate of a West Virginia
coal sample...........................................................................................................117
Figure 4.24 Effect of NALCO 9762 on the flotation rate of an Illinois coal sample. .....118
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 Size by size analysis results of a fine coal waste slurry sample on a dry basis. 13
Table 2.1 Test conditions for the particle size separation experiments with the Knelson
fluidized bed...........................................................................................................35
Table 2.2 Comparison of conventional classifying cyclone and Cyclowash test results...46
Table 2.3 Typical probable error values and specific gravity cut points achieved by
various enhanced gravity concentrators for the treatment of 210 x 37-m size
fraction of various coal samples (Honaker et al, 1996). ........................................53
Table 3.1 Dimensions and operating conditions used in the study for the primary and
secondary classifying cyclones. .............................................................................59
Table 3.2 Particle size analysis of the phase 1 and 2 laboratory classifying cyclone tests
feed. ........................................................................................................................62
Table 3.3 Particle size analysis of Phase 3 laboratory classifying cyclone tests feed. ......62
Table 4.1 Test results obtained from the experimental program evaluating the effect of
Apex diameter, modifier addition and feed solids on Classifying cyclone
performance. ..........................................................................................................67
Table 4.2 Statistical evaluation of the experimental error realized from the Classifying
Cyclone parametric test..........................................................................................69
Table 4.3 ANOVA table generated for the response variables associated with the
laboratory classifying cyclone tests. ......................................................................71
Table 4.4 Classification performance models and associated model fitness values ..........74
Table 4.5 Laboratory classifying cyclone Test Results .......................................................8
Table 4.6 Two-stage classifying cyclone circuit with no secondary cyclone feed dilution
data. ........................................................................................................................83
Table 4.7 Two-stage classifying cyclone circuit with secondary cyclone feed dilution
data. ........................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 4.8 Two-stage classifying cyclone circuit with secondary cyclone feed dilution and
no recycle data. ......................................................................................................89
Table 4.9 Particle size-by-size analysis data of overall circuit process stream samples
obtained using an apex diameter of 0.635 cm in the primary and secondary
classifying cyclones with no recycle......................................................................91
Table 4.10 Particle size-by-size analysis data of overall circuit process stream samples
obtained using an apex diameter of 0.635 cm in the primary and secondary
classifying cyclones with recycle...........................................................................92
Table 4.11 Summary of classification circuit performances achieved under various
operating conditions. ..............................................................................................95
Table 4.12 Summary of classification circuit performances achieved for coal and mineral
matter under various operating conditions. ..........................................................100
Table 4.12 Summary of the results obtained from classifying cyclone circuit modeling.106
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
The processing of fine coal is an important part of the overall plant recovery process.
This has however not always been the case. Past practices involved sending the entire
fine fraction to a thickener for dewatering and then pumping it out to a slurry
impoundment as plant waste. This was done because it was considered uneconomical to
recover this fraction. In addition, moisture concerns associated with the fine coal
provided little incentive for fine coal recovery. Since then, increased mechanization
fueled by the need for higher production rates to stay profitable has resulted in the
generation of higher quantities of fine coal. Improvements in fine particle separation
technologies such as flotation, sizing and gravity methods coupled with more efficient
dewatering techniques have made fine coal recovery a more attractive option.
Furthermore, permitting requirements for the construction of impoundments have become
increasingly stringent making it necessary for mine operators to reduce the volume of
solid material to be impounded. Thus, improved fine particle recovery achieves the dual
purpose of increasing the quantity of saleable coal produced as well as freeing available
impoundment space for tailings disposal.
Figure 1.1 shows a schematic flowsheet for fine coal processing. Feed to the fine
circuit generally consists of -1mm particle size material, which is usually fed to a
classifying cyclone to achieve a 0.15 mm size cut.
-150 m
-1mmFeed
Froth Flotation
O/F
Flotation
Reject
Flotation Product
Classifying
Cyclone
Circuit
Product
1 x 0.15mm
Screen Bowl
Centrifuge
U/F
Spirals
Concentrator
Thickener
Spiral Reject
Spiral Product
O/F
Feed
U/F
+25m
Clean Coal
Product
Circuit Reject
The nominal 1 x 0.15 mm material is treated by spirals while the -0.15 mm fraction is
recovered by froth flotation. The flotation and spiral product combine to form the circuit
product that is dewatered using a screen bowl centrifuge. The spiral tailings are screened
and the underflow combined with the flotation tailings to make up the circuit rejects. This
is then dewatered using a thickener.
A common occurrence in the Central Appalachian coal field in the U.S. is the
existence of a relatively low ash material in the 150 x 37 m particle size fraction
reporting to the fine coal circuit of operating preparation plants. Particle size analysis
results of a typical fine coal waste sample collected from an eastern Kentucky coal
preparation plant are shown in Table 1.1. The plant processes coal from the Hazard No.
4 seam, which is a high-volatile bituminous coal with a dry-based heating value of
around 14,200 Btu/lb. The particle size-by-size data indicates that the +37 m material
has a low ash content of 5.97% and a moisture-free heating value of 13,950 Btu/lb. This
fraction represents 22.4% of the total material that is currently disposed into a slurry
impoundment at the eastern Kentucky operation, which equates to approximately 28 tph.
Currently, the only technology capable of efficiently removing the high ash ultrafine
fraction from the coal is froth flotation, which is a separation process based on surface
chemistry differences rather than particle size.
Froth flotation involves injecting air into a flotation cell filled with slurry composed of
a mixture of coal particles and air bubbles. The bubbles collide with the coal particles
within the cell resulting in bubble particle attachment between the bubbles and the
hydrophobic coal particles within the slurry.
Table 1.1 Size by size analysis results of a fine coal waste slurry sample on a dry basis.
Size
Fraction
(microns)
Weight
(%)
Ash
(%)
Total
Sulfur
(%)
Heating
Value
(Btu/lb)
+210
0.17
2.99
0.77
14520
210 x 150
0.62
3.00
0.77
14515
150 x 75
8.00
3.03
0.77
14431
75 x 44
9.26
6.39
0.74
13878
44 x 37
4.33
11.05
0.70
13101
-37
77.62
60.80
0.35
4850
Total
100.00
48.53
0.44
6886
This results in a low-density mineralized froth containing 70 to 80% air, which rises
to the top of the cell as flotation product. Wash water is employed to deslime the froth
and reduce hydraulic entrainment. Although flotation efficiently recovers the
hydrophobic coal, it suffers from poor selectivity, which negatively affects the quality of
the flotation product especially when treating mixed-phase particles. The selectivity
limitation is associated with its efficient collection whereby fine particles having only 5%
of its surface being hydrophobic are able to attach to the bubble surface and report as a
high-ash particle into the flotation product. In addition, froth flotation requires the use of
reagents, which add additional cost to the process. Collectors such as fuel oil are required
to enhance the surface hydrophobicity and increase the flotation rate of coal. Frothers
such as methylisobutylcarbinol (MIBC) reduce the surface tension of water enhancing
bubble formation whilst modifiers such as pH regulators provide the necessary surface
charge for collector adsorption. For efficient flotation, all these reagents must be added at
optimum dosages.
Excessive collector addition beyond the optimum often results in higher flotation rate
increases for gangue minerals than coal further reducing selectivity and may result in
overly stiff froth with poor water drainage and ineffective froth washing. Furthermore,
high collector dosages have a negative effect on frother performance increasing the
required frother dosage. Erol et al (2003) also report the occurrence of high product ash
for coal flotation at high MIBC concentrations. This was because of smaller bubble
formation leading to greater water recovery and increased entrainment of high-ash
particles. Furthermore, the finer bubbles generated at high frother concentrations result in
hydraulic entrainment of fine high ash particles further reducing product quality.
Changing coal surface properties also result in poor flotation. The normal pH for coal
flotation lies within a range 5-7. Weathered coal floats poorly due to the presence of an
oxide coating on the coal surface, which reduces the surface hydrophobicity of the coal
particle. According to Osborne (1988) however, weathered coal can be made to float at a
pH of 2 when deslimed and/or scrubbed. Thus, in addition to cost, flotation may provide
complex challenges, which have to be understood in order to achieve an efficient
separation.
Due to the potential for lower costs and a better understanding of the separation
principles by the operators, a classification system that provides an economical and
efficient ultrafine particle size separation would be preferred. Current trends in fine
particle separation involve the use of small diameter classifying cyclones. These cyclones
however, are unable to provide sharp size cuts at high feed rates due to the low residence
time experienced by particles within the cyclone body. Inefficiencies in fine particle
separation also typically occur due to Brownian motion, particle interaction effects as
well as viscosity that lead to the by-pass of fine particles into the coarse product. High
particle concentrations within the apex region of classifying cyclones leads to increased
viscosity and hindered settling effects that negatively impact classification performance,
especially at high feed solids concentrations. Minimizing these effects therefore, could
make classification a viable alternative to flotation for fine particle recovery in specific
applications such as those represented by the coal characteristics described in Table 1.1.
This study focuses on the enhancing the classification performance of small diameter
hydrocyclones that provide the potential for enhancing the classification performance for
particle size cuts in the 25-50 m size range.
The goal of this project was to improve the efficiency of classifying cyclones for
ultrafine (25m) size separations while minimizing ultrafine by-pass. If successful, the
process could be used as an alternative or compliment to flotation process. Success will
be measured based on the ability to achieve a classification performance that will result in
a 25 micron cutsize and less than 5% ultrafine by-pass.
To achieve the project goals the following specific objectives were developed:
Quantify the circuit classification efficiency and particle cutpoints under different
operating conditions.
Determine the ability of modifiers to reduce the effect of elevated viscosity values
on classification performance. The higher viscosities are due to the higher solids
concentrations in the feed and underflow streams.
This thesis is divided is divided into 5 (five) main chapters. Chapter 1 presents
information, which provides the background leading to the research. It also presents the
goals and objectives, which this study was designed to accomplish. Chapter 2 contains a
literature review of the fundamentals of screening and classification as well some
contemporary fine sizing techniques involving both screening and classification.
Explanations for the limits of screening in ultrafine sizing are discussed. Chapter 3
describes the experimental methods and conditions under which the various tests were
performed. A discussion of the experimental results is contained in Chapter 4 while
Chapter 5 presents the conclusions and recommendations for future work.
voids created by the larger particles. Without stratification, the particles would
have very little chance of passing through the screen.
(2) Probability of Separation, which describes the stochastic probability of a particle
passing through a given aperture once presented to the opening.
The ease with which a particle x passes through a screen of aperture size a depends
on how much aperture area is available for particle passage. A larger difference between
the particle and aperture size (a x) , results in easier screening. A particle in contact
with the screen surface encounters both the aperture a and wire diameter b , represented
by (a b) . The probability P of a particle passing through a screen represents the ratio
of the available aperture area to the screen surface encountered as shown below:
a x
P
a b
(2.1)
Equation (2.1) implies that P increases with increasing screen opening, decreasing
particle size, decreasing wire diameter and increasing number of screening trials m . For
fine particle screening, b becomes significantly greater than a, which results in a high
probability of retaining undersize particles in the screen overflow
The number of screening trials is a function of screen length, frequency and amplitude
and assumes good stratification. Increasing screen length increases P by increasing m . A
perfect separation could therefore be achieved by using an infinitely long screen. An
increase in frequency of vibration of the screen enhances the migration of particles to the
screen surface and reduces screen blinding. The amplitude of vibration also affects
screening in that high amplitudes at low feed rates result in some material bouncing too
high of the surface of the screen and reducing m . The ratio of the total aperture space to
the total area of the screen surface is called the open area. Increasing open area increases
2.1.2
Techniques
Sieve bends are less subject to screen blinding than other screens and have been
employed to achieve 150 m cutsizes on feed containing up to 45% solids. Screening
takes place on a concave screen surface made up of horizontal wedge-wires, which are
orientated in such a way that the open slots are perpendicular to the flow of the slurry.
The slurry flow across the concave surface creates a centrifugal force. This force
combined with retardation due to frictional drag of the fluid in contact with the screen
surface results in a shaving off the fluid through the open slots to the screen underflow.
This layer may have a thickness of 0.25 to 0.5 the slot width. Wills (1988) reports that
size separations down to 50m and screen capacities up to 180 m3/h can be achieved
using sieve bends. At low feed rates however, sieve bends are still susceptible to
blinding. Screen blinding effectively reduces the total open area of a screen and therefore
reduces efficiency by causing undersize particles to report to the overflow stream. On the
other hand, high volumetric flows typical of plant operations limit the proportion of feed
solids subjected to the sizing action. As a result, the efficiency of sieve bends for
screening is limited by the by-pass of -150m material to the oversize (Osborne, 1988).
In addition, screen wear deteriorates screening performance by reducing the achievable
separation size. Screen blinding, lack of open area due to build-up of material, high
maintenance cost and mesh wear commonly result in sub-par performance for the sievebends (Buisman and Reyneke, 2000).
The Krebs Varisieve (Figure 2.1) is a modified sieve bend design that improves on the
performance of traditional sieve bends for fine particle screening. The Varisieve
incorporates a manually adjustable head box feed throat as well as a variable position
screen frame into the traditional sieve bend design. The modified feed head box regulates
the feed rate to the Varisieve in such a way that flow rate fluctuations on the plant do not
adversely affect screen performance. As a result, the low feed rates that lead to screen
blinding and high feed rates, which in turn, result in feed box overflow and insufficient
particle screening time, are avoided. The variable screen frame reduces the effects of
screen wire wear by allowing the gradual lowering of the screen frame to expose new
sharp screen wires during operation. Previous test work performed by Mohanty et al
(2002) showed that the Varisieve could be used to achieve size separations in the 138m
size range with an imperfection of 0.15. However, this imperfection value was still
accompanied by a significant by-pass of 22 % of fine ash material, which typically
reported along with the sieve bend overflow, thereby significantly lowering the product
quality.
High frequency vibrating screens have also been employed to reduce the problems of
screen blinding and low capacity typically associated with fine particle screening by
allowing maximum repeated contact of particles with the screen surface. This increases
the probability of fine particle passage through the screen thus improving screening
efficiency.
An oversize manifold situated beneath the screens allows the oversize from the first
two screens to by-pass and rejoin the oversize from the third screen into a discharge
hopper. This quick removal of the oversize prevents the overloading of the screen surface
thus maximizing screen area. Derrick (1984) reports that the Multifeed system increases
capacity by approximately 2.5 times as compared to typical values from a 4 x 8 ft2 feed
single deck derrick screens.
Derrick Stack Sizers or stacker units (Figure 2.3) represent a further improvement to
the Derrick Multifeed design. They operate on the principle that screen width is of
primary importance for separation performance. Therefore, stacker units employ screen
decks that are wider than they are long.
A Derrick stack sizer consists of five screen decks stacked on top of each other and
inclined downwards at angles between 15-25%. The screen stack is connected to a
vibrating motor that supplies a high frequency vibrating motion uniformly throughout the
entire width and length of the screen decks.
The screens vibrate linearly extending the effective fluidized zone of the feed slurry
enhancing separations over a larger area of screen surface and convey screened material
out of the way of incoming feed Kelly (2005). A wash trough may also be added to
maximize fine particle removal. Kelly, 2005 reports data from a western Pennsylvanian
coal processing plant, which suggests that stack sizers can be used to achieve size cuts of
150 m at feed rates of 80 tons per hour while providing efficiencies of 88-91%.
efficiently achieves fine particle size separations at high capacity values by utilizing both
sides of a moving deck of pans that hold the screens. The screen has slotted openings,
which allow a relatively high open area that exceeds 40%. Patented spray bars are used to
rinse the screen upon removal of the coarse material in an effort to reduce or eliminate
blinding. A recently completed study involved an in-plant evaluation of a 0.5 m2 Pansep
unit for achieving a 150 m particle size separation (Kroeger and Mohanty, 2004). To
achieve the separation, the slot-size of the screen openings was 100 x 400 m. At a
volumetric capacity of around 350 lpm, the particle size separation averaged around 160
m. More importantly, the classification efficiency as measured by the imperfection
value, I, was found to be about 3 times better than the existing classifying cyclone bank (I
= 0.14 versus 0.43). Furthermore, the amount of by-passed undersize material to the
oversize stream was only 4.3% as compared to 33% for the classifying cyclones.
However, capital and operating costs as well as plant footprint of the Pansep screens are
higher than that of classifying cyclones. Also previous tests conducted by Mohanty
(2002) suggest that, at high feed rates, the pansep screen is still susceptible to fine
particle by-pass. In addition, the spray water, which does not pass through the screens,
runs off the overflow carrying fine particles to the coarse particle stream. High by-pass
values of about 35% using a smaller unit at a relatively high feed rate of 210 lpm have
been observed (Mohanty, 2001).
Fine particle screening in industry serves to provide a uniformly sized feed to a unit
process and/or to generate a product. In coal operations, fine screening may be employed
to provide the required feed consist to a flotation process. Figure 2.5 represents a
flowsheet in which Derrick Multifeed screens are used. The underflow from a set of 30cm (12-inch) cyclones that receive the fine circuit feed is fed to a set of sieve bends. The
oversize is subsequently dewatered in a centrifuge as the circuit product whilst the
undersize is combined with the classifying cyclone overflow as feed to the flotation
circuit.
Figure 2.6 represents a fine coal circuit that uses screening to deslime a clean coal
product stream from spiral concentrators. In this circuit, the underflow from the
classifying cyclones is fed to a set of triple start spirals. The spiral product is screened
using a set of Derrick Multifeed screens with the objective of providing a particle size
cutpoint of around 150 microns. The screen overflow is dewatered using screen bowl
centrifuges while the screen underflow is combined with the cyclone overflow and screen
bowl effluent as circuit rejects which report to a thickener.
Overflow
Classifying
Cyclone
Underflow
Distribution
Box
Derrick
Multifeed
Oversize
Undersize
Thickener
Overflow
Froth
flotation
Screen
Bowl
Centrifuge
Thickener
Clean coal
Circuit rejects
Figure 2.5 Flowsheet of a fine coal cleaning circuit, which uses Derrick Multifeed
screens.
-1mm
Feed
Classifying
Cyclone
Underflow
Refuse Screen
Refuse
Distribution
Box
Spiral
Product
Derrick
Stack Sizers
Oversize
Screen
Bowl
Centrifuge
Thickener
Overflow
Undersize
Effluent
Clean Coal
Thickener
Underflow
Figure 2.6 Flowsheet of a fine coal cleaning circuit, which uses Derrick Stack Sizers.
2.1.4 Problems
Problems associated with ultrafine particle screening typically result from lack of open
area and screen blinding. An increase in the amount of near cutsize particles within the
feed increases the extent of blinding and further reduces screen performance. Increasing
open area by reducing wire diameter results in increased screen wear, which increases
cost. Solutions to such problems include vibrating screens, using a stacked arrangement
of several screens and applying wash water to the screen surface to reduce screen
blinding. The flow of wash water however, should be controlled to prevent run-off of fine
particles from the screen surface.
2.2 Classification
2.2.1 Fundamentals
The free settling of a particle within a fluid is due to the resultant effect of three
fundamental forces (Figure 2.7). The gravitational force, Fg that influences the
downward motion of a particle is opposed by upwards acting drag and buoyancy forces,
Fd and Fb due to the fluid.
Fd
Fg
Direction
of Particle
Movement
Fg
The particle initially accelerates until the force balance on it due to the effect of these
opposing forces is zero. From then onwards, it settles at a uniform velocity known as the
terminal settling velocity. The balance of forces around the particle is:
Fg Fd Fb
(2.2)
For a spherical particle of diameter d p and density, s the mass can be defined as:
d p 3 s
6
(2.3)
The force due to gravity, g acting on the particle can therefore be determined to be:
Fg
d p 3 s g
6
(2.4)
Fb , which is a function of the fluid displaced by the particle can also be expressed as
Fb
d p 3 s g
6
(2.5)
where f is the fluid density. For a fine particle settling within a fluid under laminar
conditions, the drag force results only from viscous forces. These viscous forces depend
on the particle diameter d p , the terminal settling velocity of the particle, Vt and the fluid
viscosity as shown below:
Fd 3d pVt
(2.6)
By substituting equations 2.4, 2.5 and 2.6 into equation 2.2 and solving for Vt , Stokes
law is obtained:
Vt
d P2 g P f
18
(2.7)
da
of two different particles to be separated by
db
d a b f
d b a f
1/ 2
(2.8)
where d a and d a are the effective diameters of the two particle types, a and b their
respective densities and f is the density of the fluid medium. This equation clearly
indicates that density has an effect on fine particle classification. Sometimes
classification takes place under hindered settling conditions. These conditions usually
occur at high particle volume concentrations. Hindered settling magnifies the effect of
density on classification.
2.2.2 Techniques
Hydraulic classifiers, both static and centrifugal, are still generally the devices of
choice for particle size separations below 250 m. This is mainly due to the deterioration
in efficiency of prevailing screening techniques at fine particle sizes due to reduced open
coal and mineral processing industries have inherent inefficiencies that negatively impact
separation performance and production costs. These inefficiencies occur because of
viscosity, Brownian motion forces and particle interaction effects. Consequently,
classifiers commonly suffer from by-pass, which occurs when a portion of the ultrafine
particles (slimes) are misplaced by hydraulic carryover into the oversize product. The
unwanted misplacement can have a large adverse impact on downstream separation
processes.
Osborne (1988) groups classifiers into three broad types based on the mechanism by
which particle separation is effected, i.e., settling classifiers, mechanical classifiers and
centrifugal classifiers. Settling classifiers employ quiescent reservoirs of fixed volume to
achieve separation. Separating conditions are varied by continuously or intermittently
varying the underflow flowrate (Osborne 1988). Experiments conducted by Thompson
and Galvin (1996) on a laboratory-scale settling classifier called the Counter-Flow settler
yields promising results
Particle size separations in the range of 2.6 m to 116m with ultrafine by-pass values as
low as 5% were achieved for the feed solids concentration range of 2.4% to 21.7% tested.
Partition curve data provided for 10% feed solids at varying feed rates of 1.686 g/s to
6.809 g/s reveal that separation efficiency increases with increasing feed rate within the
range tested. The best classification performance was obtained at a feed rate of 6.809 g/s
at which a separation size of 78 m was achieved with an imperfection value of 0.40 with
5% by-pass. However, at low feed rates, both imperfection and by-pass were very high.
Moreover, industrial scale up of settling classifiers can be difficult.
Fluidized-bed separators used for particle size separations employ the use of an
upward flow of water to carry particles having a settling velocity lower than the fluid
velocity into an overflow stream. The coarser material settles into the underflow stream.
However, as the particle size decreases to below 150 microns, the settling rates become
too slow to allow acceptable throughput capacity. The application of a centrifugal field
accelerates the particle movement and provides the potential for ultrafine size separations
to be achieved at relatively high mass flow rates.
The Knelson Concentrator is essentially a fluidized bed system operating in a
mechanically applied, enhanced gravity field. As shown in Figure 2.8, the unit consists of
a rotating cone into which water is introduced through a series of fluidization holes
located in the concentrate ring. The feed enters through the central inlet. When the slurry
reaches the bottom of the cone, it is forced outward and driven up the cone wall towards
the fluidizing ring. The slurry fills the ring against the inward movement of elutriation
water, which creates a fluidized particle bed. Pinch valves are actuated allowing the
coarsest material to be drawn from the ring at a controlled rate into a dedicated launder.
The ultrafine particles flow out the top of the cone into an overflow launder.
Feed
Overflow
Product
Overflow
Product
Underflow
Tailings
Underflow
Tailings
Tailings
Elutriation
Water
The performance curves produced under the conditions listed in Table 2.1 are
provided in Figure 2.9.The volumetric feed rate and solids concentration were maintained
at 74 lpm and 25% by weight, respectively. A significant finding was that the separator
provided relatively low quantities of ultrafine by-pass. In all tests, ultrafine by-pass to the
coarse underflow stream was less than 10% with a low value of 3%. The cutsize (D50)
decreased with an increase in the applied centrifugal force (i.e., rotational speed), which
was expected due to enhanced particle settling rates. A similar trend was also observed
with a reduction in the fluidization water rate.
Table 2.1 Test conditions for the particle size separation experiments with the Knelson
fluidized bed.
Test
No.
Bowl Speed
(rpm)
Fluid Rate
(lpm)
Valve Open
(sec)
Valve Close
(sec)
1100
7.5
0.16
4.5
1100
10
0.16
4.5
1100
12
0.16
4.5
700
0.16
4.5
700
10
0.16
4.5
1.00
Test 3
Test 4
Test 5
Test 6
Test 7
0.90
Probability to Underflow
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
1
10
100
1000
However, the cutsize increased significantly. The data therefore indicates that the
fluidized Knelson unit may be an effective tool for desliming in combination with a
classifying cyclone.
Centrifugal classifiers employ forces that magnify the gravitational force on particles
to effect the separation of coarse particles from fine particles. They include classifying
cyclones and various centrifugal classifiers such as the screen bowl centrifuge and the
Counter-flow centrifugal classifier. Bickert et al (1996) report that the counter-flow
centrifugal classifier developed mostly in Germany as capable of performing ultrafine
classification with separation sizes less than 10 m (Figure 2.10). The slurry feeding the
classifier is introduced into the classifying chamber a, under pressure. Due to restriction
of the coarse product outlet, the slurry is forced into the spaces, d between rotor blades c,
where it experiences centrifugal accelerations in the range of 200 to 1800 times g-force
(Heiskanen, 1996). The particles within the spaces d are therefore under the influence of
inward radial forces and outward centrifugal forces. The net effect of centrifugal forces
on coarse particles causes them to move outwards back into the classifying chamber,
while the fine particles are drawn by an inward flow into the hollow shaft f, through the
spaces in the rotor and flow out as a fines product. Even though this design is described
as versatile and capable of handling feed percentages up to 40% by volume (Heiskanen,
1996), it has poor separation efficiency. This is because only the portion of the feed that
actually enters the rotor spaces is classified. This significant by-pass of feed material
causes the product to be similar to the feed.
The classifying cyclone is one of the most widely used classifiers in the coal and
mineral processing. Its high capacity, versatility and small plant footprint make it the
ideal tool for classifying the fine particulate material, which comprise the fine circuits of
most mineral and coal processing circuits. The classifying cyclone has relatively simple
design and operation and has no moving parts. Figure 2.12 shows a diagram of a
conventional classifying cyclone. It consists of a cylindrical upper section and a conical
lower section. Feed is introduced into the cyclone at the cylindrical section through a
tangential feed entry, which forces it into a spiraling flow within the cyclone. The coarse
particles move under the effect of the resulting centrifugal force towards the wall of the
cyclone and spiral via the fluid motion towards the constricted apex, which limits the
amount of feed volume reporting to the underflow stream. As a result, a portion of the
stream is forced to reverse direction and is caught up in a zone of low pressure that
carries it up to a cylindrical tube, which extends some distance into the cylindrical section
called the vortex finder. Coarse material is discharged through the spigot or apex.
The classifying cyclone has existed as an important unit operation for over a century
and has been a subject of numerous studies. Previous studies have involved developing
mathematical models to predict the cutsize as well as investigating the effects of various
geometric and operational parameters on the cutsize. As a result, various theories, which
predict classifying cyclone performance, have been proposed. These include the
equilibrium orbit theory, retention time theory, the turbulent diffusion theory, and the
crowding theory. Among these, the equilibrium orbit theory is the most widely accepted
for predicting cyclone performance. Various researchers such as Yokioka and Hotta
(1995), Lilge (1962), Bradley (1958, 1960, 1965), Smith and Coghin (1984), Pericleous
et al (1984), Kawatra et al (1996) describe this theory as that which best predicts cyclone
performance. The theory assumes that each particle within a cyclone is in equilibrium
under the effect of two opposing forces. These are an outward acting centrifugal force
due to the tangential flow within the cyclone and an inward acting drag force that is due
to radial, inward velocity.
Pressure
Gauge
Overflow Stream
(fine particle stream)
Vortex Finder
Cylindrical
Feed
Chamber
Feed
Cylindrical
Section
Feed
Inlet
Conical Section
Apex
Underflow
(coarse particle stream)
Figure 2.12 Schematic diagram of the Krebs gMax cyclone (Anon, 2003)
Particles of different size will therefore have different equilibrium orbit radii. Particles
near the inner wall of the cyclone report to the apex whilst particles close to the axis of
the cyclone report to the vortex finder. This suggests that the vertical velocities of these
particles are opposite to each other. Therefore, at some point within the cyclone there
exists a plane where the vertical velocity of particles is zero. This plane is called the
envelope of zero velocity (Kawatra et al, 1996). A particle at the envelope of zero
velocity therefore has an equal probability of reporting to the apex or vortex finder. The
particle size at the envelope of zero velocity is referred to as the cutsize. This theory
assumes that flow conditions within the cyclone are laminar (Trawinski, 1972).
Most theoretical methods of predicting the performance of cyclones are based on the
equilibrium orbit theory. A more successful approach however, relies on relationships
derived from empirical data. The most popular relationships were developed by Plitt
(1971, 1976), Plitt et al. (1980) and Lynch and Rao (1975), Lynch (1977), Rao (1966).
Lynch and Rao (1975) and Plitt (1976) using data from large diameter hydrocyclones and
high percent feed solids. The models provide versatility in the prediction of cutsize in
actual plant situations. The Lynch equation was based on a series of regression
parameters K1 to K6 and feed percent solids by weight, V and is of the form
log d 50( c) K1 Do K2 Du K3 Di K4 DcV K5Q K6
(2.9)
where Do is the vortex finder diameter, Du the apex diameter, Di the feed inlet diameter
and Dc and Q are the cyclone diameter and the volume flow rate to the cyclone in m3/hr
respectively. For the different size distributions, values for the different K values fall
within the range of 0.0344 to 0.0637 for K1 , 0.0190 to 0.0712 for K 2 , 0.0220 to 0.0513
for K3 ,0.0255 to 0.0390 for K 4 , 0.00005 to 0.000008 for K5 and -0.06623 to 0.0806 for
K6 .
Lynch and Rao used weight percent solids to develop their model whilst Plitt used
volume percent solids, which provides a more accurate estimate of slurry rheology than
weight percent solids (Plitt, 1976; Plitt and Kawatra, 1979; Kawatra, 1996). The Lynch
model is described as:
d 50( c )
0.5
(2.10)
Where s are the average density of the feed solids and m the density of the medium.
while V is the percentage volumetric solids content and h is the distance from the top of
the apex to the bottom of the vortex finder.
JKCC was in the range of 18-24% at a corrected cutsize of 40-50 m compared to 26% in
the conventional cyclone at a 53-m cutsize.
Overflow
Vortex Finder
Feed Inlet
Truncated Cone
Water injection
Truncated Cone
Spigot
Underflow
Table 2.2 Comparison of conventional classifying cyclone and Cyclowash test results.
Parameter
D50C = 19 microns
D50C = 26 microns
Conventional
Cyclowash
Conventional
Cyclowash
1.75
1.27
1.75
2.54
Vortex Finder
Diameter (cm)
1.95
1.91
2.54
2.54
172
207
138
172
Truncated Cone
Diameter (cm)
1.91
2.54
Cyclowash Water
Rate (lpm)
31.0
46.5
By-pass (%)
35
19
15
Imperfection
0.404
0.411
0.399
0.324
upwards by the vortex created by the inner vortex finder as inner overflow whilst the fine,
light particles are carried out through the outer vortex finder.
Classification in industry may be used to produce a particular sized feed to the next
stage in a process or to generate saleable product. In the coal industry, fine particle
cleaning processes generally require pre-classification which is commonly achieved
using cyclones. These include spiral and flotation feeds as well as tailings material sent to
thickeners. The typical location of classifying cyclones within a coal cleaning circuit is
shown in Figure 2.14.
The cyclone underflow stream serves as the feed to the spiral circuit while the
overflow stream provides a fine sized feed to the froth flotation. Figure 2.15 represent a
classification circuit in which a two-stage cyclone arrangement is used to generate a
circuit product. The 38-cm diameter cyclone underflow stream is the feed to the spirals,
while the overflow serves as the feed to a two-stage 15-cm diameter classifying cyclone
circuit. The underflow of the primary 15-cm cyclone bank provides the feed to the
secondary cyclone.
Underflow
Spirals
Circuit
Product
Centrifugal
Dryer
Spiral
Product
Spiral Reject
Sieve
Bend
Oversize
Effluent
Undersize
Figure 2.14 Schematic flowsheet of a fine coal classifying circuit which uses classifying
cyclones, spirals and froth flotation.
Overflow
To
thickener
Overflow
Feed
15-cm
Classifying
Cyclone
38-cm
Classifying
Cyclone
Overflow
15-cm
Classifying
Cyclone
Underflow
1mm x 150 m
Spirals
Underflow
Spiral Product
Effluent
(a)
Spiral
Reject
Clean
Coal
Figure 2.15 Schematic diagram of a fine coal classifying circuit, which uses spirals, and
classifying cyclone circuit.
The primary cyclone overflow serves as the two-stage cyclone reject whilst the
secondary underflow is the circuit product. The purpose of the two-stage cyclone circuit
is to achieve a particle size separation of around 25 microns that would lead to the
generation of a clean coal product after dewatering.
2.2.4 Problems
Factors that can have a negative effect on classification performance are viscosity and
yield stress (Agar and Herbst, 1966; Klimpel, 1982, 1983; Kawatra et al., 1996). Both of
these factors increase sharply as the particle size decreases and particle population (solids
content) increases. Yield stress has the ability to prevent particles from moving
independently within a non-Newtonian fluid and may account for the by-pass of
ultrafines typically observed in classifying cyclones. Ultrafine particle suspensions
having solids contents as low as 10% by volume may be subject to yield stresses, which
may be overcome by applied vibration and chemical treatments. This by-pass is a result
of the inability of this fine material to move independently of the fluid medium. Hence,
fine particles are trapped by the water associated with the coarse product. Such particles
therefore report to the underflow of the cyclone without undergoing classification thereby
contaminating the coarse product. Particle density effects result in low-density coal
reporting to the overflow stream despite having a particle size that is greater than the
overall particle cutsize (D50).
This is because such particles have sufficient density to settle to the apex of the
cyclone and report with the coarse product. The turbulence and instability of flows within
cyclones also contribute to reduced efficiency. It is even more undesirable in settlers
since settlers require quiescent flow of water in order to achieve good separation.
Insufficient retention time also limits the ability of classifiers used in industry to achieve
optimum separations.
Previous studies have found that density-based processes provide higher efficiencies
for treating coals with high middlings concentrations than froth floatation. However, the
ability of gravity separators to treat fine particles is limited by the lack of particle inertia
relative to the surface drag forces (Honaker et al, 1996). These surface drag forces can
however be overcome by the use of an enhanced gravitational field. Based on this
knowledge, several enhanced gravity separators capable of achieving density-based
separations on ultrafine particles have been developed and tested for their potential as
coal cleaning units. These centrifugal units include the Knelson and Falcon concentrators,
the Altair and Kelsey jigs and the Mozely Multi-Gravity separator. Among these
separators, the Falcon concentrator indicates the most potential for near term use in coal
processing plants.
Figure 2.16 Schematic illustration of the operating principles of the Falcon Concentrator
(Honaker et al, 1996)
Table 2.3 Typical probable error values and specific gravity cut points achieved by
various enhanced gravity concentrators for the treatment of 210 x 37-m size fraction of
various coal samples (Honaker et al, 1996).
Parameter
Falcon
Knelson
MGS
Kelsey
300
60
30
60
1.5 - 1.8
1.9
2.1
2.0
Probable Error
0.10 - 0.15
0.10
0.10
0.12
3. EXPERIMENTAL
The laboratory classifying cyclone circuit tests were conducted using a 10-cm
diameter Krebs classifying cyclone with a 5.5-cm2 inlet area, a 4-cm diameter vortex and
a 12-degree cone angle. Inlet pressure was maintained at 140 kPa. Three different apex
diameters of 1.27-cm, 1.66-cm and 2.05-cm were used under various test conditions
studied. Figure 3.1 is a schematic diagram of the experimental set-up used for the tests.
Both the overflow and underflow streams of the classifying cyclone were collected were
collected in the feed sump. A part of the cyclone feed was by-passed to the feed sump at
a high flowrate to enhance mixing within the sump through continuous agitation of the
feed sump contents.
During all tests, underflow and overflow samples were collected at precisely the same
time. A time interval of 15 minutes was allowed between sample collections to ensure
steady state conditions and to allow the complete dispersal of the added modifiers within
the slurry. The samples collected were analyzed for ash content using one gram
representative samples put through an ash furnace. The samples were also wet screened
or analyzed using a Cilas Quantum particle size analyzer to obtain the size distributions
of the feed, underflow and overflow material. These analyses were used to generate
partition curve data for the various test conditions.
The laboratory classifying cyclone tests was conducted in three phases. The initial
tests were conducted using a coal sample from an Illinois based processing plant that
treats Illinois No 6 coal. Upon arrival, the coal sample was crushed and screened to -150
m.
Overflow
Classifying
Cyclone
Underflow
Fine Coal
Feed Sump
Pump
Study the effect of three previously identified parameters namely the apex
diameter, feed solids concentration and dosage of the viscosity modifier on
classifying cyclone performance for treating fine coal using a range of parameter
values which were chosen with aim of providing measurable differences in the
response variables as shown in Table 3.1.
Obtain experimental data that could be used to develop a model, which describes
the effect of the aforementioned parameters on selected response variables used
to describe classifying cyclone performance.
The second phase of tests was conducted using samples of Illinois coal. The aim of
these tests was to investigate the effect of viscosity modifier type and their ability to
maintain a high level of classifying efficiency when the cyclone was operated under
roping or near roping conditions.
The third set of tests was conducted using feed slurry obtained from the Supreme
Energy Coal processing plant located in Knott County. In order to produce a high solids
content slurry, which could be used to prepare feed of different solids concentrations at
constant ash content to the classifying cyclone, the coal sample was taken through a first
stage of classification in the laboratory. This was done using a 10-cm classifying cyclone
fitted with a 1.27 cm apex at a feed pressure of 15psi (103 kPa). The cyclone underflow
was then collected and used to carry out the test work. Samples of this underflow product
were diluted and used to prepare feed slurry of different percent solids, which were used
as feed for different tests.
Table 3.1 Range of parameter values evaluated in the laboratory classification test
program.
Independent Variables
Apex diameter (cm)
Feed solids (%)
Viscosity modifier (Kg/t)
-1 level
12.7
5
0
Range
0 level
16.6
7.5
0.5
+1 Level
20.5
10
1
The in-plant classifying circuit tests were performed within the fine coal circuit at the
Supreme Energy coal processing plant located in Knott County in Eastern Kentucky. A
two-stage classifying cyclone circuit comprised of 15-cm diameter Krebs G-max
cyclones were installed and evaluated for the treatment of the overflow of a bank of
38-cm classifying cyclones (Figure 3.2). The 38 cm cyclones were used to effect a
150m (100 mesh) size cut from a nominal -1mm particle size coal .The 1mm x 0.15mm
size fraction reporting to the underflow was treated using spirals while the -0.15 mm size
fraction reporting to the cyclone overflow provided the feed to the 15-cm classifying
cyclone circuit.
Two U6-gMax cyclones were used in the primary cyclone stage. The goal of the
primary 15-cm diameter cyclones was to maximize the rejection of the -37 m material
to the overflow stream while recovering nearly 100% of the +37 m coal to the
underflow stream. The primary cyclone underflow stream was retreated in a Secondary
15-cm diameter gMax cyclone, which was operated to maximize the removal of the -37
m material from the final underflow product stream. The objective of the in-plant tests
was to produce a clean coal product by achieving an efficient 37 m separation. The
physical dimensions of the inlet and outlet ports of the G-max units used in this study as
well as the operating pressures are provided in Table 3.2.
Circuit Overflow
- 0.15 mm
- 1mm
Feed
15-cm G-max
Classifying
Cyclone
38-cm
Classifying
Cyclones
Dilution
Water
Feed
sump
Spiral Feed
1 x 0.15 mm
15-cm
G-max
Classifying
Cyclone
Circuit
Produc
t
Figure 3.2 Schematic flowsheet of the two-stage Classifying cyclone circuit set-up.
Table 3.2 Dimensions and operating conditions used in the study for the primary and
secondary classifying cyclones.
Parameter
Primary Cyclone
Secondary Cyclone
Inlet Area
9.7-cm2 (1.5-in2)
9.7-cm2 (1.5-in2)
0.635-cm (0.25-in)
cm (0.25-in)
Vortex Finder Diameter
5.1-cm (2.0-in)
3.8-cm (1.5-in)
Inlet Pressure
Incremental samples of all the different process streams were taken at 5-minute
intervals for a period of 30 minutes for each of the test conditions evaluated. To ensure
steady state conditions, a time interval of 30 minutes was allowed between subsequent
tests. Pulp density readings were measured using a Marcy Density gauge previously
calibrated to provide a reading of 1(one) for the density of water. Solid concentration was
determined from the weight of the slurry before and after filtering it and drying the filter
cake at 100c. The samples were then wet screened and the material in each size fraction
analyzed for ash content. Mineral matter content was estimated using the Parr formula.
Due to the high solid concentrations in the primary underflow stream, dilution water was
added in some tests prior to being fed to the secondary cyclone. However, the amount of
water could not be measured which resulted in the inability to quantify a circuit water
flow balance.
d 50( c )
The cutsize is the particle size corresponding to the particle size, having a 50%
probability of reporting to the underflow stream. The corrected cutsize was determined
from the corrected curve which is developed by adjusting the actual partition values to
eliminate the effect of ultrafine by-pass using Equation 3.1., i.e.,
Y'
Y R1
1 R1 R2
(3.1)
in which Y' is the corrected partition number, Y is the actual partition number, R1 is the
fraction of ultrafine by-pass to the underflow stream and R2 is the fractional amount of
by-passed coarse particles to the overflow stream. The slope of the classification curve
describes the efficiency of the classification and is referred to as alpha value (). An
efficient classification is characterized by a high -value. Another efficiency
measurement is the imperfection value, (I) which is determined from the corrected
partition curve according to the following expression:
d 75 d 25
2d 50( c )
(3.2)
where d 75 and d 25 are the particle sizes that have a 75% and 25% chance of reporting to
the underflow stream. As such, a perfect separation corresponds to a value of zero (0) and
increases with declining efficiency. The yield to the underflow stream can be determined
based on ash analysis of the feed, underflow and overflow stream material using the
following relationship:
Yield (%)
o
x100
u o
(3.3)
where f , u and o are the ash contents of the feed, underflow and overflow respectively.
o
Y
f
(3.4)
Qu f o
Qf
u o
(3.5)
where f , o and u are the pulp density values of the feed, overflow and underflow
streams, respectively. The pulp density values were determined using a Marcy density
gauge.
The coal used for the first and second phase laboratory plant tests was obtained by
crushing and grinding run-of-mine coal obtained from the Illinois No.6 seam. The -100
mesh (-150 microns) coal was prepared using a laboratory jaw crusher and hammer mill.
The particle size weight and ash distribution of the coal are provided in Table 3.3.
The subsequent group of tests was conducted using coal obtained from the Supreme
Energy coal processing plant located in Knott County in Eastern Kentucky. Samples of
the feed to the two stage circuit was collected as a 5% solids content slurry ,which was
further classified using a 10-cm laboratory Krebs cyclone fitted with a 1.27 cm apex
from which a slurry of about 24 % solids was obtained after initial classification.
Particle size analyses of the feed samples were achieved by wet sieve analysis and the
data presented in Table 3.4.
Table 3.3 Particle size analysis of the phase 1 and 2 laboratory classifying cyclone tests
feed.
Weight
(%)
Ash
(%)
150 x 105
26.45
27.95
105 x 75
17.37
37.36
75 x 63
10.71
44.21
63 x 44
3.45
47.33
44 x 37
4.02
48.06
37 x 25
4.35
49.59
-25
33.65
66.47
46.71
Particle Size
(Microns)
100.00
Table 3.4 Particle size analysis of Phase 3 laboratory classifying cyclone tests feed.
Particle Size
(Microns)
+212
Weight
(%)
0.25
Ash
(%)
3.92
212 x 150
0.83
2.70
150 x 75
7.29
2.92
75 x 45
7.37
6.87
45 x 37
2.56
12.58
37 x 25
4.39
23.89
-25
77.32
69.84
56.12
100.00
The -500 mesh material contained 66% ash, which implied that the fraction has the
greatest amount of ash forming material. It was therefore realized that the solution to
generating a low ash product was the removal of this high ash content fraction by
achieving an efficient size separation. Further analysis of the size-by-size data indicated
that complete removal of this size fraction would generate a 9.4 % ash content product.
The classifying cyclone model developed by Bradley (1965) indicates that an increase
in viscosity elevates the particle size cutpoint (d50) as indicated by the expression:
d 50
Dc3
s
m
0.5
(3.6)
temperature however requires a large energy input that is generally not cost effective or
practical for commercial circuits. A more practical adjustment to a given classifying
cyclone would be to increase inlet pressure. However, the higher pressure would elevate
maintenance requirements and would not significantly negate the viscosity effect on
efficiency.
The viscosity of the feed slurry was measured using a Cannon LV-2000 Rotary
Viscometer. The system consists of a removable cylindrical spindle connected to a
measuring device and suspended at the axis and above the bottom of a hollow cylinder. A
spindle was used that allowed the detection of viscosity changes as low as 1 centipoise. A
rotational speed of 60 revolutions per minute was employed in all measurements. Upon
initiating spindle rotation, the dispersed sample was quickly transferred into the space
between the spindle and the cylinder. Each reading was taken five (5) seconds after the
introduction of the sample to ensure that all measurements were taken while the particles
were in complete suspension. The sample readings were reasonably stable, provided
good repeatability and provided sufficient basis for comparing the viscosities of the
different samples.
The data obtained from the study is presented in Table 4.1. A general look at the data
suggests that increasing percent solids within the range studied decreased solids yield and
increased both cutsize and the imperfection value. This was due to the higher solids
population and the resulting hindered settling effect created within the cyclone as a result
of these conditions. The result was a decreased ability of fine particles to move to the
coarse product stream. The higher imperfection value was because of increased viscosity
and particle interaction effects occurring at high solids concentrations.
Table 4.1 Test results obtained from the experimental program evaluating the effect of
apex diameter, modifier addition and feed solids on classifying cyclone performance.
Test
No.
Apex
Diameter
(mm)
SDS
(kg/t)
Feed
Solids
(%)
d50(c)
(m)
Bypass
(%)
Imperfection
52.00
Yield to
Underflow
(%)
61.27
12.7
7.5
9.80
0.490
12.7
7.5
42.50
67.61
8.50
0.277
16.6
36.00
68.98
12.5
0.361
16.6
0.5
7.5
43.80
66.78
9.90
0.457
16.6
10
43.00
67.40
11.5
0.454
20.5
0.5
29.00
79.61
22.2
0.379
12.7
0.5
37.50
69.57
8.50
0.300
16.6
0.5
7.5
42.80
66.36
10.5
0.491
12.7
0.5
10
39.00
68.51
11.00
0.324
10
16.6
0.5
7.5
45.00
65.96
10.00
0.433
11
20.5
0.5
10
25.50
84.14
30.00
0.422
12
20.5
7.5
31.10
79.66
17.50
0.389
13
16.6
0.5
7.5
44.00
65.51
14.50
0.398
14
20.5
7.5
29.20
80.22
22.70
0.428
15
16.6
10
40.50
66.83
10.00
0.386
16
16.6
0.5
7.5
44.00
66.04
11.00
0.455
17
16.6
35.00
68.99
7.50
0.278
However, not all past research investigating the effect of viscosity observed the same
trends. Klimpel (1981, 1982) using an anionic polymer to modify pulp viscosity obtained
a small increase in cutsize with decreasing viscosity. This increase was due to particle
aggregation, which reduced particle population within the cyclone. Yopps (1986) and
Yopps et al (1987), on the other hand, did not observe any change in cutsize with
reducing viscosity. Therefore, the observed effects of viscosity modification might be
specific to the modifier.
The experimental results obtained from the statistical test program together with the
operating variable values were entered into a commercial statistical analysis software
package called Design Expert .This was used to develop empirical models that describe
the effect of the parameter values on the cutsize, solids yield to the underflow of the
cyclone, ultrafine by-pass and imperfection value.
.
The 17 tests that were conducted involved five repetitive tests (Test No. 4, 8, 10, 13,
and 16) which corresponded to the central parameter values. These values were used to
quantify the normal error associated with the experimental procedure and sample analysis
and show the degree of repeatability of the test results. Table 4.2 shows the variability in
the various response variables resulting from experimental error. The data revealed the
existence of a small degree of randomness in the measured response variables. This is
evident in the measured d50(c) values of tests 8 and 10, which marginally fall out of the
determined confidence interval corresponding to 43.92 m 0.97. The other measured
responses however show a lower degree of variability.
Table 4.2 Statistical evaluation of the experimental error realized from the Classifying
Cyclone parametric test.
Test Number
D50(c) (microns)
Yield (%)
By-pass (%)
Imperfection
43.80
66.78
9.90
0.457
42.80
66.36
10.50
0.491
10
45.00
65.96
10.00
0.433
13
44.00
65.51
14.50
0.398
16
44.00
66.04
11.11
0.455
Mean
43.92
66.13
11.18
0.4468
95 %
Confidence
Interval
0.97
0.59
2.37
0.0425
Quadratic expressions were found to be suitable for the prediction of the response
variables. The forms of the quadratic models for the various response variables
considered were:
(4.1)
Bypass 11326
. 1169
. AD 1152
. MC 501
. PS 0.36 AD 2 8.21MC 2
0.20 PS 2 083
. ( AD)( MC) 014
. ( AD)( PS ) 0.70( MC)( PS )
(4.2)
(4.3)
To develop a statistical model, it is first necessary to prove that the observed results
are a direct product of the changing parametric values rather than experimental error.
This suggests that the variances associated with experimental procedures should be less
than the variance in the response variables for all tests. Anything other than this would
render the model meaningless. Evaluating the effects of parameter changes on a response
variable involves the use of the F-statistic. The F-statistic is used to test the null
hypothesis that the variance observed for all tests can be explained by pure error variance
and is expressed as:
SS yy
F
df r
SSE
(4.4)
df e
where SS yy is the sum of squares residuals for the response variables, df r the degrees of
freedom associated with the calculation of SS yy , SSE is the sum of squares of the
experimental error and df e is the degrees of freedom associated with the determination of
the SSE value which is obtained by subtracting the number of measured
responses(n=17), from the parameters(k=9). In order for the model to be accepted, the
null hypothesis should be rejected. The calculated F-value is therefore compared to an
F0.05, which corresponds to the 95% confidence interval for the calculated value. The Fvalue is determined from the F-Table for (k=9) and (n-k+1). If the F-value exceeds the
calculated F0.05, the model is accepted. All the F-values shown in Table 4.3 are greater
than the calculated F-value of 3.68 determined from the models considered and therefore
the models were considered adequate.
The model was also tested using the probability Prob >F value, which represents the
probability of falsely rejecting the null hypothesis and is used as the indicator of level of
significance.
Table 4.3 ANOVA table generated for the response variables associated with the
laboratory classifying cyclone tests.
Degree of
Source
Freedom
F Value
Prob > F
R2
Adjusted
R2
By-pass Model
Model
8.33
<0.0053
Lack of Fit
3.46
0.1307
0.92
0.81
0.88
0.78
0.98
0.96
Imperfection Model
Model
9.32
<0.0017
Lack of Fit
0.76
0.6210
49.13
<0.0001
Lack of Fit
6.64
0.0535
Low Prob > F values correspond to a lower probability of falsely rejecting the null
hypothesis and hence suggest a strong relationship between the parameter changes and
the response variables. Prob > F values around 0.10 or less are associated with terms
which that are considered to have a significant effect on the response variable. As shown
in Table 4.3, all the models had Prob > F values less than 0.10 suggesting a strong
relationship between the parameter effects and response variables.
SSR
n k 1
(4.5)
where SSE is the model sum of squares ,SSR the sum of squares of the residuals, n is the
number of data points and k the number of model parameters. For a model to pass the
lack of fit test, the calculated F-value should be less than the F0.05. The F-value is
determined from the F-table for n-k-m (3) and m-1(4) degrees of freedom. The calculated
F-values for the by-pass and imperfection were less than 6.59 with high Prob > F
suggesting adequate model fit. Some outliers were discovered during the analysis of the
cutpoint model which resulted in an F-value of 28.70 and a low Prob > F-value of 0.0036
suggesting some lack of fit. However, when the data was re-analyzed without the two
outliers, the model provided a better fit and the lack-of-fit significance disappeared. The
yield to underflow model however, did not pass the lack of fit test and is thus not
presented as a viable model for prediction in this study.
R2 1
^
yi
y y
i
(4.6)
where yi is the observed value, y is the predicted response variable value for each test
and y is the mean experimental value obtained from all available data. An R 2 value of
1.0 means that 100 % of the response parameter variability within the range of parameter
values tested can be explained by or more of the parameters and parameter interactions
considered in the model. As shown in Table 4.3 the by-pass, imperfection and cutsize
models have high R 2 values of 0.92, 0.88 and 0.98 respectively.
A high R 2 value, however, does not adequately quantify the ability of the model to
predict the response variable. This is because the R 2 value can be high due to the
presence of added parameters or interaction terms that do not contribute to the models
ability to predict. The adjusted coefficient of determination Radj 2 is to account for the
presence of excessive terms within the model and is calculated as:
Radj 2 1
n 1
1 R2
n k 1
(4.7)
where n is the number of data points and k the number of parameters in the model. It is
evident from Eq.(4.7) that Radj 2 must always be always less than R 2 with a high relative
difference between the two values indicating the presence of excess parameters. As
shown in Table 4.3 the Radj 2 values were 0.81, 0.78 and 0.96 for the by-pass,
imperfection and cut point models respectively, which are considered reasonable. As
shown in Figures 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 the final models obtained provided good prediction of
the experimental data.
The significance of a model parameter is indicated by Prob > F-values less than 0.100.
As such, the values in Table 4.4 indicate that the viscosity modifier has a significant
effect in the determination of the particle cutpoint (d50(c)) and the classification efficiency
as measured by the imperfection value. A significant interactive effect was noted between
modifier concentration and apex diameter, which is likely due to the apex diameter effect
on the underflow solids concentration. Interestingly the modifier did not interact with
feed solids concentration in the same significant manner. The reason may be that the
change in apex diameter in the test program resulted in a greater range of underflow
solids concentrations as compared to the fairly narrow range of feed solid concentrations.
However, both apex diameter and feed solids concentration were found to have a
significant effect on particle cutsize. In terms of ultrafine by-pass reduction, only apex
diameter had a statistically significant effect.
As shown in Table 4.4 some variables in the imperfection model where considered
insignificant and thus where removed in order to arrive at the final model presented in
this study.
Table 4.4 Classification performance models and associated model fitness values;
AP=apex diameter,MC=viscosity modifier concentration and PS=feed solids
concentration by weight.
Parameter
By-pass (%)
Imperfection
F Value
Prob > F
F Value
Prob > F
F Value
Prob > F
8.33
0.0053
9.32
0.0017
42.68
< 0.0001
AP
49.85
0.0002
6.32
0.0331
228.60
< 0.0001
MC
0.11
0.7466
12.96
0.0058
15.74
0.0074
PS
2.33
0.1709
8.81
0.0157
26.88
0.0020
AP2
17.02
0.0044
4.27
0.0687
98.44
< 0.0001
MC2
2.37
0.1674
1.44
0.2612
7.53
0.0335
PS2
0.88
0.3803
14.09
0.0045
100.50
< .00010
AP x MC
1.41
0.2733
15.58
0.0034
8.19
0.0287
AP x PS
0.94
0.3647
4.94
0.0679
MC x PS
0.41
0.5425
0.32
0.5927
Lack of fit
3.46
0.1307
6.64
0.0535
Intercept
0.76
0.6210
Simulations of the various parameter effects represented by Figures 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6
showed that the response variables were dependent on the parameters considered and
revealed the trends in the effects of the parameters on classifying cyclone performance.
As shown in Figure 4.4 decreasing apex diameter had a positive effect in limiting
ultrafine particle by-pass. Ultrafine by-pass decreased from about 28% to 11% with
decreasing apex diameter within the range of 13-mm to 21-mm considered in the model.
52.00
45.38
38.75
32.13
25.50
25.50
32.13
38.75
45.38
52.00
Figure 4.1 Comparison of the experimental and empirical models for cutsize(D50).
30.00
23.96
17.92
11.89
5.85
5.85
11.89
17.92
23.96
30.00
Figure 4.2 Comparison of the experimental and empirical models for ultrafine by-pass.
Predicted Imperfection
0.49
0.43
0.38
0.32
0.26
0.26
0.32
0.38
0.43
0.49
Actual Imperfection
Figure 4.3 Comparison of the experimental and empirical models for imperfection.
This finding was in agreement with fundamental knowledge and was due to the
reduced water recovery to the classifying cyclone underflow. Increasing solids
concentration and decreasing apex diameter both have the negative effect of increasing
particle cutsize. However, due to the greater range of change in underflow solids
concentration with changing apex size than to changing feed solids concentration the
effect of changing apex diameter was more pronounced (Figure 4.5). Furthermore,
reducing apex diameter as shown in Figure 4.6 had the added effect of depreciating
classification efficiency. In a subsequent section of this thesis, the addition of a viscosity
modifier to eliminate or reduce the negative impacts of a decreasing apex diameter will
be discussed in greater detail.
28
Bypass (%)
23
18
14
9
10
Fe
ed
S
21
oli
ds
19
8
Co
n
m)
m
(
r
17
6
c.(
%
)
15
5
13
ex
Ap
ete
m
a
Di
D50(c) (Microns)
52
46
39
32
26
21
Apex 19 17
Diam
15
eter
(mm
)
13
10
Feed
c.
Con
s
d
i
So l
8
(%)
Imperfection
0.48
0.42
0.37
0.32
0.26
0.00
Mo
13
0.25
dif
ier
)
mm
(
r
15
0.50
Co
nc 0.75
. (k
g/t
o
17
19
1.00
n)
21
e
Ap
ete
am
i
xD
4.2.1
Based on the results from the parametric study, two classifying cyclone parameters
were selected for further study. Since this phase of the test work involved in-plant
studies, it was important that the selected operating parameters be easily controlled in an
operating plant environment. As a result, feed percent solids and apex diameter as well as
two different in-plant classification circuits were selected as the parameters to be tested.
Viscosity modifier concentration was not studied due to concerns regarding the effects on
downstream processes.
Prior to performing the in-plant circuit study, preliminary tests were conducted in the
laboratory using a 10-cm classifying cyclone to obtain results that were used to guide the
in-plant test program. Figure 4.7 shows the partition curves obtained from the laboratory
classification tests using feed coal obtained from the Knott County Coal processing plant
under different operating conditions. Solids concentration to the classifying cyclone was
varied at 5% and 10% solids by weight using two apex diameters of 1.27-cm and
1.66-cm. As shown in Figure 4.8, lower cutsizes of 20 m and 36 m where achieved
using the 5% solids as compared to the 30 m and 73 m values obtained when
employing 10% feed solids feed content for apex diameters of 1.66-cm and 1.27-cm,
respectively. Cutsize also increased for the same feed solids concentrations when apex
diameter was reduced from 1.66-cm to 1.27-cm. This was due to higher solids population
at the cyclone apex under both high solids content and reduced apex conditions resulting
in increased viscosity effects and an elevated hindered settling environment. These
conditions resist particle movement within the slurry and favor the settling of coarse
particles.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
1.66-cm Apex
1.27-cm Apex
20
10
0
1
10
100
1000
(b)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
1.66-cm Apex
1.27-cm Apex
10
0
1
10
100
1000
(a)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
10
100
1000
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10% Feed Solids
5% Feed Solids
10
0
1
10
100
1000
Table 4.5 Laboratory classifying cyclone test results showing the effect of feed solids
concentration and apex diameter.
Percent Solids by
weight (%)
10
1.66
1.27
1.66
1.27
Cutsize (m)
20
36
30.
73
By-pass (%)
27
11
15.
Imperfection
0.49
0.53
0.64
0.46
Yield (%)
75.4
70.9
69.8
51.9
The conditions evaluated under the laboratory tests conditions were repeated in an inplant study conducted on a two-stage 15-cm classifying circuit. Two apexes with
diameters measuring 0.64-cm and 1.5-cm were evaluated under varying rates of dilution
water addition to the feed to the secondary cyclone in two different circuitry
arrangements. The circuitry arrangements involved one in which the secondary cyclone
overflow was recycled back to the feed to the primary cyclone and another case when
there was no recycle.
The feed to the circuit was the overflow of a bank of 38-cm classifying cyclones,
which was used to achieve a 150 m separation. The goal of the primary 15-cm diameter
cyclone in this circuit was to maximize the rejection of the -37 m material to the
overflow stream, while recovering nearly 100% of the +37 m coal to the underflow
stream. The primary cyclone underflow stream was retreated in a secondary 15-cm
diameter cyclone, which was operated to provide a near complete removal of the -37 m
material from the final underflow product stream. To minimize ultrafine by-pass due to
entrainment, water recovery to the underflow was restricted by the use of a 1.27-cm
diameter apex, which is significantly smaller than the typical size.
The feed pressure to each cyclone was maintained at around 160 kPa. The initial test
performed on the circuit did not add dilution water to any process stream within the
circuit. As a result, the feed stream to the secondary cyclone, which was supplied by the
primary underflow, had a relatively high solids concentration of 23.59% by weight.
As shown in Table 4.6, the ash content was reduced significantly from 47.14% in the
feed to 28.65% in the circuit product stream, which is the secondary cyclone underflow.
With a mass yield to the secondary underflow of about 34%, the amount of ash material
rejected to the circuit reject stream (i.e., primary overflow) was about 79% of the total
that entered in the circuit feed. The overall corrected cutsize, D50(c) for the circuit
determined from partition curve data shown in Figure 4.9(a) and (b) was about 37 m
with an imperfection value of approximately 0.473. This represented an efficiency
improvement of about 14% over that of the primary cyclone, which had an efficiency of
0.549. The corresponding increase in the -value was from 2.00 to 2.32. In addition,
ultrafine by-pass was reduced significantly from about 25% to less than 9%. As such, the
objective of obtaining a 37m cutsize was achieved.
Although the D50(c) achieved was very close to the target cutsize and the ash reduction
was significant, two concerns were identified. A density differential effect had a
significant impact on the final product ash content. The density effect is evident in Table
4.6 by the elevated ash contents in the 44 x 37 m, 37 x 25 m and -25 m particle size
fractions from the initial feed to the primary underflow and the secondary underflow.
Somewhat unexpected was the magnitude of the increase in the -25 m fraction from
65.38% to 89.14%.
Table 4.6 Two-stage classifying cyclone circuit with no secondary cyclone feed dilution data.
Feed
Particle Size
(m)
Wgt (%) Ash (%)
Primary
Underflow
Wgt (%) Ash (%)
Secondary
Underflow
Wgt (%) Ash (%)
Primary
Overflow
Wgt (%) Ash (%)
Secondary
Overflow
Wgt (%) Ash (%)
+ 212
0.60
2.93
1.26
2.33
1.79
2.72
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
212 x 150
2.16
1.94
5.08
1.78
5.91
2.08
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
150 x 75
13.04
2.48
25.13
2.34
39.46
2.65
0.53
3.16
5.84
2.30
75 x 44
9.52
5.90
20.24
6.72
23.67
8.14
2.84
1.85
1.51
1.56
44 x 37
4.44
13.29
5.20
19.35
6.14
27.80
2.69
3.79
6.17
3.15
37 x 25
5.14
23.87
6.89
36.33
6.75
61.43
3.95
4.48
6.21
5.53
-25
65.08
60.97
36.20
66.78
16.28
83.82
89.99
58.58
80.27
56.96
Total
100.00
42.44
100.00
29.75
100.00
22.64
100.00
53.06
100.00
46.42
Solids (%)
6.37
14.48
43.21
3.09
1.17
100
(a)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
Primary Cyclone
20
Secondary Dilution
No dilution Secondary
10
0
1
10
100
1000
(b)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
Primary Cyclone
20
Secondary Dilution
10
No dilution Secondary
0
1
10
100
1000
Figure 4.9 Classification performance curves based on (a) actual data and (b) corrected
values obtained from the primary cyclone and the circuit with and without dilution.
This finding indicates that the ultrafine, high-density particles have adequate mobility
to concentrate toward the apex area of the cyclone. The unfortunate result is that the
product ash content of the circuit product is sensitive to the incremental recovery of the
finest fractions. It is believed that the high ultrafine by-pass amounts realized from the
secondary cyclone was due to the high feed solid concentration, which provided an
elevated viscosity environment and hindered-settling conditions throughout the cyclone.
Under typical conditions, the recovery of the hydraulically, entrainable solids to the
underflow stream is limited as a result of an inward movement of fluid toward the center
of the cyclone as a result of coarse particles reporting to the outer cyclone wall. Under
hindered-settling conditions, the amount of solids moving toward the cyclone wall and,
thus to the apex, reduces. As a result, the amount of ultrafine by-pass increases. Based on
this hypothesis, the feed solids concentration to the secondary cyclone was reduced by
the addition of water into the process stream.
As shown in Table 4.7, the solids concentration of the secondary feed was reduced
from 23.59% to 14.48% as a result of the water injection. This resulted in a reduction in
the product ash to 22.64%. The amount of ash rejected to the circuit tailings was
improved to 81% while the mass yield to the circuit product slightly increased to 34.9%.
Figure 4.9 shows that the overall classification performance of the circuit resulted in a
D50(c) of about 37 m and an improved classification performance relative to the no
dilution circuit represented by an imperfection value of 0.466 and -value of 2.36 while
still maintaining a low ultrafine by-pass value of less than 9%. Thus, the primary goal of
achieving a 37m cutsize from the two-stage circuit was achieved. Furthermore ultrafine
particle by-pass was reduced to below 10%. It was also evident that circuit with the
secondary feed dilution was the more efficient circuit, likely due to a higher degree of
particle free settling. However, approximately 6 weight units of + 25 micron (+500 mesh)
material with an ash content less than 4% reported to the cyclone overflow stream which
would be rejected to the fine coal waste stream in a typical operating plant. This
observation is critical for a number of plants that are currently using a single stage of
classifying cyclones to deslime flotation feed.
Table 3.7 Two-stage classifying cyclone circuit with secondary cyclone feed dilution data.
Feed
Particle Size
(m)
Wgt (%) Ash (%)
Primary
Underflow
Wgt (%) Ash (%)
Secondary
Underflow
Wgt (%) Ash (%)
Primary
Overflow
Wgt (%) Ash (%)
Secondary
Overflow
Wgt (%) Ash (%)
+ 212
0.60
2.55
1.33
2.36
2.12
2.41
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
212 x 150
2.69
1.69
6.16
1.75
10.04
1.74
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
150 x 75
11.69
2.68
27.67
2.73
43.79
2.88
0.71
3.09
3.39
1.81
75 x 44
9.34
7.93
17.13
9.32
13.61
14.46
3.50
2.24
19.47
2.12
44 x 37
3.35
16.27
5.11
28.57
4.76
58.50
2.17
3.14
5.93
4.37
37 x 25
5.24
30.90
6.82
51.84
8.21
83.26
3.72
6.00
7.13
9.36
-25
67.09
65.38
35.78
72.22
17.47
89.14
89.90
62.53
64.08
63.30
Total
100.00
47.14
100.00
33.33
100.00
28.65
100.00
56.61
100.00
41.96
Solids (%)
8.02
23.59
51.21
86
5.28
3.41
The economical significance can be realized by considering a 1000 tph plant being fed
coal containing 8% -150 micron (-100 mesh) material. Using a 15-cm (6-in) diameter
Gmax cyclone under the same conditions of this study would result in a loss of nearly 5
tph of 4% ash coal. Assuming 5000 hrs annually for plant operating time and a sales
price of $50/ton, the annual revenue loss is $1.25 million. A previous study found that the
addition of a classifying cyclone to retreat the primary overflow stream has the potential
to recover a significant portion of the by-passed coal (Firth and OBrien, 2003).
When the circuit was operated without the recycle stream very little change in
performance was observed. This finding was in contrast to fundamental predictions
provided by classifying cyclone circuit simulation studies conducted by Honaker et al
(2006) which indicate that circuits which do not incorporate recycle streams have lower
efficiencies than circuits that do. However, the higher feed pressure to the secondary
cyclone may have provided a near 100% recovery of the particles having a size greater
than about 40 microns to the underflow stream.
The overall reduction in ash content did not meet the targeted goal despite the
achievement of a particle cutsize of 37 microns, excellent ultrafine classification
efficiency and a relatively low ultrafine by-pass amount of 9%. Two reasons accounted
for this. These included the recovery of a significant amount of -25 micron (-500 mesh)
material into the secondary underflow stream and a solid density effect on classification
performance as previously described.
89
Table 4.8 Two-stage classifying cyclone circuit with secondary cyclone feed dilution and no recycle data.
Particle
Size
(m)
Primary
Secondary
Primary
Secondary
Underflow
Underflow
Overflow
Overflow
Wgt (%) Ash (%) Wgt (%) Ash (%) Wgt (%) Ash (%) Wgt (%) Ash (%) Wgt (%) Ash (%)
Feed
+ 212
0.55
2.63
1.27
2.28
1.93
3.64
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
212 x 150
1.96
1.64
4.24
1.95
6.64
1.98
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
150 x 75
13.11
2.42
29.07
2.47
40.09
2.48
0.69
2.32
1.79
2.17
75 x 44
10.24
6.27
19.54
7.00
22.26
7.84
3.43
2.24
5.60
2.43
44 x 37
3.18
13.01
5.75
20.48
6.32
31.32
2.75
6.41
4.72
3.30
37 x 25
5.06
23.87
6.22
40.39
4.62
61.08
3.56
5.07
6.21
6.32
-25
65.91
61.39
33.91
66.88
18.14
82.59
89.56
59.77
81.67
58.42
Total
100.00
42.68
100.00
28.90
100.00
22.73
100.00
53.13
100.00
48.43
Solids (%)
6.38
15.41
40.51
89
4.10
0.90
In an effort to reduce ultrafine by-pass from the overall circuit, the apex size on the
primary cyclone unit was reduced from 1.27-cm (0.5-in) to 0.635-cm (0.25-in). Water
recovery and thus hydraulic entrainment to the underflow stream of the primary cyclone
was significantly reduced. Figure 4.10 shows that the ultrafine by-pass was decreased
from the 25% value obtained from the primary cyclone using the larger apex to 14%.As a
result, the amount of by-pass achieved from the 2-stage circuit without recycle reached a
low value of 6% while recycling produced a by-pass of 9%. In this case, however, the
recycling of the secondary cyclone overflow stream to the circuit feed had a significant
impact on circuit efficiency.
The imperfection and -values for the 2-stage circuit without recycle were 0.47 and
2.32, while the imperfection and values for the circuit with recycle were 0.41 and 2.67
respectively, which is a 15% efficiency improvement. The particle cutsize was 37
microns for the circuit with recycle and 56 microns without recycle, which is a negative
impact associated with the no recycle circuit.
89
100
(a)
90
2-Stage Circuit with Recycle
80
2-Stage Circuit without Recycle
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
10
100
1000
(b) 100
2-Stage with Recycle Primary
90
10
100
1000
Figure 4.10 Classification performance curves based on (a) actual values and (b)
corrected values for two-stage classifying cyclone with 0.635 cm apex in primary and
secondary cyclone.
90
The particle cutsize and the classification efficiency provided by using a smaller apex
in the primary cyclone were nearly equal to those obtained by the larger apex and the
amount of ultrafine was significantly reduced. The expectation from the performance
improvement was a decrease in the circuit ash content reporting from the secondary
cyclone underflow stream. However, the circuit ash content increased to around 29.00%
in both cases as shown in Tables 4.9 and 4.10. This finding was due to an elevation in the
amount of -25 micron material in circuit feed, a greater quantity of mineral matter in the
same size fraction and thus an increase in the overall feed ash content to 57.33%.
Table 4.9 Particle size-by-size analysis data of overall circuit process stream samples
obtained using an apex diameter of 0.635 cm in the primary and secondary classifying
cyclones with no recycle.
Feed
Circuit Product
Circuit Reject
Size
Fraction
(microns)
Wgt %
Ash %
Wgt %
Ash %
Wgt %
Ash %
+ 212
0.25
3.92
3.64
8.64
0.00
0.00
212 x 150
0.83
2.70
5.10
6.66
0.00
0.00
150 x 75
7.29
2.92
32.90
4.20
0.57
2.26
75 x 45
7.37
6.87
24.04
10.31
3.49
2.79
45 x 36
2.56
12.58
6.72
33.88
2.45
4.56
36 x 25
4.39
23.89
6.58
65.53
3.03
7.32
-25
77.32
69.84
21.02
86.98
90.46
68.72
Total
100.00
56.12
100.00
29.39
100.00
62.61
91
Table 4.10 Particle size-by-size analysis data of overall circuit process stream samples
obtained using an apex diameter of 0.635 cm in the primary and secondary classifying
cyclones with recycle.
Feed
Circuit Product
Circuit Reject
Size
Fraction
(microns)
Wgt (%)
Ash (%)
Wgt (%)
Ash (%)
Wgt (%)
Ash (%)
+ 212
0.24
3.61
1.12
4.36
0.00
0.00
212 x 150
0.72
2.48
3.29
3.32
0.00
0.00
150 x 75
6.46
2.78
29.20
2.88
0.29
2.40
75 x 45
7.72
6.28
27.81
7.71
2.19
2.76
45 x 36
3.71
12.40
7.08
22.36
1.72
4.02
36 x 25
3.18
24.11
6.98
52.49
3.21
6.51
-25
77.97
71.07
24.52
85.20
92.58
70.46
Total
100.00
57.33
100.00
29.28
100.00
65.58
The ash rejection achieved by the circuit was increased to slightly over 90% but the
recovery of ultrafine material and the density effect resulted in the high circuit product
ash value. The overall mass yield to the secondary cyclone underflow was 19.5% with no
recycle and 22.7% with recycle, which is lower than the previously reported values in
earlier sections of this document, due in part, to the higher amounts of mineral matter in
the feed.
As shown in Figure 4.10, the use of a 0.635-cm (0.25-in) diameter apex in the primary
and secondary cyclones provided lower circuit ultrafine by-pass values in the range of
6-7% as compared to 9-10% obtained using a 1.27-cm (0.50-in) in the primary cyclone
apex and 0.635-cm (0.25-in) apex in the secondary unit. Also, a slightly higher
classification efficiency was realized using the smaller apex. The lower yield and
92
elevated ash rejection values are reflective of a greater amount of -25 micron mineral
matter in the feed coal as compared to the feed coal provided during the tests involving
the 1.27-cm (0.5-in) diameter apex.
A study to investigate the effect of varying the level of feed dilution to the secondary
classifying cyclone was incorporated into test program. The classification performance
curves shown in Figure 4.11 indicate that diluting the feed to the secondary cyclone
provided a better classification performance and a lower separation cutsize than when no
dilution water was added. This was likely due to an improved degree of free settling
among the particles at the lower solids concentration as well as reduced viscosity effects.
93
Partition Number
(a) 100
90
80
70
10
100
1000
(b) 100
Medium Dilution With Recycle
90
Partition Number
80
70
10
100
1000
Figure 4.11 Classification performance curves based on (a) actual values and (b)
corrected values achieved using an apex diameter of 0.635-cm for different two-stage
classifying cyclone circuit configurations at different dilution levels.
94
0.5 x 0.25
0.25 x 0.25
Classification Performance
Condition
By-Pass
(%)
Value
Circuit
U/F
Yield
( %)
Circuit
Ash
Reject
(%)
D50(c)
microns
Imp.
Value
Primary Only
35
0.549
2.00
25
45.5
68.1
Dilution-No
Recycle
40
0.394
2.78
10
34.9
81.6
DilutionRecycle
37
0.466
2.36
34.9
81.4
No DilutionRecycle
37
0.473
2.32
33.9
79.4
Primary Only
35
0.497
2.21
14
26.4
81.1
37
0.387
2.84
22.4
88.8
56
0.334
3.29
15.1
90.1
Hi DilutionNo
Recycle
47
0.386
2.84
19.3
90.6
Med. Dilution
No Recycle
50
0.359
3.07
21.0
88.9
To provide a clearer understanding of the particle density effect, the data the data
obtained from the various tests were used to determine the mineral matter and coal
distributions and subsequently their respective classification partitioning. Mineral matter
content for each size fraction was estimated using the Parr formula defined as:
MineralMatter (%) 108
. Ash(%) 0.55Sulfur (%)
95
(4.8)
The data for the mineral matter has some randomness in the middle size fractions due
to the relatively small amounts of mineral mass and the elevated sensitivity to
experimental error. However, a comparison of the mineral matter and coal classification
curves provided useful information in understanding the effect that these two components
had on classification performance.
The particle cutsize (D50(c)) for the mineral matter (< 25 microns) was significantly
lower than the cutsize achieved on the coal particles (around 40 microns). This finding is
in agreement with fundamental reasoning. According to the Plitt equation, the difference
in the cutsize between the coal and mineral matter in a given classifying cyclone is:
D50( c ) MM D50( c )COAL
COAL 1
MM 1
0.5
0.3
40
1.7
96
0.5
17 microns
(4.9)
(a)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
10
100
1000
(b)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
10
100
1000
Figure 4.12 Coal and mineral matter size separation achieved by the classification circuit
according to the (a) Actual and (b) Corrected performance curves; Primary apex = 1.27cm, Secondary apex = 0.635cm.
97
In Equation 4.9 previously described, COAL is the relative density of coal (=1.3) and
MM the relative density of the mineral matter (=2.7). In addition, the recovery of mineral
matter to the underflow stream was significantly greater than coal for all particle size
fractions below 75 microns.
In addition to increased viscosity effects, a transition from Newtonian to nonNewtonian conditions occurs as solids concentrate towards the apex as a direct result of
the classification process. This implies the presence of a yield stress within the slurry,
which opposes the relative movement between the particle and the fluid. The ability to
overcome the yield stress is subject to the gravitational or centrifugal force exerted on the
particles, which is a function of particle size and density. As such, a critical particle size
exists below which particles of a given density cannot supercede the yield stress and thus
become hydraulically entrained and unclassifiable. An expression that can be used to
determine the critical size is:
dc
3 o
2 g c m
(4.9)
where c is the particle density m the medium density and 0 is the yield stress of the
medium and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
As stated in the above paragraph, a particle having a size below the critical value will
be entrained and thereby be recovered to the cyclone underflow stream at a rate
corresponding to water recovery. Assuming a yield stress of 20 centipoise, the critical
particle size for pure coal (c = 1.3) is 32 microns and the value for mineral matter (c =
2.65) is 6 microns. Particles having a size below these critical values would therefore be
hydraulically entrained under this rheological condition and report with the water into the
cyclone output streams.
It is therefore evident that this critical particle size is strongly dependent on particle
density with the critical size for high-density particles being smaller than that of low98
density particles. The data provides evidence of this by showing that coal is entrained at a
coarser size than mineral matter, a finding, which is in agreement with fundamental
theory.
circuit conditions indicated the following trends (Table 4.12). The efficiency of the coal
particles as compared to the overall partition curves was higher in the tests in which the
1.27-cm apex in the primary and 0.635-cm apex in the secondary was used. This circuit
provided efficiencies that were up to 66% better than the overall circuit efficiency. Using
the 0.635-cm apex in both the primary and secondary classifying cyclone gave
efficiencies that were up to 34% better than the overall classification curve. This suggests
that increased viscosity and other particle interaction effects brought about by increased
solids concentration within the cyclone at the smaller apex diameter had significant
negative impact on coal classification performance. Furthermore particle cutsize for coal
was generally higher in the circuit in which the 0.635-cm apex was used both cyclones
than in the 1.27-cm primary and 0.635-cm secondary apex circuit.
99
Table 4.12 Summary of classification circuit performances achieved for coal and mineral
matter under various operating conditions.
Apex
Diameter
(primary x
secondary)
0.5 x 0.25
0.25 x 0.25
Coal
Condition
By-Pass
(%)
Value
Mineral matter
D50(c)
By-Pass
microns
(%)
D50(c)
microns
Imp.
Value
Primary Only
40
0.388
2.84
20
8.5
27
Dilution-No
Recycle
43
0.274
4.01
8.8
13
DilutionRecycle
41
0.287
3.83
8.6
12
No DilutionRecycle
51
0.284
3.86
12
41
0.293
3.75
58
0.275
3.99
11
48
0.297
3.70
10
49
0.265
4.14
10
Studies conducted in the minerals industry have shown that the performance of
classifying cyclones can be improved using multi-stage circuits. The capabilities of these
circuits can be mathematically simulated using an empirical partition model. The model
is used to calculate the probability (P) that a particle of diameter (D) reports to the
oversize product. A popular partition model for classifying cyclones is given by:
exp{D / D( 50C ) 1
P (1 )
exp{D / D
exp{
2
50( C )
100
(4.10)
in which D50C is the particle cutsize, is the sharpness of the separation and is the
fractional by-pass of fines to the cyclone underflow stream. The value of is typically in
the range of 1-6 for mineral classification circuits. The value of is usually assumed to
be equal to the fraction of feed water reporting to the underflow. Once the partition
function is defined, the sizing performance of circuits incorporating multiple units can be
mathematically calculated if the partitioning behavior of each unit is the same. This
provision dictates that all particles of the same size have the same probability of reporting
to the oversize stream in all units.
The total by-pass (*) for the actual circuit can be calculated for any number (N) of
downstream units using:
* N .
(4.11)
The ultrafine by-pass values for the individual classifying cyclone units in the 1.27-cm
primary apex with 0.635-cm secondary apex circuit were first determined. Then using
Eqn.(4.11), the by-pass for the overall circuit
calculated. The calculated by-pass values were 10 % in both cases, which were in close
agreement with the 10% and 9% obtained using the recycle circuit and no recycle
circuits, respectively. The partition curves for the individual classifying cyclones units
were then determined and used to model various circuitry arrangements using linear
analysis (Table 4.13).
Models were first developed for the no recycle circuit in order to compare the
theoretical performance of that circuit with actual performance. The effect of recycling
on this circuit was then also modeled. The recycle circuit was modeled using the
relationship below:
P* P1 P2
(4.12)
in which P1 and P2 are the partition factors for the single stage primary unit and
single stage secondary unit respectively while P * is the partition factor obtained from the
two-stage circuit involving both units.
101
Table 4.13 Corrected partition numbers for 1.27-cm and 0.635-cm classifying cyclone
units.
Partition number (%)
1.27-cm apex
0.635-cm apex
100
100
100
100
96
98
76
87
50
67
45
49
P1 P2
1 P1 P1 P2
(4.13)
Results of the simulation and experimental test work presented in Figure 4.13 showed
that use of two stage cyclones in place of a single cyclone resulted in higher cutsizes and
lower by-pass values and improved efficiency. A cutsize of 47 m was achieved for the
no recycle circuit which is comparable to the of 48m cutsize predicted by the model.
Even though the model predicted a better classification performance with an imperfection
of 0.370 and an -value of 2.97, these values were still sufficiently close to the
imperfection of 0.394 and -value of 2.78 achieved in experimental test work.
According to Honaker et al (2006), using a recycle stream has the benefit of improving
the overall sharpness of the partition curve and lessens the impact of the circuit on
increasing particle cutsize.
102
100
(a)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
Recycle
No Recycle
10
0
1
10
100
1000
(b) 100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
Recycle
No Recycle
10
0
1
10
100
1000
4.13 Performance curves of the two-stage circuit models based on (a) actual values and
(b) corrected values.
103
The circuit simulation that involved recycling the secondary overflow back to the
primary cyclone had a positive effect on classification performance. Imperfection values
of 0.360 and -values of 3.05 as well as a cutsize of 43m were obtained from the
model. This represents an improved performance over that of the no recycle circuit while
allowing a lower separation cutsize. It was believed that the difference between the
experimental and model results was influenced by the density effect, which according to
Firth and OBrien, 2003 may lead to misleading results in circuit simulations if neglected.
However, the analysis showed that the simulated results provided trends, which were in
agreement with the observed data.
The performance advantages in employing three stage circuits was also simulated and
evaluated. The three circuits shown in Figure 4.14 were modeled. The three-stage circuit
with no recycle, Figure 4.14(a) was modeled using the relationship:
P* P1 P2 P3
(4.14)
P1 P2 P3
1 P1 P1 P2 P3
(4.15)
According to Firth and OBrien (2003), the three-stage counter flow circuit (Figure
4.14 (c)) appears to be capable of achieving reasonable coal recovery while at the same
time restricting the amount of ultrafine mineral matter. This circuit employs a rougher,
scavenger and a cleaner unit with recycle. A simulation of the classification performance
achievable by using this circuit was also modeled using the relationship described below
as:
P*
P1 P2
1 P 1 P P P
1
(4.16)
104
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 4.14 Three Stage Circuits with (a) No Recycle (b) Recycle (c) Countercurrent.
The simulation results shown in Figure 4.15 indicate that three-stage circuits should
provide an improved performance over that achieved by two-stage circuits. The threestage circuit with no recycle configuration would result in a lower by-pass of 4% but
higher cutsize of 54 m and an better efficiency represented by an imperfection of 0.263
and -value of 4.18 when compared to the two-stage no with no recycle configuration.
The three-stage circuit with recycle, according to the simulation provided even better
results by reducing by-pass to 4 % while at the same time improving the imperfection and
-value to 0.255 and 4.30 respectively at a cutsize of 46m. The counter current circuit
provided the benefit of providing the lowest cutsize of all the circuits of 32 m. However,
it provided an imperfection of 0.318 and an -value of 3.46 making it the least efficient
of the three-stage circuits. The results obtained from the simulation models are
summarized Table 4.14.
105
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
No Recycle
Recycle
Counter current
20
10
0
1
10
100
1000
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
No Recycle
Recycle
Counter current
20
10
0
1
10
100
1000
Table 4.14 Summary of the results obtained from classifying cyclone circuit modeling.
Model Results
2-Stage
2-Stage
3-Stage
3-Stage
Counter
No Recycle
Recycle
No Recycle
Recycle
Current
D50C
47
43
54
48
32
Imp
0.370
0.360
0.263
0.255
0.318
-Value
2.97
3.05
4.18
4.30
3.46
By-Pass
10
10
Value
%)
4.3 Viscosity Effects
The magnitude of the viscosity effect on classification efficiency is not very clear
based on published data. If elevated medium viscosity affects all particles in the same
manner regardless of particle size, no impact on efficiency would occur. In tests
investigating the impact of temperature on classification performance, increasing
temperature reduced viscosity and thus d50. However, efficiency was not improved
(Kawatra, 1988). On the other hand, it is well documented that the separation efficiency
achieved by particles settling in a dense medium varies according to the following
expression (Scott, 1988):
d 75 d 25
k d in
2d 50
(4.17)
in which I is the imperfection value for particle size di which has a value of zero for
perfect separations, k a function of medium viscosity and cycle geometry, n a constant,
and d75 and d25 the particle sizes having a 75% and 25% chance of reporting to the
underflow stream, respectively. As such, an increase in medium viscosity reduces
107
efficiency by an amount that is subject to the characteristics of the feed solids and
medium.
(4.18)
s2.23
where d is the mean particle size in mm and the particle sphericity. In coal applications,
kaolin clay is commonly the major mineral present in the ultrafine size fraction, which
typically represents greater than 60% of the feed solids. If a relative solid density of 2.7
and a sphericity factor of 0.1 are assumed, the critical solids concentration for a kaolin
suspension with a mean particle size of 5 microns is 7.4% by volume or 17.5% by
weight. The typical classifying cyclone feed has a solids content between 5% to 10% by
weight while the underflow solids content varies from 30% to 50% by weight. As such, a
typical classifying cyclone in the coal industry experiences a transition from Newtonian
to non-Newtonian characteristics during the classification process.
As a result of the presence of a yield stress (o), particles having a size below a critical
value (dc) will not be able to penetrate the fluid and thus will bypass the classification
process. This implies that the transition to non-Newtonian flow will result in an increase
in the amount of material reporting to the cyclone product streams as a function of the
water split. The critical particle size can be determined using the expression:
dc
3 o
2 g c m
(4.19)
108
A test performed using a relatively low feed solids concentration and large apex
diameter resulted in a particle size cutpoint (d50) of around 38 microns while bypassing
approximately 16% of the ultrafine material to the underflow stream as shown in Figure
4.16. Adding the viscosity modifier under this condition provided a reduction in by-pass
by 4 absolute percentage points and improved efficiency but had minimal effect on d50.
100
75
50
5% Solids, Apex Diameter = 16.6 mm
No Chemical
SDS 1.0 kg/t
25
0
10
30
50
70
90
110
130
150
109
However, when the apex diameter was reduced to limit the by-pass to around 10%, the
modifier addition converted the roping of the underflow stream to a more effective
condition, significantly improved efficiency and decreased d50 as shown in Figure 4.17.
The models developed based on the data acquired indicated that the addition of the
viscosity modifier decreased d50 and the amount of ultrafine by-pass while significantly
decreasing the imperfection value, which indicates an improvement in classification
efficiency.
100
75
50
7.5% Solids, Apex Diameter = 12.7 mm
No Chemical
SDS 1.0 kg/t
25
0
10
30
50
70
90
110
130
150
110
The cutsize (d50) reduction was consistent with existing cyclone models and a previous
study that used elevated medium temperatures (Kawatra.1988) to reduce viscosity. As
described by Equation (4.19), high solid concentrations results in a non-Newtonian slurry
that possesses a yield stress. As a result, critical particle size below which hydraulic
entrainment occurs thereby causing an increase in the amount of bypassed solids to the
underflow stream. The by-pass model indicates that the addition of the viscosity modifier
reduces the amount of by-pass, which may be due to a reduction in the yield stress and
thus the critical particle size.
When the viscosity modifier is added, the d50 decreased from about 50 to 40 microns
while improving efficiency by nearly 200%. As a result of using the small apex, ultrafine
by-pass was limited to about 5%, which equates to a significant decrease from the 20%
value achieved using the larger apex sizes.
111
d50 (Microns)
51
46
41
35
30
13
0.00
Mo
dif0.25
ier 0.50
Co
nc. 0.75
(kg
/to
15
ter
e
iam
17
19
1.00
21
n)
e
Ap
xd
m)
m
(
Figure 4.18 Interactive effect of modifier concentration and apex diameter on the
separation cutpoint; feed solids concentration = 7.5% by weight.
Imperfection
0.48
0.42
0.37
0.32
0.26
0.00
Mo
13
15
m)
dif
m
(
ier 0.50
17
ter
Co of modifier concentration and
e
Figure 4.19 Interactive effect
apex diameter on the
nc 0.75
19
iam
. (k
D
x
1.00
21
g/t solids
imperfection (I) value; feed
concentration
= 7.5% by weight.
pe
on
A
)
0.25
Solids concentrations greater than 50% by weight were generated in the cyclone
underflow stream during each test. However, when no viscosity modifier was added,
roping conditions were observed which result in poor classification efficiencies as
indicated by the slopes of the partition curves in Figures 4.20 and 4.21.
113
Modifier
Feed
Underflow
Feed
Dosage
Solids
Solids
Viscosity
(kg/t)
(% wght)
(% wght)
(cp)
None
0.0
10
50.71
2.16
None
0.0
12.5
51.58
3.12
None
0.0
15
52.59
3.96
None
0.0
18
53.48
4.26
SDS
0.8
18
53.83
4.09
SDS
0.8
15
52.86
3.71
SDS
0.8
12.5
51.78
3.02
SDS
0.8
10
50.85
2.01
None
0.0
10
50.67
2.12
None
0.0
12.5
51.86
3.20
None
0.0
15
52.77
3.78
None
0.0
18
53.51
4.33
Nalco 9762
0.5
18
54.72
3.95
Nalco 9762
0.5
15
53.65
3.57
Nalco 9762
0.5
12.5
51.93
2.66
Nalco 9762
0.5
10
50.97
1.98
Modifier
114
75
75
100
100
10% Solids
No modifier
SDS: 0.8 kg/t
50
15% Solids
No modifier
SDS: 0.8 kg/t
50
25
25
0
10
60
110
10
160
60
110
160
210
260
Size (microns)
Size (microns)
Figure 4.20 Partition curves for two different feed solids concentration with and without
100
100
75
75
50
12.5% Solids
50
18% Solids
25
25
No modifier
No modifier
0
10
60
110
160
210
260
Size (microns)
10
60
110
160
210
Size (microns)
Figure 4.21 Partition curves for two different feed solids concentration with and without
addition of NALCO 9762 viscosity modifier.
115
260
After adding the viscosity modifier, the roping condition was eliminated and an air
core established. As a result, classification efficiency improved significantly. Ultrafine
by-pass to the underflow stream was maintained within the range of 5% to 10% for all
tests. Using the viscosity modifier, excellent classification efficiencies were realized at
elevated feed solids concentrations, which indicates the potential to increase mass
throughput per cyclone.
The effect of the feed slurry viscosity on the particle size cutpoint under the conditions
described in Table 4.13 is shown in Figure 4.22. The logarithmic plot yielded a straight
line with a slope of about 0.62. This value is in contrast to the results of an earlier study
Kawatra et al (1996) where the reported slope was 0.35. The difference may be explained
by the significantly different test conditions between the two studies. The results reported
in this publication were generated under conditions providing very high underflow solid
concentrations whereas the previously reported data was obtained over a broader range of
conditions.
2.5
log(d50)
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.25
0.35
0.45
0.55
0.65
log(viscosity)
0.75
(min)
The downstream concentration processTime
used
to treat classifying cyclone product
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
streams is typically froth flotation. The effect of the two viscosity modifiers on flotation
0.0
performance was evaluated on the flotation feed from two preparation plants. As shown
in Figure 4.23 and 4.24, the flotation kinetics were not significantly changed due to the
-0.5
ln(1-R)
-1
kg/ton, the initial rate constant changes from 1.78 No
minModifier
with no addition to 1.58 min-1.
-1.0
The final rate changes from 0.42 min-1 with no addition to 0.31 min-1 (Figure 2.23). In the
SDS: 0.8 kg/t
case of NALCO 9762, the initial rate remained same at 3.63 min -1 (Figure 2.24).
-1.5 rate changes from 0.05 min-1 with no addition to 0.12 min-1 with 0.5
However, the final
Time (min)
-2.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
0.0
-0.5
ln(1-R)
-1.0
Illinois Coal
-1.5
No Modifier
-2.0
-2.5
-3.0
-3.5
Figure 4.23 Effect of Sodium dodecyl sulphate on the flotation rate of a West Virginia
coal sample.
117
Figure 4.24 Effect of NALCO 9762 on the flotation rate of an Illinois coal sample.
118
5.1 Conclusions
The objective of this project was to find novel ways to improve classification
performance in the ultrafine particle size range. The study involved the evaluations using
both laboratory scale and in-plant tests. The laboratory tests were conducted in three
phases using two coal samples and a 10-cm classifying cyclone. The effects of different
apex diameters were evaluated as well as different feed solids. Tests were also conducted
to evaluate the potential benefits to be achieved with rheology modification at high feed
solids concentrations. The plant tests involved a two-stage classifying cyclone circuit at
an Eastern Kentucky coal processing plant. Different circuitry arrangements were tested
using different apex diameters. Using linear analysis, different circuit arrangements were
simulated and evaluated to determine any potential classification benefits.
The objective of the laboratory studies was to evaluate the effect of apex diameter,
feed solids concentration and viscosity modifier concentration on classification
performance. A Box- Behnken statistical test program, which resulted in 17 tests, was
designed and used to evaluate the various parameter effects considered. Based on the
results of the statistical tests, a model was developed which described the effects and
interactions of the various parameters on the particle size cutpoint (d50), imperfection
value and ultrafine by-pass. Test results showed that adding the modifiers resulted in
lower separation cutsizes and improved efficiencies and lower ultrafine by-pass. These
improvements were more significant at high solids concentrations and small apex
diameters were high particle populations results in non-Newtonian slurry that posses a
yield stress which restricted the ability of fine particles to move independently of the
fluid. Using a smaller apex reductions in by-pass from about 20% to 5% were achieved
Using viscosity modifiers reduced particle cutsize by about 20% from 50 to 40 m while
improving efficiency by 200%. A possible explanation is the reduction in yield stress due
to the addition of the viscosity modifier. Data obtained from viscosity measurements
119
conducted on feed slurries with varying solid concentrations show that the modifiers
reduce the viscosity of the slurry, thereby, decreasing the particle size cutpoint.
A second phase of laboratory tests involved efforts to reduce water recovery to the
underflow stream using high solids concentrations and a small apex diameter, which
resulted in roping conditions that negatively affected classification performance. The
potential benefit of rheology modification under such conditions was evaluated using
sodium dodecyl sulfate and the commercial modifier Nalco 9762 to alter the slurry
rheology. The viscosity modifiers eliminated the roping conditions and significantly
improved classification efficiency while maintaining low ultrafine by-pass values.
The aim of the in-plant classifying cyclone tests was to achieve an efficient 25 m
cutsize separation and, as a result, generate a low ash classifier product. To achieve this
aim, two 15-cm gMax classifying cyclones where employed under various conditions,
including the addition of dilution water to the secondary feed at different rates and the
variation in the apex diameter. Recycling of the secondary overflow to the primary feed
was also investigated.
The particles having a size greater than 25 microns in a flotation feed stream had ash
content less than 5% and an energy value of about 14000 Btu/lb on a dry basis. As such,
efficient classification to achieve a particle cutsize of around 25 microns could potentially
result in a clean coal product without the use of froth flotation. The inherent problem of
ultrafine particle by-pass to the underflow of classifying cyclones and the relatively large
amount of ultrafine material in the flotation feed stream are significant issues that hinder
the ability to achieve the objective in a single classification stage.
The 2-stage circuit provided a particle cutsize (D50(c)) under various conditions that
was consistently in the range of 37 to 40 microns while reducing the ultrafine particle
by-pass to less than 10% with a low value of 6%. Classification efficiency was also
improved by 40% over the single stage unit. The imperfection and alpha values were
120
typically in the range of 0.400 and 2.75, respectively. The classification partitioning
achieved on coal and mineral matter separately revealed that the performance achieved
on the coal particles was exceptional. The average imperfection and alpha values were
0.281 and 3.91, respectively, which represents a very sharp particle size separation.
Ultrafine by-pass was also significantly lower than the overall performance with values
less than 3%.
The ability to achieve an acceptable product grade in the circuit coarse particle stream
was hindered mostly by a density affect that resulted in a coal cutsize of 40 microns and
an estimated mineral matter cutsize of 17 microns. As a result, the ash contents of the
particle size fractions below 75 microns (200 mesh) increased significantly from the feed
stream to the secondary cyclone underflow stream, which was the circuit coarse product.
The trend was especially apparent for the -25 micron (-500 mesh) fraction for which the
ash content increased from 61% to 84%. As such, true classification does occur on a
portion of the -25 micron fraction rather than the common opinion that the fraction is
hydraulically entrained and thus reports with the water to the cyclone output streams.
A significant amount (80% - 90%) of ash-forming material was rejected using the 2stage cyclone circuit, which resulted in ash content reductions from feed values of 40%50% to values in the secondary underflow between 20%-30%. The mass yield to the
secondary underflow stream ranged from 15% to 35%. Interestingly, if the density effect
was eliminated and the secondary underflow ash contents in each size fraction was equal
121
to those in the secondary underflow stream, the ash content of the circuit coarse product
would be around 15%. Reducing hydraulic entrainment further has the potential to
significantly lower this value.
Using linear analysis, various circuitry arrangements were modeled and simulated.
These circuits included the two-stage circuit with recycle and no-recycle conditions
evaluated in the experimental program as well as the simulation of the potential benefits
of adding a third stage of classification. The results of the simulations showed that
multiple stage circuits provide the benefit of reduced ultrafine by-pass. An evaluation of
the 2-stage circuit with recycle and no recycle models show revealed the same trends
observed in experimental data. The two-stage circuits provide better efficiencies than
single stage units do while providing elevated particle cutsizes. A third stage of
classification under these conditions resulted in improved efficiency over both the twostage circuits and single stage units with the three-stage circuit with recycle providing the
best performance. Circuit modeling of the three-stage counter flow circuitry arrangement
revealed that it had potential to provide the lowest cutsize among all the circuits
considered.
Verifying the test results obtained in the rheology modification study using a 15cm classifying cyclone as practiced in industry.
Exploring the potential benefits of adding viscosity modifiers to the feed to the
secondary cyclone in a two-stage classifying cyclone circuit to improve
classification performance.
122
Evaluate the benefits of using the three-stage counter flow circuit for classifying
coal fine circuit feed.
Evaluate the potential benefits of tangential water addition via small apertures at
the lower conical section of the classifying cyclone in order to reduce solids
concentration at the apex therefore reducing the effect of increased cutsize due to
viscosity and hindered settling as well as the density effect. The tangential
addition of water could possibly reduce the effect of particle size increase
experienced by other water injection systems.
123
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LIOGRAPHY
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INDEX