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IntroductiontoComposite

Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture1
Introduction

OverviewofLectures
Module

Lecture Numbers

1,2,3

Introduction toComposites

4,5,6,7,8,9

Fibers,Matrices andFillers

10,11,12,13,14

Contents

ManufacturingofComposites andTerminologies

15,16,17,18,19,20, 21 Unidirectionaland ShortFiberComposites

22,23,24

OrthotropicLaminates

25,26,27

Laminated Composites

28,29,30, 31,32

FailureofComposites

33,34,35,36,37,38,
39 40
39,40

ThermalStresses, MoistureStresses,
Hygrothermal Stresses and Closure
HygrothermalStressesandClosure

Lecture Overview
LectureOverview
Whatarecomposites?
Importanceandareasofapplication
Classification
Advantagesoffiberreinforcedcomposites

Whatarecomposites?
p
Composite:Twoormorechemicallydifferent
p
y
constituentscombinedmacroscopically to
yield a useful material
yieldausefulmaterial.
Examplesofnaturallyoccurringcomposites
Wood:Cellulosefibersboundbyligninmatrix
Wood: Cellulose fibers bound by lignin matrix
Bone:Stiffmineralfibersinasoftorganicmatrix
permeated with holes filled with liquids
permeatedwithholesfilledwithliquids
Granite:Granularcompositeofquartz,feldspar,
andmica
d i

What are composites?


Whatare
composites ?
Someexamplesofmanmadecomposites
Concrete:Particulatecompositeofaggregates
p
gg g
(limestoneorgranite),sand,cementandwater
Plywood:Severallayersofwoodveneerglued
Plywood: Several layers of wood veneer glued
together
Fiberglass:Plasticmatrixreinforcedbyglassfibers
Fiberglass: Plastic matrix reinforced by glass fibers
Cemets:Ceramicandmetalcomposites
Fibrouscomposites:Varietyoffibers(glass,kevlar,
graphite,nylon,etc.)boundtogetherbya
polymericmatrix

These are not composites!


Thesearenotcomposites!
Plastics:Eventhoughtheymayhaveseveral
p
fillers,theirpresencedoesnotalterthe
physicalpropertiessignificantly.
Alloys:Herethealloyisnotmacroscopically
Alloys: Here the alloy is not macroscopically
heterogeneous,especiallyintermsofphysical
properties.
Metalswithimpurities:Thepresenceof
Metals with impurities: The presence of
impuritiesdoesnotsignificantlyalterphysical
properties of the metal
propertiesofthemetal.

Where are composites used?


Wherearecompositesused?
Automotiveindustry:Lighter,stronger,wear
resistance,rustfree,aesthetics
Carbody
Brakepads
Brake pads
Driveshafts
Fueltanks
Hoods
Spoilers

Where are composites used?


Wherearecompositesused?
Aerospace:Lighter,stronger,temperature
resistance,smartstructures,wearresistance
Aircraft:Nose,doors,struts,trunnion,fairings,
cowlings, ailerons, outboard and inboard flaps,
cowlings,ailerons,outboardandinboardflaps,
stabilizers,elevators,rudders,fintips,spoilers,
edges
Rockets&missiles:Nose,body,pressuretanks,
frame fuel tanks turbo motor stators etc
frame,fueltanks,turbomotorstators,etc.
Satellites:Antennae,frames,structuralparts

Where are composites used?


Wherearecompositesused?
Sports:Lighter,stronger,toughness,better
g
p gp p
aesthetics,higherdampingproperties
Tennis
Bicycles
Badminton
Boats
Hockeyy
Golfing
Motorcycles
Motorcycles

Where are composites used?


Wherearecompositesused?
Transportation&Infrastructure:Lighter,
g
g
p g
stronger,toughness,damping
Railwaycoaches
Bridges
Shipsandboats
Dams
Truckbodiesandfloors
RVbodies

Where are composites used?


Wherearecompositesused?
Andmanymoreindustrysectors
Biomedicalindustryy
Consumergoods
Agriculturalequipment
Agricultural equipment
Heavymachinery
Computers
Healthcare

Classification of Composites
ClassificationofComposites
Engineered
i
d
Composites

Particulate

Random
Orientation

Fibrous

Preferred
Orientation

SingleLayer

Continuous&
LongFibers

Unidirectional

BiDirectional

MultiLayer

Discontinuous
&ShortFibers

Random
Orientation

Preferred
Orientation

Laminate

Hybrid
Laminate

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture2
Introduction

Classification of Composites
ClassificationofComposites
Engineered
i
d
Composites

Particulate

Random
Orientation

Fibrous

Preferred
Orientation

SingleLayer

Continuous&
LongFibers

Unidirectional

BiDirectional

MultiLayer

Discontinuous
&ShortFibers

Random
Orientation

Preferred
Orientation

Laminate

Hybrid
Laminate

Classification of Composites
ClassificationofComposites
Particulatecomposites
i l
i haveoneormore
h
materialparticlessuspendedinabinding
matrix.Aparticle bydefinitionisnotlong
visvisitsowndimensions.
Fibrous
Fibrouscompositeshavefibersofreinforcing
composites have fibers of reinforcing
material(s)suspendedinbindingmatrix.
Unlike particles a fiber has high lengthto
Unlikeparticles,afiberhashighlengthto
diameterratio,andfurtheritsdiametermay
be close to its crystal size
beclosetoitscrystalsize.

Classification of Composites
ClassificationofComposites
Particulatecomposites:
P ti l t
it
Randomorientation:Orientationofparticleisrandomlydistributedinall
directions(ex:concrete)
Preferredorientation:Particleorientationisalignedtospecificdirections
(ex:extrudedplasticswithreinforcementparticles)

Note:Particulatecompositesingeneraldonothavehighfracture
resistanceunlikefibrouscomposites.Particlestendtoincrease
stiffnessofthematerials,buttheydonothavesomuchofan
iff
f h
i l b h d
h
h f
influenceoncompositesstrength.Inseveralcases,particulate
compositesareusedtoenhanceperformanceathightemperatures.
In other case these composites are used to increase thermal and
Inothercase,thesecompositesareusedtoincreasethermaland
electricalproperties.Incemets,whichareceramicmetalcomposites,
theaimistohavehighsurfacehardnesssothatthematerialcanbe
used to cut materials at high speeds or is able to resist wear
usedtocutmaterialsathighspeeds,orisabletoresistwear.

Classification of Composites
ClassificationofComposites

FibrousComposites:Ingeneral,materialstendtohavemuchbetterthermo
Fibrous
Composites In general materials tend to have much better thermo
mechanicalpropertiesatsmallscalethanatmacroscale.Thisisshownin
thefollowingtable.
Material
Glass
Tungsten
Beryllium
Graphite

FiberTensileStrength(GPa)
3.5to4.6
4.2
1.3
2.1to2.2.5

BulkTensilestrength(GPa)
0.7 2.1
1.1 4.1
1.1
0.7
Verylow

Atmacroscale,imperfectionsinmaterialhaveanaccumulatedeffectof
g
g
p p
g
y
degradingbulkmechanicalpropertiesofmaterialssignificantly.Thisisone
reasonwhyfibrouscompositeshavebeendevelopedtoharnessmicroscale
propertiesofmaterialsatlargerscales.Manmadefibers,havealmostno
flawsindirectionsperpendiculartotheirlength.Hencetheyareabletobear
large loads per unit area compared to bulk materials
largeloadsperunitareacomparedtobulkmaterials.

Classification of Composites
ClassificationofComposites
FibrousComposites:
Singlelayer:Theseareactuallymadeofseveral
g
y
y
layersoffibers,allorientedinthesamedirection.
Hencetheyareconsideredassinglelayer
y
g
y
composites. Thesecanbefurthercategorizedas:
Co
Continuousandlongfibers:Examplesincludefilament
t uous a d o g be s a p es c ude a e t
woundshells.Thesemaybefurtherclassifiedas:
Unidirectionalreinforcement
Bidirectionalreinforcement

Classification of Composites
ClassificationofComposites
FibrousComposites(continued):
Discontinuousandshortfibers:Examplesincludefiber
glassbodiesofcars.Thesemaybefurtherclassifiedas:
Randomlyorientedreinforcement
Reinforcedinpreferreddirections

Multilayer:Here,reinforcementisprovided,layer
b l
bylayerindifferentdirections.
i diff
di
i
Laminate:Here,theconstituentmaterialinalllayersis
thesame.
h
Hybridlaminates:Thesehavemorethanoneconstituent
materials in the composite structure
materialsinthecompositestructure.

Advantages of Composites
AdvantagesofComposites
Composites
Compositesareengineeredmaterials.Wecan
are engineered materials. We can
engineerthemspecificallytomeetourneedsona
casetocase basis In general following properties
casetocasebasis.Ingeneral,followingproperties
canbeimprovedbyusingcompositematerials.

Strength
St
th
Modulus
Weight
Fatigue
Vibrationdamping
Resistancetowear

Electricalconductivity
El
ti l
d ti it
Thermalconductivity
Behavioratextremetemps.
Acousticalinsulation
Aesthetics
Resistancetocorrosion

Limitations of Composites
LimitationsofComposites
Likeallthingsinnature,compositesmaterialshave
g
,
p
theirlimitationsaswell.Someoftheimportantones
are:
Anisotropy:Alargenumberofcompositeshavedirection
dependentmaterialproperties.Thismakesthemmore
difficulttounderstand,analyzeandengineer,visvis
isotropicmaterials.
Nonhomogenous:Further,thesematerialsbydefinition
are not homogenous Hence their material properties
arenothomogenous.Hencetheirmaterialproperties
varyfrompointtopoint.Thisfactoraswellmakesthem
difficulttomodel,andanalyze.
,
y

Limitations of Composites
LimitationsofComposites
Costly:Compositematerialsareingeneralexpensive.Thus,theyare
usedonlyinapplicationswheretheirbenefitsoutweightheircosts.
d l i
li ti
h
th i b
fit
t i h th i
t
Difficulttofabricate:Further,fabricatingstructuresfromsuch
g
materialsisdifficult,timetaking,andexpensive.
Sensitivity
Sensitivitytotemperature:Laminatedcompositesareparticularly
to temperature: Laminated composites are particularly
sensitivetotemperaturechanges.Theycomeinwithresidual
thermalstresses,becausetheygetfabricatedathightemperatures,
andthencooled.Suchaprocesslocksinthermalstressesintothe
p
structure.
Moisture
Moistureeffects:Laminatedcompositesarealsosensitiveto
effects: Laminated composites are also sensitive to
moisture,andtheirperformancevariessignificantlywhenexposed
tomoistureforlongperiodsoftime.

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture3
Introduction

Lecture Overview
LectureOverview
Fibersandwhiskers
Matrices
MechanicalBehaviorofCompositesMaterials
Mechanical Behavior of Composites Materials
Basicterminology

FibersandWhiskers
Afiber has:
Highlengthtodiameterratio.
High length to diameter ratio
Itsdiameterapproximatesitscrystalsize.

Moderncompositesexploitthefactthatsmallscalesamplesof
mostofthematerialsaremuchstrongerthanbulkmaterials.Thus,
thinfibers ofglassare200500timesstrongerthanbulkglass.
Severaltypesoffibersareavailablecommercially.Someofthe
morecommonlyusedfibersaremadefrommaterialssuchas
y
carbon,glass,Kevlar,steel,andothermetals.
Glass
Glassisthemostpopularfiberusedincompositessinceitis
is the most popular fiber used in composites since it is
relativelyinexpensive.Itcomesintwoprincipalvarieties;Eglass,
andSglass.Thelatterisstrongerthantheformer.

FibersandWhiskers
Fibersaresignificantlystrongerthanbulkmaterials
because:
Theyhaveafarmoreperfectstructure,i.e.theircrystals
arealignedalongthefiberaxis.
g
g
Therearefewerinternaldefects,especiallyindirection
normaltofiberorientation,andhencetherearelesser
l t fib
i t ti
dh
th
l
numberofdislocations.

Atlargerscales,thedegreeofstructuralperfection
withinamaterialsampleisfarlessthatwhatispresent
at small (micro and nano) scales For this reason fibers
atsmall(microandnano)scales.Forthisreasonfibers
ofseveralengineeringmaterialsarefarmorestrong
thantheirequivalentbulkmaterialsamples.
q
p

FibersandWhiskers
Thefollowingtablelistsbulkaswellasfiberpropertiesfor
different materials It is seen from the table that the
differentmaterials.Itisseenfromthetablethatthe
differencebetweenbulkandfiberstrengthsissignificant.
Table2.1:Properties ofSomeCommonEngineeringMaterialsinBulkandFiberForms
Specific Gravity
SpecificGravity

Young'sModulus
(GPa)

BulkTensileStrength
(MPa)

Fiber Tensile
Strength (MPa)
Strength(MPa)

Aluminium

2.7

78

140620

620

Titaniumalloy/fiber

4.5

115

1040

1900

Steel

7.8

210

340212

4100

EGlass

2.54

72

70210

3500

SGlass

2.48

86

70210

4600

Carbon

1.41

190

verylow

21002500

Fiber

FibersandWhiskers
Whiskers aresimilarindiametertofibers,butin
general,theyareshortandhavelowlengthto
diameterratios,barelyexceedingafewhundreds.
Thus,thedifferenceinmechanicalpropertiesofa
whiskervisvisbulkmaterialisevenmore
hi k i i b lk t i l i
pronounced.Thisisbecausethedegreeofperfection
in whiskers is even higher visvis
inwhiskersisevenhighervis
visthatinfibers.
that in fibers
Whiskersareproducedbycrystallizingmaterialsonavery
smallscale.
Internalalignmentwithineachwhiskerisextremelyhigh.

Whiskers
Thefollowingtablelistsbulkaswellaswhiskerpropertiesfor
differentmaterials.Itisseenfromthetablethatthedifference
betweenbulkandwhiskerstrengthsisverysignificant.
Table2.2:Properties ofSomeCommonEngineeringMaterials
in Bulk and Whisker Forms
inBulkandWhiskerForms
BulkTensileStrength
(MPa)

WhiskerTensile
Strength(MPa)

Alumina (Al2O3)

105107

19000

SiliconCarbide
Copper
Iron whiskerv/sbulksteel
whisker v/s bulk steel
Boroncarbide
Carbon

3440
220
525700
155
verylow

11000
3000
13000
6700
21000

Fiber

Modern
Moderncompositesderivemuchoftheirdesiredpropertiesby
composites derive much of their desired properties by
usingfibersandwhiskersasoneoftheconstituentmaterials.
Fibersmadefromcarbon,Eglass,Sglass,andKevlararecommonly
usedinmoderncompositestructures.

ProblemSet
Exploredifferenttypesoffibermaterials.
Whatfiberswouldyouusedwithanobjective
to:
Improvethermalconductivity
Improveelectricalconductivity
Improve electrical conductivity
Improvemechanicalstrength
Improvetoughness

What you learnt in this lecture?


Whatyoulearntinthislecture?
Fibersandwhiskers
Matrices
MechanicalBehaviorofCompositesMaterials
Mechanical Behavior of Composites Materials
Basicterminology

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture4
GlassFibers

Lecture Overview
LectureOverview
GlassFibers
AssociatedManufacturingProcesses
SizingandCouplingAgents
Sizing and Coupling Agents
PropertiesofDifferentTypesofGlassFibers

GlassFibers

Glassfibersaremostcommonlyusedfibers.Theycomeintwoforms:

Continuousfibers
Di
Discontinuousorstaplefibers
ti
t l fib

Chemically,glassissillicon dioxide(SiO2).Glassfibersusedforstructuralapplicationscomein
two flavours:
two
flavours :EEGlass,
Glass,andS
and SGlass.
Glass.EEglass
glassisproducedinmuchlargervolumesvis
is produced in much larger volumes visvis
visSS
glass.

Principaladvantages:
p
g

Limitations:

Lowcost
Highstrength

Poorabrasionresistancecausingreducedusablestrength
Pooradhesiontospecificpolymermatrixmaterials
Pooradhesioninhumidenvironments
dh i i h id
i

Glassfibersarecoatedwithchemicalstoenhancetheiradhesionproperties.Thesechemicals
are known as coupling
areknownas
couplingagents
agents.

Manyofcouplingagentsaresilane compounds

HowareGlassFibersMade?

Both,continuousandstapleformsofglassfibersareproducedbypartially
similar method
similarmethod.

Processofproducingcontinuousfibers:
Rawmaterials(sand,limestone,alumina)aremixedandmeltedinafurnaceat
approximately1260C.
Moltenglassthen:
Molten glass then :
Eitherflowsdirectlyintoafiberdrawingfacility.Thisprocessisknownasdirect
meltprocess.Mostoffiber glassintheworldisproducedthisway.
Orgetsformedintomarbles.Thesemarblesarelaterfused,anddrawnintofibers.
Or gets formed into marbles. These marbles are later fused, and drawn into fibers.

Forproducingcontinuousfibers,moltenglasspassesthroughmultiple
holes to form fibers These fibers are quenched through a light spray of
holestoformfibers.Thesefibersarequenchedthroughalightsprayof
water.Subsequently,fibersarecoatedwithprotectiveandlubricating
agents.

HowareGlassFibersMade?

Nextfibersarecollectedinbundlesknownasstrands.Eachstrandmay
h
havetypically204individualfibers.
t i ll 204 i di id l fib

Next,strandswoundonspools.Fibersinthesespoolsaresubsequently
Next,
strands wound on spools. Fibers in these spools are subsequently
processedfurthertoproducetextiles.

Staplefibersareproducedbypushinghighpressureairjetacrossfibers,as
theyemanatefromholesduringthedrawingprocess.

Thesefibers,aresubsequentlycollected,sprayedwithabinder,and
collectedintobundlesknownasslivers.

Thesesliversmaysubsequentlybedrawnandtwistedintoyarns.

SurfaceTreatmentofGlassFibers
Duringproduction,glassfibersaretreatedchemically.These
treatmentsareknownassizes.
Therearetwotypesofsizes:TemporaryandCompatible.
Temporarysizesareusedtoreducedegradationoffiberstrengthattributable
to abrasion of fibers due to interfiber
toabrasionoffibersduetointer
fiberfrictionduringfiberdrawingprocess.
friction during fiber drawing process
Theyarealsousedtobindfibersforeasyhandling.Theyaremadefrom
starchoils(starch,gelatin,polyvinylalcohol,etc.).Thesesizesinhibitgood
resinfiber
resin
fiberadhesion.Theyalsopromotemoistureabsorption.
adhesion. They also promote moisture absorption.
Duringcompositefabrication,thesesizesareremovedbyheatingthefibersat
340 C for 15 20 hours Post their removal these fibers are coated with
340Cfor1520hours.Posttheirremoval,thesefibersarecoatedwith
couplingagents(alsoknownasfinishes),whichpromoteresinfiberadhesion.
Theseagentsalsoinhibitdeterioratingeffectsofhumidityonthefiberresin
bond Many of these agents are organofunctional
bond.Manyoftheseagentsareorgano
functionalsilanes.
silanes

Composition&PropertiesofGlassFibers
p
p
TypicalChemicalCompositionofE&SGlassin%
SiO2
Al2O3
CaO
B2O3
MgO
Na2O
BaO
FeO
Others

54.3
15.2
17.2
8.0
4.7
0.6

64.2
24.8
0.01
0.01
10.3
0.27
0.2.0
0 21
0.21
0.03

ImportantPropertiesofGlassFibers
Property

EGlass

SGlass

S ifi
Specificgravity
it

2 54
2.54

2 49
2.49

Tensilestrength(MPa)

3450

4590

Tensilemodulus(GPa)
(
)

72

86

3to20

8to13

2.9

Diameterrange(microns)
CTE(permillionperC)

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture5
GraphiteFibers

Lecture Overview
LectureOverview
CarbonFibers
AssociatedManufacturingProcesses
Properties
PropertiesofDifferentTypesofGraphite
of Different Types of Graphite
Fibers

GraphiteFibers

Graphiteandcarbonfibersareextensivelyusedinhighstrength,high
modulusapplications.
Graphitefibershavecarboncontentinexcessof99%.
Carbonfibershavecarboncontentintherange8095%

Fiberscarboncontentdependsonprocessingmethodforthesefibers.

Significantlymoreexpensivethanglassfibers.

Keyapplicationareasincludeaerospace,sporting,railway,infrastructure,
K
li ti
i l d
ti
il
i f t t
automotive,oildrilling,aswellasconsumersectorindustries.

Graphitestructureconsistsofhexagonallypackedcarbonatomsinlayers,
andseveralsuchlayersareinterconnectedthroughweakvander Waals
forces Thus such a structure generates:
forces.Thus,suchastructuregenerates:
Highinplanemodulus
Significantlylessmodulusinoutplanedirection

HowareGraphiteFibersProduced?

Aprecursor material,whichisrichincarbon,issubjectedtopyrolysis to
extractitscarboncontent.
o

Currently,threematerialsareusedasprecursors.Theseare:
o
o
o

Pyrolysis: Thermochemicaldecompositionoforganicmaterialwhenitissubjectedto
Thermo chemical decomposition of organic material when it is subjected to
elevatedtemperatures,butnooxygen.Throughsuchaprocess,theprecursororganic
materialbreaksdownintogases,liquids,andasolidresiduewhichisrichincarbon.
Precursor: It is a carbonrich
Precursor:Itisacarbon
richchemicalcompound,usedas
chemical compound, used as raw
raw materialforpyrolysis.
material for pyrolysis.

Polyacrylonitrile
P
l
l it il (PAN)
Pitch:Itisaviscoussubstanceproducedbyplants,andalsoextractedfrompetroleum.
Rayon:Itisregeneratedcellulosefiberproducedfromnaturallyoccurringpolymers.

Agoodprecursormaterialshouldhavefollowingcharacteristics.
o Sufficient
Sufficientstrengthandhandlingpropertiessothatitcanholdtogetherfibersduring
strength and handling properties so that it can hold together fibers during
carbonfiberproductionprocess.
o Shouldnotmeltduringproductionprocess.
o Shouldnotbecompletelyvolatile,asitwilldrasticallyreduceyieldofcarbonfiber.
p
y
,
y
y
o Carbonatomsshouldselfaligningraphitestructureduringpyrolysis,asthiswill
enhancefibersmechanicalproperties.
o Inexpensive

HowareGraphiteFibersProduced?

Aprecursor material,whichisrichincarbon,issubjectedtopyrolysis to
extractitscarboncontent.
o

Currently,threematerialsareusedasprecursors.Theseare:
o
o
o

Pyrolysis: Thermochemicaldecompositionoforganicmaterialwhenitissubjectedto
Thermo chemical decomposition of organic material when it is subjected to
elevatedtemperatures,butnooxygen.Throughsuchaprocess,theprecursororganic
materialbreaksdownintogases,liquids,andasolidresiduewhichisrichincarbon.
Precursor: It is a carbonrich
Precursor:Itisacarbon
richchemicalcompound,usedas
chemical compound, used as raw
raw materialforpyrolysis.
material for pyrolysis.

Polyacrylonitrile
P
l
l it il (PAN)
Pitch:Itisaviscoussubstanceproducedbyplants,andalsoextractedfrompetroleum.
Rayon:Itisregeneratedcellulosefiberproducedfromnaturallyoccurringpolymers.

Agoodprecursormaterialshouldhavefollowingcharacteristics.
o Sufficient
Sufficientstrengthandhandlingpropertiessothatitcanholdtogetherfibersduring
strength and handling properties so that it can hold together fibers during
carbonfiberproductionprocess.
o Shouldnotmeltduringproductionprocess.
o Shouldnotbecompletelyvolatile,asitwilldrasticallyreduceyieldofcarbonfiber.
p
y
,
y
y
o Carbonatomsshouldselfaligningraphitestructureduringpyrolysis,asthiswill
enhancefibersmechanicalproperties.
o Inexpensive

ProductionofGraphiteFibersfromPAN

PANprecursormaterialisinitiallyspunintofiberform.

Theseprecursorfibersarethenstretchedthroughapplicationoftensileload.

Duringstretching,theyarealsosubjectedtohightemperatures(200 240C),for
approximately24hoursinanoxidizingatmosphere.Thisprocessiscalled
stabilization.

Thesestabilizedfibersarenextsubjectedtopyrolysisat1500Cininert
atmosphere.Thisprocessiscalledcarbonization.Duringthisprocess,mostof
p
p
g
p
,
noncarbonelementsaredrivenoutofPANfibers.

Next,thesefibersare
Next
these fibers are graphitized
graphitized byheatingthemat3000Cininert
by heating them at 3000 C in inert
environment.Thisimprovestensilemodulusoffibersasgraphitecrystalsdevelop
incarbon.

OverviewofDifferentTypesofGraphiteFibers
yp
p
PANbasedcarbonfibers:
Lowcost
Reasonablemechanicalproperties
Verypopularinaircraft,missileandspaceapplications
Very popular in aircraft missile and space applications

Pitchbasedcarbonfibers
Higherstiffness
Higherthermalconductivity:Thismakesthemparticularlyusefulinthermal
management systems and satellite structures
managementsystemsandsatellitestructures

Rayonbasedcarbonfibers:
Notusedmuchinstructuralapplications
Lowthermalconductivity:Usefulforinsulationmaterials,andheatshields
Usedinrocketnozzles,missilereentrynosecones,heatinsulators
Used in rocket nozzles missile reentry nose cones heat insulators

ImportantPropertiesofGraphiteFibers
p
p
p
I
ImportantPropertiesofGraphiteFibers
t tP
ti
f G hit Fib
Property

PAN

Pitch

Rayon

Fiber diameter (microns)


Fiberdiameter(microns)

5 to 8
5to8

10 to 11
10to11

65
6.5

Specificgravity

1.71 to1.96

2.0 to2.2

1.7

Tensilemodulus(GPa)

230 to595

170 to980

415 to550

Tensilestrength(MPa)

1925 to6200 2275 to4060 2070 to2760

Elongationatfailure(%)

0.40 to1.20

0.25 to0.70

0.75to0.40

1.6to0.90

2080

4001100

CTE(Axial,X1E06/C)
Thermalconductivity(W/mK)

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture6
Aramid,MetallicandOtherFibers

Lecture Overview
LectureOverview
Aramid Fibers
MetallicFibers
OtherTypesofFibers
Other Types of Fibers

Aramid Fibers

Aramid isshortforaromaticpolymide.Aramids areaclassofpolymers,


whereselfrepeatingunitscontainlargephenylrings,linkedtogetherby
amide groups
amidegroups.

p
fibersaremanufacturedfiberswherethe
AsperUSbasedFTC,aramid
fiberformingsubstanceisalongchainsyntheticpolyamideinwhichat
least85%oftheamidelinkages,(CONH)areattacheddirectlytotwo
aromatic rings..
aromaticrings

Importantpropertiesofthesefibersare:

Highresistancetoabrasion
Highresistancetoorganicsolvents
Toughaswellasstrong
Nonconductive
Nomeltingpoint(theystartdegradingat500C)
Lowflammability
Sensitivetoacids,andsolvents

PropertiesofAramid Fibers

Kevlarisaverywellknownandwidelyusedaramid fiber.

InventedbyDuPont
Widely used in ballistic applications
Widelyusedinballisticapplications
Comesindifferentflavors.
ImportantPropertiesofKevlarFibers

Property
Diameter (microns)
Diameter(microns)

Kevlar29

Kevlar49 Kevlar129 Kevlar149

12

12

1.45

1.45

1.5

1.45

Tensilemodulus(GPa)

62

124

96.0

186

Tensilestrength(MPa)

2760

3620

3380.0

3440

Elongation(%)

3.4

2.8

3.3

2.5

AxialCTE(permillionperC)

RadialCTE(permillionperC)

60

60

Specificgravity

BoronFibers

Boronfibersarerelativelymorepopularincomposites,visvisother
fibers(aluminum,steel,etc.).

Thesefibersaremadeusingachemicalvapordeposition(CVD)process.
o
o

Here,borontrichlorideischemicallyreducedinahydrogenenvironmentonatungsten
orcarbonfilamentsubstrate.
Thetungstenorcarbonfilamentisresistivelyheatedattemperaturesinexcessof1500
C.Duetoapplicationoftemperature,borontrichlorideinteractswithhydrogen,and
reducestopureboron.
d
b
Thisborongetsdepositedonthetungstenorcarbonfilament.Asthefilamentis
continuouslypulledoutofreductionchamber,awellcontrolledboronlayerdepositson
the substrate wire These wires have a boron outside
thesubstratewire.Thesewireshaveaboron
outside andatungstenorcarboncore.
and a tungsten or carbon core
ImportantPropertiesofBoronTungstenFibers

P
Property
t

Di 100 i
Dia=100microns
Di 140 i
Dia=140microns
Di 200 i
Dia=200microns

Specificgravity

2.61

2.47

2.4

Tensilemodulus(GPa)

400

400

400.0

Tensilestrength(MPa)

3450

3450

3450.0

CTE(permillionperC)

4.9

4.9

4.9

CeramicFibers

Ceramicfibersareusedinhightemperatureapplications.Thesefibershavehigh
strength, high elastic modulus, as well as the ability to withstand high
strength,highelasticmodulus,aswellastheabilitytowithstandhigh
temperatureswithoutgettingchemicallydegraded.

Commonly used fibers for such applications are made from alumina and SiC
Commonlyusedfibersforsuchapplicationsaremadefromalumina,andSiC.

Aluminafibersaremadespinningaslurryofaluminaandfiringoftheslurry.
Thesefibersretaintheirstrengthupto1370C.

Siliconcarbidefibersareproducedeitherbyachemicalvapordeposition(CVD)
p
y
p
p
(
)
process,orthroughpyrolysis.

SiC fiberretaintheirtensilestrengthupto650C.
fiber retain their tensile strength up to 650 C

AluminaandSiC fibersworkwellinmetalmatrices,unlikecarbonandboronfibers,
sincethelatterreactwithmetalmatrices.Further,duetotheirresistancetohigh
i
th l tt
t ith
t l
ti
F th d t th i
it
t hi h
temperatures,thesefibersarealsousedinturbineblades.

HPPEFibers

HPPEstandsforHighPerformancePolyethylene.

HPPEfibersarehaveadensityslightlylessthanthatofwater.Thus,even
thoughtheirmodulusandstrengthareslightlylessthanKevlarfibers,ona
specificstrength,andspecificmodulusare3040%morethanthatfor
f
h d
f
d l
h
h f
Kevlarfibers.

HPPEfibershaveveryhighenergyabsorptioncharacteristics.Thusthey
arewidelyusedinballisticarmorapplications.

HPPFEfibersmodulusandstrengthincreasessignificantlywithincreasing
strainrates.ThusHPPFEcompositesworkverywellwhensubjectedto
p
y
j
highvelocityimpacts.

HMPE(highmoduluspolyethylene)andECPE(extendedchain
HMPE
(hi h
d l
l h l
) d ECPE (
d d h i
polyethylene)areothermaterialswithchemicalstructuresimilartoHPPE
material.Theirfibersarealsousedincomposites.

Properties of Ceramic and HPPE Fibers


PropertiesofCeramicandHPPEFibers
ImportantPropertiesofCeramicand HPPEFibers
Alumina

SIC(CVD)

SiC
(Pyrolysis)

Diameter(microns)

1525

140

1020

38

Specific gravity
Specificgravity

3 95
3.95

33
3.3

26
2.6

0 97
0.97

Tensilemodulus(GPa)

379

430

180

62120

Tensilestrength(MPa)

1380

3500

2000

21803600

Property

Elongation(%)

HPPE

2.84.4

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture7
MatrixMaterials&PolymerResins

MatrixMaterials
Fibersandwhiskersincompositesareheldtogetherbyabinder
k
knownasmatrix.Thisisrequiredsincefibersbythemselves:
t i Thi i
i d i
fib b th
l
Giventheirsmallcrosssectionalarea,cannotbedirectlyloaded.
Further,theycannottransmitloadbetweenthemselves.

Thislimitationisaddressedbyembeddingfibersinamatrix
material.
Matrixmaterialservesseveralfunctions,theimportantonesbeing:
Bindsfiberstogether.
Binds
fibers together
Transfersloadsandstresseswithinthecompositestructure.
Supporttheoverallstructure
P
Protectsthecompositefromincursionofexternalagentssuchas
h
i f
i
i
f
l
h
humidity,chemicals,etc.
Protectsfibersfromdamageduetohandling.

MatrixMaterials

Matrixmaterialstronglyinfluencescompositesoveralltransverse
modulus,shearproperties,andcompressionproperties.
odu us, s ea p ope t es, a d co p ess o p ope t es

Matrixmaterialalsosignificantlylimitsacompositesmaximum
permissibleoperatingtemperature.

Mostofthematrixmaterialsarerelativelylighter,morecompliant,and
Most
of the matrix materials are relatively lighter more compliant and
weakervisvisfibersandwhiskers.

However,thecombinationoffibers/whiskersandmatrixcanbeverystiff,
verystrong,andyetverylight.
Thus
Thusmostofmoderncompositeshaveveryhighspecificstrengths,i.e.very
most of modern composites have very high specific strengths, i.e. very
highstrength/densityratios.
Thismakesthemveryusefulinaerospaceapplications,whereweight
minimization is a key design consideration
minimizationisakeydesignconsideration.

MatrixMaterials

Matrixmaterialscanbebroadlyclassifiedonthebasisoftheirusable
te pe atu e a ges
temperatureranges.
DifferentClassesofMaterialsand
Usable Temperature Ranges
UsableTemperatureRanges
MatrixMaterial

UsableTemperatureRange (C)

Polymers

<260

Metals

260 750

Glass

750 1150
750

Ceramic andcarbon

1150 1400

ChoosingtheRightMatrixMaterials
g
g
Whileselectingmatrixmaterialforacompositesystem,
several considerations have to be factored into principal ones
severalconsiderationshavetobefactoredinto,principalones
being:

Physicalpropertiessuchaspecificgravity.
y
p p
p
g
y
Mechanicalpropertiessuchasmodulus,strength,CTE,conductivity,etc.
Meltingofcuringtemperatureforthematrixmaterial
Viscosity: It strongly affects processing attributes of the composite and also
Viscosity:Itstronglyaffectsprocessingattributesofthecomposite,andalso
uniformflowofmatrixmaterialintothecompositesystem.
Reactivitywithfibers:Onewouldcertainlynotdesirepossibilityofchemical
reactionsbetweenfibersandmatrixmaterial.
ti
b t
fib
d
ti
t i l
Fabricationprocesscompatiblewithmatrixandfibers
Reactivitywithambientenvironment
Cost

PolymersasMatrixMaterials
y

Polymers:Mostwidelyusedmatrixmaterials
Commonexamples:Polyesters,vinylesters,PEEK,PPS,nylon,polycarbonate,polyacetals,
polyamides,polyetherimides,polystyrene,epoxies,ureas,melamines,silicones.

Advantages:

Lowcost
Easytoprocess
Lowdensity
Superiorchemicalresistance

Limitations:

Lowstrength
Low modulus
Lowmodulus
Limitedrangeforoperatingtemperature
SensitivitytoUVradiation,specificsolvents,andoccasionallyhumidity

PolymersasMatrixMaterials
y
Polymerclassification
Thermoplastics
Softenormeltwhenheated.Thisprocessisreversible.
Theirstructurehaslongchainsofmoleculeswithstrongintramolecularbonds,but
Their structure has long chains of molecules with strong intra molecular bonds but
weakintermolecularbonds.
Whenexposedtoheat,theseintermolecularbondsbreakdown,andthematerial
startsflowing.
g
Semicrystallineofamorphousinstructure
Examples:polyethylene,PEEK,polyamides,polyacetals,polysulfone,PPS,nylon,
polystyrene.

Thermosets
Thesepolymersdonotmelt,butbreakdown(decompose)whenheated.
Amorphous structure
Amorphousstructure
Theyhavenetworkedstructureswithstrongcovalentbondslinkingallmolecules.
Thesenetworkspermanentlybreakdownuponheating.Hence,thesepolymers,
once set,
once
set ,cannotbereshaped.
cannot be reshaped.
Examples:epoxies,polyesters,phenolics,urea,melamine,silicone,polyimides.

PolymersasMatrixMaterials
y

Polymersbehavesignificantlydifferentlyvisvismetals,andceramics.
Performanceofpolymersishighlysensitivetoseveralenvironmentalvariables.For
instance,whilemechanicalpropertiesofmetalsaretemperaturesensitiveonlyin
proximityofmelttemperature,polymersmechanicalpropertiesarehighlysensitiveto
heat.

Followingtabledepictssensitivityofvariouspolymerpropertiesto
externalvariables.
Sensitivity ofDifferentPolymerPropertiestoExternalVariables
Strength

Stiffness

CTE

Thermal
Conductivity

UV
Degradation

Melting
Point

Tg

Heat

High

High

High

High

High

High

High

Environment

High

High

StrainRate

High

High

High

TemperatureSensitivityofPolymers
p
y
y

Polymershavesignificantbehavioralsensitivitytoincreasedtemperatures.
Thi
Thissensitivityisstronglydependentonthestructureofapolymer.
ii i i
l d
d
h
f
l

Asmentionedearlier,polymersmayeitherbethermoplastics,or
,p y
y
p
,
thermosets.Whilethermosetshaveamorphousstructure,thermoplastics
mayhaveeithersemicrystallinestructure,oramorphousstructure.

Temperaturesensitivityofamorphousthermoplastics
Whentheseplasticsareheated,theirspecificvolumeslowlyincreasessomewhatlinearly
g
p
,
p
g
withincreasingtemperature.However,ifthetemperatureexceedstheirglasstransition
temperatureTg,theirspecificvolumeincreasesatafasterrate.Thisisaccompaniedwitha
significantchangeintheirmechanicalproperties.
Hence,thesemaximumusetemperatureforthesematerialsshouldnotexceedT
Hence these maximum use temperature for these materials should not exceed Tg.
IfthesematerialsareheatedbeyondTg,thenthematerialmeltsatTm.
Examplesofthesematerialsarepolystyrene,polycarbonate,andpolymethylmethacrylate.

TemperatureSensitivityofPolymers
p
y
y

Temperaturesensitivityofsemicrystallinethermoplastics
Whentheseplasticsareheated,theirspecificvolumeslowlyincreasessomewhatlinearly
withincreasingtemperature.
Further
Further,ifthetemperatureexceedstheirglasstransitiontemperatureT
if the temperature exceeds their glass transition temperature Tg,theirspecific
their specific
volumeincreasesatasomewhatfasterrate.
Thisisso,becausepresenceofcrystallinestructureinthesematerialstendstolimitthe
extentofchangesinmaterialsmechanicalproperties.
ItisonlywhenthetemperatureexceedstheirmeltingpointTm,thattheirmaterial
properties change significantly and this change is accompanied by very significant increase
propertieschangesignificantly,andthischangeisaccompaniedbyverysignificantincrease
inspecificvolume.Thishappensbecauseatmeltingpoint,thecrystallinebondsinthe
materialbreakdown,andallpropertiesofthematerialundergosuddenandlargechanges.
Thus,maximumusetemperatureforsemicrystallinethermoplasticsisdeterminedmore
bytheirmeltingpoint,andnotsomuchbytheirglasstransitiontemperature.
Examples
Examplesofthesematerialslinearpolyethylene(PE),polyethyleneterephthalate
of these materials linear polyethylene (PE) polyethylene terephthalate (PET),
(PET)
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)orisotactic polypropylene(PP).

TemperatureSensitivityofPolymers
p
y
y

Temperaturesensitivityofthermosets
Unlikethermoplastics,thermosetsdonotmeltuponheating.Rather,theydecompose
whentheyareheatedbeyondacertainthreshold.Hence,thermosetspolymersare
associatedonlywithglasstransitiontemperature,Tg,andhavenomeltingpoint.
Whentheseplasticsareheated,theirspecificvolumeslowlyincreasessomewhatlinearly
withincreasingtemperature.However,ifthetemperatureexceedstheirglasstransition
temperature Tg,theirspecificvolumeincreasesatafasterrate.
temperatureT
their specific volume increases at a faster rate
However,thechangeinmechanicalpropertiesforthesematerialsatcorrespondingto
glass transition temperature is much less visvis
glasstransitiontemperature,ismuchlessvis
visamorphousthermoplastics.Their
amorphous thermoplastics Their relative
relative
reducedsensitivitytotemperatureatTg,isattributabletohighdegreeofcrosslinked
bonds,whichsustainmaterialsmechanicalpropertiesevenatTg.
Eventhen,maximumusetemperaturesforthesematerialsaredictatedbyTg.
Commonexamplesofthesematerialsincludeepoxies,polyesters,andphenolics.
p
p
,p y
,
p

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture8
Thermoset MatrixMaterials

Thermoset:Polyesters
y

Polyesters,andepoxiesareverypopularasthermoset matrixmaterials.
Oth th
Otherthermoset
t materialsusedformatrixapplicationsarevinylesters,
t i l
df
ti
li ti
i l t
polyimides,andphenolics.

Polyesters:Polyestermatrixmaterialisproducedbycuringapolyester
resinusingacuringagent.Polyesterresincomesinsolidform.Itis
essentially unsaturated polyester The structure of unsaturated polymer
essentiallyunsaturatedpolyester.Thestructureofunsaturatedpolymer
constitutesofmutuallydisconnectedlongchainsoflinearpolymers.

Theselongpolymericchainshaveaseriesofunsaturatedbonds,occurring
periodicallyalongtheirlength.Itisattheselocations,thatcrosslinking
can occur.
canoccur.

Thisisaccomplishedbyprovidingforreactiveandpolymerizable
monomerssuchasstyreneattheseunsaturatedbondlocations.

Thermosets:Polyesters
y

Towardsthisend,polyesterresinisdissolvedinstyrene.Thismonomer
(styrene) acts as a cross linking agent between long linear polymeric
(styrene)actsasacrosslinkingagentbetweenlonglinearpolymeric
chainsofpolyester.Further,itreducesviscosityofthepolyester,thereby
helpingtheprocessing.

However,thecrosslinkingprocessdoesnothappenbymerepresenceof
styrene.Thecrosslinkingprocessneedsatriggerorinitiation.This is
accomplishedbyadditionofasmallamountofcuringagentalsoknown
li h d b dditi
f
ll
t f i
t l k
asinitiator.Benzoyl peroxideisaverypopularcuringagentfor
polyesters.

Thecrosslinkingprocessreactiondoesnothaveanybyproductssinceall
ofstyrenegetsusedupforpurposesofcrosslinkingpolymericchains.

Thisisanexothermicreaction,whichoccursatroomtemperatureandat
atmospheric pressure. The chemical undergoes shrinkage during this
atmosphericpressure.Thechemicalundergoesshrinkageduringthis
process.

Thermosets:Polyesters
y

Propertiesofpolyesterscanbemodifiedandtailoredasperdesign
requirements.Towardsthisend,severalvariablescanbemanipulated.
i
t T
d thi
d
l
i bl
b
i l t d
Someofthesevariablesare:
Rawmaterialsusedforproducingpolyesterresin:Typically,polyesterresinisproduced
fromreactionofdiethylene glycol,andmaleic acid.However,byselectingalternative
glycolsandacids,propertiesoffinalpolyestermatrixmaterialmaybemodified.
Solventmonomers:Styreneisaverypopularmonomerusedtocrosslinkpolyester
chains However other monomers may as well be used for purposes of modifying matrix
chains.However,othermonomersmayaswellbeusedforpurposesofmodifyingmatrix
materialsproperties.
Processingvariables

Commonly UsedPropertiesofThermoset Polyester


Specific gravity

1.1to1.4

Tensilemodulus(MPa)

2000to4400

Tensilestrength(MPa)

33 to104

CTE(permillionperC)

55to100

Waterabsorption(%over 24hrs)

0.15to0.65

Thermosets:Epoxies
p

Epoxythermosets,likepolyesterthermosets,areproducedfromepoxy
resins.Theseresinscomeinviscousliquidform,andhavelowmolecular
i Th
i
i i
li id f
dh
l
l l
weight.

Theviscosityoftheseresinsstronglydependsontheextentof
polymerizationofitsmolecules.

Commonepoxyresinsareproducedthroughareactionbetween
epichlorohydrin andbisphenolA.Alternativeformulationsreplace
bisphenolAwithotherchemicals.

Acuringagent(orhardener,oractivator)triggersthepolymerization
A
i
t ( h d
ti t ) t i
th
l
i ti
processamongstresinmolecules,therebygeneratingaverydense
networkofcrosslinkedpolymer.Diethylene triamine isaverycommonly
usedcuringagent.

Thermosets:Epoxies
p

Theexothermicreactionbetweenhardener(curingagent)andresin
(
(compound)doesnotproduceabyproduct.Further,likepolyesters,
d) d
t
d
b
d t F th lik
l t
epoxiesalsoundergoshrinkageduringthecuringprocess.

Epoxies,likepolyesters,canbeproducedatroomtemperatures.However,
byproperselectionofcuringagents,thecuringprocesscanbeconducted
at elevated temperatures as well
atelevatedtemperaturesaswell.

Thecuringprocesstimestronglydependsonthechoiceofresinaswellas
curingagent.Itcanvarybetweenminutesto24hours.

Manyatimes,heatisappliedtoacceleratethecuringprocess.Typically,
M
ti
h ti
li d t
l t th
i
T i ll
curingtimedecreases,almostexponentially,withincreasingtemperature.

Thermosets:Epoxies
p

Commercially,epoxiesareavailableastwopartsystem,aswellone
partsystem.Whilethetwopartepoxiesrequiremixingofhardener
t t
Whil th t
t
i
i
i i
fh d
andresin,onepartsystemscomeareessentiallypremixedsystems(of
hardenerandresin).Typically,onepartsystemshavetobestoredatlow
temperatures,sothatcuringprocessgetssignificantlysloweddown,and
theepoxydoesnotgetcuredwhilebeingstored.
Typical PropertyRangeforEpoxies
Specific gravity

1.2to1.3

Tensilemodulus(MPa)

2500 to4500

Tensilestrength(MPa)

50 to150

CTE (per million per C)


CTE(permillionperC)

45 to70
to 70

Waterabsorption(%over 24hrs)

0.05 to0.15

Thermosets:Vinylesters
y

Similarinbehaviortopolyesters.
Lowviscosityandreducedcuringtime
Slightlymoreexpensivecomparedtopolyesters
Verygoodmechanicalproperties
U lik
Unlikepolyesters,thesematerialshavesuperiorresistancetoUV
l
h
i l h
i
i
UV
Chemicalperformanceissuperiorvisvispolyesters
Works well in humid and wet environments
Workswellinhumidandwetenvironments
Overallperformanceissomewhereinbetweenpolyesters,andepoxies.
Commonapplicationsincludechemicalvessels,pipes,etc.
Typical PropertyRangeforVinylesters
Specific gravity

1 1 to 1.3
1.1to
13

Tensilemodulus(MPa)

3000 to3700

Tensilestrength(MPa)
g (
)

70 to81

CTE(permillionperC)

50 to55

Thermosets:Polyimides
y

Relativelyhighermaximumusetemperature(300C)
E ll t i t
Excellentresistancetosolventsandchemicalagents
t
l t
d h i l
t
Verystrongandstiffamongstthermosets
Bismaleimides (BMI)aremostpopularthermosetsinthisclassof
(BMI) are most popular thermosets in this class of
materials.
However,BMIsareverybrittle.Hence,theyarecombinedwithother
th
thermoplasticstoaddressthislimitation.Typicaladditivesinclude
l ti t dd
thi li it ti
T i l dditi
i l d
polysulfones,polyetherimides,andotherthermoplastics.
Typical PropertyRangeforPolyimides
Specific gravity

1.4 to1.5

Tensile modulus (MPa)


Tensilemodulus(MPa)

3500 to 5000
3500to5000

Tensilestrength(MPa)

120

CTE(permillionperC)
(p
p
)

90

Waterabsorption(%,in24hrs)

0.30

Thermosets:Phenolics

Verylowflammability
P d
Producelesssmokeduringoxidation/charringprocess
l
k d i
id ti / h i
Dimensionallystablewhensubjectedtochangesintemperature
Good adhesion properties
Goodadhesionproperties
Goodcandidatesforpublictransportationsystems,whereflammability
andsmokeconcernsareverysignificant
Alsousedinaircraftapplicationsforsimilarreasons

Typical PropertyRangeforPhenolics
Specific gravity

1.30

Tensile modulus (MPa)


Tensilemodulus(MPa)

2700 to 4200
2700to4200

Tensilestrength(MPa)

50to60

CTE(permillionperC)
(p
p
)

45to120

Waterabsorption(%,in24hrs)

0.10to 0.20

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture9
Thermoplastics,
OtherMatrixMaterials&Fillers

Thermplastics
p

Thermoplasticsareverycommonlyusedforshortfiberlargescale
compositeapplications.Thisisso,sincethermoplasticbasedshortfiber
compositescanberelativelyeasilyandquicklyprocessed.

Theseplasticsareoftenusedininjectionmoldingmachines,wheresolid
These
plastics are often used in injection molding machines where solid
ofthermoplasticsimpregnatedwithshortglassfibers,aremoldedathigh
temperaturesandpressures.

Insuchapplications,thesecompositesareessentiallyhigher
strength/modulus alternatives for nonreinforced
strength/modulusalternativesfornon
reinforcedplasticsusedinmass
plastics used in mass
scaleapplications.Thus,suchcompositesarenotusedtobearveryhigh
loadsorprovidehighstiffness,wherenormallymetalsandotherstructural
materials are deployed
materialsaredeployed.

yp py
( ), p y
,p y
,p y
,
Polypropylene(PP),polysulfone,polyamideimide,polycarbonates,and
ABS(acrylonitrilebutadienestyrene)arecommonlyusedthermoplastics
forsuchapplications.

Thermoplastics
p

However,therearealsocertainthermoplasticresinswithmaximumuse
temperatures well exceeding those of most epoxies and BMIs
temperatureswellexceedingthoseofmostepoxies,andBMIs.

PEEK,i.e.polyetheretherketone isonesuchthermoplasticcandidate
whosemaximumusetemperaturecanbeashighas310C.Suchmaterials
areusedinhightemperatureandhighperformanceapplicationareas.
Typical PropertyRangeforSomeCommonlyUsedThermoplastics
PEEK

Polyamide

Polyphenylene
Sulfide

PP

ABS

Specific gravity

1.30

1.38

1.30

0.91

1.06 to1.08

Tensilemodulus(MPa)

3300

2800

3300

1100

2300 to2900

Tensilestrength(MPa)

92

95

71

33

41to60

63

99

CTE(permillionperC)

50to85

Water absorption (%, in 24 hrs)


Waterabsorption(%,in24hrs)

0.10

0.30

0.20

0.03

0.20 to 0.45
0.20to0.45

Maximum usetemperature(C)

310

190

260

75

80to85

MetalMatrixMaterials

Metalsareveryusefulmatrixmaterials.Theyofferfollowingkey
y
y
g y
advantages.

Highstrength
High modulus
Highmodulus
Hightoughness
Highimpactstrength
Relative immunity to temperature changes
Relativeimmunitytotemperaturechanges
Immunitytoalargerangeofenvironmentalvariables

H
However,metalsarenotverypopularmatrixmaterialsbecause:
t l
t
l
ti
t i l b

Theycanonlybeprocessedathightemperature,astheirmeltingpointsarehigh.
Theyhavehighdensity.
Theyhaveapropensitytoreactwithseveraltypesoffibers.
Metalsaresusceptibletocorrosion.

MetalMatrixMaterials

Titanium,andaluminumaremostcommonlyusedformetalmatrix
,
y
applications.Theyareusedonaccountoftheirlowspecificgravities,
whichare4.5and2.7,respectively.

Magnesiumisalsoaverylightmaterialasitsspecificgravityis1.74.
However,itreactsvigorouslywithoxygen,therebypromotingfire,and
alsocorrosion.

Insuperalloy
In
superalloy applications,nickelandcobaltarefrequentlyusedasmetal
applications nickel and cobalt are frequently used as metal
matrices.However,whensuchmetalsarealloyedwithspecificelements,
theytendtopromotefiberoxidation,particularlyathighertemperatures.

Metalmatricesareusedasbindersforgraphitefibers,aswellasceramic
fibers. Special care is taken to inhibit the fibermatrix
fibers.Specialcareistakentoinhibitthefiber
matrixreactivityinsuch
reactivity in such
systems,particularlyathightemperatures.

MetalMatrixMaterials

Aluminumbasedmatrices
Purealuminumhasverygoodcorrosionresistance
Al6061andAl2024arecommonlyusedalloysforhighstrengthapplications
Graphiteisthemostfrequentlyusedfiberwithaluminumbasedmatrices.Suchfiber
Graphite is the most frequently used fiber with aluminum based matrices. Such fiber
matrixsystemsareusedwherehighstrength,highmodulusisneededatelevated
temperatures.
Carbonhasapropensitytoreactwithaluminumattemperaturesinexcessof500C.
Toavoidsuchreactions,graphitefibersarecoatedwithprotectivelayers.These
protectivecoatingsalsoenhancefibermatrixwetting.

Titaniumbasedmatrices
Titaniumbasedalloysareknownforhighstrengthtoweightratios.
Thesealloys,unlikealuminumalloys,alsohavebetterstrengthretentionattributesat
These alloys, unlike aluminum alloys, also have better strength retention attributes at
temperaturesashighas500C.
However,thesealloysreactwithboron/aluminafibers.Thus,theyareusedeitherwith
SiC fibers,orwithborsic fibers(boroncore,andSiC coating).

CeramicandCarbonMatrices

CeramicandCarbonMatrices
Thesematricesareusedforapplicationswhereusetemperaturesexceed1000C.
Typicalapplicationsincludenoseconesofmissiles,re
Typical applications include nose cones of missiles, reentry
entryvehicles,turbineblades,etc.
vehicles, turbine blades, etc.
Glassceramicmatricesaremadefromlithiumaluminosillicate (LAS)andcalcium
aluminosillicate (CAS).
(
)
Ceramicsaretypicallyreactionbondedsilicontrinitride.
Thesematrixmaterialsareusedinconjunctionwithfibers,whichcantakehigh
temperaturesaswell.Thus,theyarequiteoftenusedwithSiC fibers.
Carbonmatrixisproducedbyvapordepositionofpyrolitic graphiteontoagraphitefiber.
Theresultingcomposite,knownascarboncarboncomposite,cantaketemperaturesas
highas2700C.Thesecompositesareusedforreentryvehicles,andmissilenosecones.
Theyarecoatedwithaprotectivelayertoprotectthemagainstoxidation.

Fillers

Polymericcomposites,especiallythosewithshortfiberscommonlyhave
fillersforpurposesofreducingcost,and/ortoimproveperformance.
Someofthecommonlyusedfillersare:
Calciumcarbonate:Usedtoreducecost,controlshrinkage,providesurfacesmoothness,
andeliminatesinkmarks.
Kaolin(Chinaclay):Increaseresinviscositytopreventfibersfromextrudingoutof
molding surfaces enhance fire resistance
moldingsurfaces,enhancefireresistance.
Naturalsillicas:Usedinthermosetstoprovidedimensionalstability,enhanceelectrical
insulation,andimprovethermalconductivity.
Talc:Usedtoimprovestiffness,andcreepproperties.
Glassorpolymerhollowmicroshperes:Usedforweightreduction
Antimonyoxide:Fireresistance
Graphiteflakes:UsedtoprovideUVimmunity

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture10
ManufacturingofThermoset
Composites

CompositeFabrication
p

Productsmadefromconventionalmaterials,suchametals,andplastics,
finishedproductsareproducedfromrawmaterials.First,rawmaterial
s ed p oducts a e p oduced o a
ate a s
st, a
ate a
(e.g.sheetmetalofanalloy)isproduced,andthenusingthatraw
material,thefinalproduct(e.g.doorpanelofacar)isfabricated.

Incontrast,thesameisnotnecessarilytrueofproductsmadeform
compositematerials.Forinstance,astructuralcompositeplateinvolves
simultaneouscreationoftheproductaswellasthematerial.Thisis
particularlytrueforcompositeswiththermosetmatrixmaterials.

Insuchacase,therawmaterialsarematrix(e.g.epoxy)andfibers(e.g.
graphitefibers).Thesematerialsareprocessedtoproducecomposite
plate,andthematerialpropertiesofcompositeareentirelydifferentthan
l
d h
l
f
l d ff
h
thoseofitsindividualconstituents.Further,productionofthiscomposite
material,andtheplateoccurssimultaneously.

CompositeFabrication
p

Inothercases,a
In
other cases a primitive
primitive versionofcompositeisformedfirst(e.g.pre
version of composite is formed first (e g pre
pregs),andthispreformedcompositeislatergiventheshapeoffinalproduct
byapplicationofpressureandtemperature.However,eveninsuchcases,the
properties of the primitive
propertiesofthe
primitive compositematerial,andthoseoffinalproduct,
composite material, and those of final product,
maybesignificantlydifferent.

Incaseofcompositeswiththermoplasticsmatrixmaterials,thesituationmay
In
case of composites with thermoplastics matrix materials the situation may
besomewhatdifferent.Here,quiteoften,compositematerialisfirst
produced,andthensubsequentlygivendesiredshapeseparately.

However,evenhere,theprocessofgivingdesiredshapetocompositemay
alterpropertiesofcomposite,duetoavarietyoffactorsincludingfiberlength
reduction, change of fiber orientation, and thermal degradation.
reduction,changeoffiberorientation,andthermaldegradation.

Overall,compositematerialsareproducedthroughalargenumberof
processes The choice of a specific production method strongly depends on
processes.Thechoiceofaspecificproductionmethodstronglydependson
chemicalattributesofmatrix,andalsothenatureoffinalproductsshape.

FabricationofThermosetComposites
p

Thermosetcompositesarefabricatedeitherusingwetforming
p
g
g
processes,orprocesseswhichusedpremixesorprepregs.

IInwetformingprocesses,resininfluidstateisused,whileforming
f
i
i i fl id
i
d hil f
i the
h
finalproduct.Theresingetscuredintheproductwhiletheresiniswet.
Thiscuringmaybeaidedbyapplicationofexternalheatandpressure.

Typicalwetformingprocessesinclude:

Handlayup
Hand
layup
Bagmolding
Filamentwinding
RTM ( i t
RTM(resintransfermolding)
f
ldi )
Pultrusion.

FabricationofThermosetComposites
p

Inalternativeprocesses,whichrelyonpremixorprepreg
p
,
y
p
p p g forms(andnot
(
wetforms),prefabricatedmaterialinsemicuredformisusedtoprovide
shapetothefinalproduct.

Thisfinalproduct,whichisstillonlypartiallycured,isthensubjectedto
heatandpressurewiththeintentionofcompletingthecuringprocess.

Theprefabricatedmaterialcanbeavailableas:
Bulkmoldingcompounds(BMCs)availableinamorphousbulkform
Bulk molding compounds (BMCs) available in amorphous bulk form
Sheetmoldingcompounds(SMCs)availableinlargerollsofsheets
Prepregs

BMCsandSMCsareproducedbycompoundingresin,fibers,andfillers.
Thismixisthenpartiallycured.Prepregs aresheetsoforientedfibers
bondedtogetherbypartiallycuredmatrixmaterial.

FabricationofThermosetComposites
p

ThematrixmaterialinBMCs,SMCs,andprepregs
,
,
p p g isfrequentlythickened
q
y
sothatthesemicuredpremix/prepreg istootackytomakehandlingof
thematerialproblematic.

Thickeningofthesematerialsisaccomplishedbyusingspecificthickeners,
andalsobysemicuringtheresin.

Incasetheresinisinasemicuredstate,thematerialhastostoredand
transported at reduced temperature since exposure to even moderate
transportedatreducedtemperature,sinceexposuretoevenmoderate
temperaturesmaycompletethecuringprocess.

Useofpremixesandprepregs simplifiesthefabricationprocessof
composites,andalsofacilitatesautomationoftheprocess.Suchaprocess
also helps in achieving high volume fractions, as well as uniform
alsohelpsinachievinghighvolumefractions,aswellasuniform
distributionoffibers.

DifferentWetProcessTechniques
q

HandLayUp:Thismethodisalsoknownascontactlayup.Itistheoldest,
y p
y p
,
mostcommonlyused,andthesimplestmethodforfabricationof
thermosetcomposites.

Thismethodisappropriateforlowvolumeproduction,andwhencapital
costsneedtobeminimized.

Thismethodisfrequentlyusedtofabricateboats,ducts,pools,furniture,
shells and sheets (corrugated or flat)
shellsandsheets(corrugatedorflat).

y q
(
g
),
Thismethodessentiallyrequiresaflatsurface(formakingsheets),ora
moldandcavityforprovidingshapetothefinalproduct.Themoldingtool
maybemadefrommetals,plastics,wood,orsomeotherappropriate
material.
material.

HandLayup
y p

Fibersandresinpremixedwithcuringagentaremanuallyplacedagainst
p
g g
yp
g
themoldingsurface.

Theplacementoffibersandresincanhappenintwoways.Theseare:
h l
f fib
d i
h
i
h
Whilefabricatingcompositeproductswithlongfibers,reinforcingfibers(informofmats
orfabric)areplacedlayerbylayeroverthesurface,toensureappropriatestacking
sequence,aswellasrequisitethicknessofthefinalproduct.Onceaparticularlayerof
ll
i it thi k
f th fi l
d t O
ti l l
f
fiberisplaced,itiscoatedwithalayerofresineitherthroughaspraygun,orthrougha
brush.Careistakentoensurethatresinisdevoidofairbubbles,asitisappliedto
reinforcingfibers.Forthis,serratedrollersmaybeused,whichhelpremoveairbubbles,
g
,
y
,
p
,
aswellasensureincreasedwettingoffibers.Thismanualmethodoflayupmayalsobe
usedforshortfibercomposites.
Whilefabricatingcompositeswithshortfibers,resinandchoppedfibersareplaced
simultaneouslyonthemoldingsurface.Quiteoften,thedepositionofthisfiberresin
mixisconductedusingasprayupprocess.Here,aspraygunwithtwonozzlesisused.
While one nozzle is used to feed chopped fibers onto the molding surface the second
Whileonenozzleisusedtofeedchoppedfibersontothemoldingsurface,thesecond
nozzlefeedsamixofresinandhardenersimultaneously.

HandLayup
y p

Spray Layup
SprayLay
upProcess
Process

Fig.10.2:SchematicRepresentationofSprayLayUpProcess

HandLayup
y p

Ineitheroftheseprocesses,quiteoften,thecompositeproductiscovered
p
,q
,
p
p
withathinlayerofrandomlyorientedfibers,knownassurfacingmat.This
layerprovidesabettersurfacefinishtotheproduct,andmayalsoprotect
inside of composite against corrosion if surface matssfibersarecorrosion
insideofcompositeagainstcorrosion,ifsurfacemat
fibers are corrosion
resistant.

Inmanycases,especiallyforlargesizedproducts,themoldhasonlyone
part(eitherthecavityorthemalepart).Insuchcases,theprocessis
calledopenmolding.
p
g

HandLayup
y p

AdvantageofHandLayupProcess
g
y p

Appropriateforlargeandproductswithcontouredsurfaces
Requireslimitedcapitalexpenses
Setup costs, and production lead time are less.
Setupcosts,andproductionleadtimeareless.
Doesnotrequirehighlytrainedandskilledpersonnel
Flexibleintermsofaccommodatingchangesindesign
Complex feature can be fabricated through used of moldedin
Complexfeaturecanbefabricatedthroughusedofmolded
ininserts.
inserts

LimitationsofHandLayupProcess
Inappropriateforlargevolumeproduction
Laborintensive
Requireslongcuretime,asmaterialhardensatroomtemperature
Qualitycontrolisdifficultasmanyprocessesarehighlydependentonmanualskills
Productsproducedthroughopenmoldingprocessyieldononegoodmoldingsurface.
Theothersurfaceisroughandcoarseinsurfacefinish.
Wastageofmaterialsmaybehigh.
Producttoproductvariationsinqualitymaybehigh.

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture11
ManufacturingofThermoset
Composites

BagMolding
g
g

Bagmoldingtechniqueworkswellwithwetformingprocess,andalso
g
g
q
gp
,
withpremix/prepreg formingprocess.Itisaveryold,andyetversatile
compositefabricationprocess.

Inthisprocess,layersoffibers,impregnatedwithuncuredresin,arelaid
ontopofamold,layerbylayer.Oncethelayupiscomplete,theoverall
fiberstackupiscoveredwithaflexiblebagordiaphragm.

Theoverallassemblyisnextsubjectedtoexternalpressureand
The
overall assembly is next subjected to external pressure and
temperatureforpurposesofreliablycuringtheresininrelativelyshort
periodoftime.

Oncecuringiscomplete,constituentmaterialsbecomeoneintegrated
mass in desired shape. They can subsequently trimmed, and finished,
massindesiredshape.Theycansubsequentlytrimmed,andfinished,
followingwhichtheycanbeusedinactualapplication.

BagMolding
g
g

Layingupandproperbaggingofthematerialareverycriticalstepsinthe
entireprocess,astheyinfluencethequalityofpartproduced.Toensure
this,andelaboratesetupasshowninFig.11.1isrequiredforbagging.

Asshowninthisschematic,thelayupissetupbetweenasteelmoldplate,
As
shown in this schematic, the layup is setup between a steel mold plate,
andcaul plate,whicharecoatedwithasprayofreleasecoatfilm,aswell
asreleasefabric,whichensurethatthepartdoesnotgetstucktothe
p
p
p
p p ,
p
moldplate.Thecompositepartiscoveredwithpeelplies,whichprotectit
againstcontaminatingagents.Further,thelaminateisalsocoveredwith
bleederplies,whichabsorbexcessresin,andbreatherplies,whichactasa
p
pathwayforairbubblesandvolatilematerialstoexitoutfromthe
y
compositeduringcuring.Theentiresetupissealedinavacuumbagusing
appropriatesealants.

Inthisprocess,whileapplicationoftemperatureisrequiredtofastenthe
curingprocess,applicationofpressureisimportanttoensuregoodsurface
finish, dimensional accuracy, and also to eliminate presence of air and
finish,dimensionalaccuracy,andalsotoeliminatepresenceofairand
porosityinthecompositecomponent.

Bag Molding
BagMolding

Fig.11.1:TypicalBagMoldingProcessSetup
g
yp
g
g
p

BagMolding
g
g

Bagmoldingprocesscanbecategorized,basedonthemethodof
g
gp
g
,
applicationofexternalpressure,intothreegroups.
Pressurebagmolding:Herepressuresexceeding1barareappliedonthecomposite
materialbeingprocessed.
gp
Vacuumbagmolding:Inthisprocess,thecompositematerialsissubjectedtovacuumto
removeairbubblesfromthelaminate.Postthisstage,thematerialmaybesubjectedto
atmosphericpressurewhileitundergoescuringprocessinanoven.
Autoclavemolding:Here,thecompositeissubjectedtovacuumpressures,andalso
elevatedpressuressimultaneously,whileitundergoescuringatelevatedtemperatures.
Inthisprocess,thepartisenclosedinabagconnectedtoavacuumpump.Further,the
exteriorofthebagissubjectedtopressuresexceeding1bar.Finally,curingoftheresin
is initiated through raising the temperature of material by placing it in an autoclave
isinitiatedthroughraisingthetemperatureofmaterialbyplacingitinanautoclave
chamber.
Insuchaprocess,applicationofhighpressureensuresincreasedremovalofairand
In
such a process application of high pressure ensures increased removal of air and
othervolatiles,increasedwetting,andimprovedimpregnationoffiberswithresin.

BagMolding
g
g

Pressurebagmoldingisrelativelyexpensiveduetotoolingcosts.Inthis
g
g
y p
g
method,toolingisexpensivesinceitisintegratedwithcuringpressure
system.

Further,toolsforthistypeofbagmoldingarepartspecific.

Incontrast,vacuumbagandautoclavemoldingapproachesarerelatively
inexpensiveasthebasiccuringequipmentdoesnotchange.Figures11.2
and 11 3 are illustrations of these types of bag molding process
and11.3,areillustrationsofthesetypesofbagmoldingprocess.

Bag Molding
BagMolding

Fig.11.2:SetupforPressureBagMoldingProcess

Bag Molding
BagMolding

Fig.11.3:SetupforVacuumBagMoldingProcess

ResinTransferMoldingg

ResinTransferMolding,commonlyknownasRTM,isawetprocess,where
g,
y
,
p
,
fibersandresinareplacedinthemoldseparately.

First,layersoffibers(ormats/fabrics,)areplacedinthemoldlayerby
i
l
f fib (
/f b i
)
l di h
ld l
b
layer.Onceallthelayersoffibershavebeenplaced,pressurizedresinis
introducedinthemoldtoimpregnatethefibers.Themoldcavity,into
whichresinflows,hasinletsforresin,andalsoventsforair.

Oncethemoldisfullofresin,thesystemisheatedtoinitiatecuring.
Once
the mold is full of resin the system is heated to initiate curing
However,incertainapplications,curingmayoccuratroomtemperature.

Inthismethod,lowviscosityresinsarechosen,assuchresinswetfibers,
andalsoenterinterfibergapsrelativelyeasily.

ResinTransferMoldingg

RTMensureimprovedcontroloverfiberorientation,asfluidpressurein
p
,
p
resinisnotsufficientlylargeenoughtodislodgefibersfromtheirintended
location.

Vacuumassistedresintransfermolding(VARTM)isavariationofRTM,
wherevacuumpressureaidsflowofresin,andalsowettingoffibers.
ComparedtoRTM,VARTMissignificantlylessexpensive.

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture12
ManufacturingofThermoset
Composites

FilamentWindingg

Filamentwindingisaverypopularmethodtoproducecompositeparts
g
yp p
p
p
p
whichareaxisymmetric.Compositepipes,tubes,tanks,cylinders,domes,
spheresarefabricatedusingfilamentwindingtechnique.

Inthisprocess,anaxisymmetricmandrel withanoutsidesurfacesimilar
totheinnersurfaceofparttobeproducedisusedtoproducetheaxi
symmetriccompositepart.

Fiberfromcontinuousfiberrovings
Fiber
from continuous fiber rovings getswettedasitpassesthrougha
gets wetted as it passes through a
resinbath.Thisresinwet,asitexitsfromresinbathgetswoundona
mandrel,whichcontinuallyrotatesonitsaxisofsymmetry.

Careistaken,thatthereissufficienttensioninfibersothatthewinding
remains taut on the mandrel.
remainstautonthemandrel.

FilamentWindingg

Intypicalfilamentwindingmachines,therotationalspeedofmandrel,and
alsothetraversespeedofresinbath,arevariableprocessparameters.By
choosingappropriatevaluesoftheseparameters,thehelixangleoffilament
woundcanbecontrolled,layerbylayer,andsectionbysectioninthe
desiredpart.

Usingsuchanapproach,thefilamentwindingpatterncanhelical,or
Using
such an approach, the filament winding pattern can helical, or
circumferential,orevenlongitudinal.Quiteoften,anoptimallydesigned
filamentwoundpartwouldhaveacombinationofwindingpatterns.

Oncethewindingiscomplete,filamentwoundpartisallowedtocure.Post
curing,themandrelistakenout.Tofacilitateeasyremovalofmandrel,a
variety of mandrel designs have been developed Mandrel may be made of
varietyofmandreldesignshavebeendeveloped.Mandrelmaybemadeof
segmentedandcollapsible,inflatable,ormadeofmaterialswithlowmelting
points.Theymayalsobefabricatedfromsalts,solubleplasters,orplasters
which can be broken post curing of the part.
whichcanbebrokenpostcuringofthepart.

FilamentWindingg

Asmentionedearlier,fibersinthisprocessarecontinuous,andcomeas
,
p
,
rovings.Severaloftheserovings maybemountedonacreel,whichis
essentiallyashelfholdingsveral rovingpackages.

Filamentwindingisalsoperformedusingprepreg tapes.Comparedto
filamentwindingusingwetprocess,partsproducedfromprepreg tapes
exhibitlessfiberdamage,andbetterproductquality.

Further,suchanapproachprovideslatitudetouseresinsystems,whichmay
Further
such an approach provides latitude to use resin systems which may
notmanageableinwetlayupsystems.Finally,usageofprepregs forfilament
woundpartsalsomakestheoverallproductionenvironmentcleaner,and
b
bettercontrolled.
ll d

FilamentWindingg

Filamentwindingprocesshasspecificadvantagesandlimitations.Theseare
gp
p
g
listedbelow.

Ad
Advantages

Easilypronetoautomationandthusamenabletohighproductionvolumes.
Highstrengthproductsareproducedduetofineandcontinualcontroloffiberangle.
Varioussizescanbeproducedusingthismethod.
Directionalcontrolofmodulusandstrengthisfeasible.

Limitations

Windingatangleswhenfiberisalmostparalleltoaxisofsymmetryisdifficult.
Reverse curvature parts cannot be produced easily.
Reversecurvaturepartscannotbeproducedeasily.
Complexshapes,particularlypartswithtwodirectionalcurvaturesaredifficulttoproduce.
Externalsurfacefinishisnotalwayshigh.

FilamentWindingg

Fig.12.1:FilamentWindingSchematic

Pultrusion

Pultrusionisafabricationprocessusedforcomposites,whichissimilarto
th
theconventionalprocessofextrusion.Inthisprocess:
ti
l
f t i
I thi
Thereinforcingmaterial,informofatape,ormat,orroving,passesthrougharesinbath.
Postbath,thereinforcingmaterialpassesthroughapreformingfixture,whereitacquires
i
itscrosssectionalareapartially.Atthisstage,itisalsosqueezedoffitsexcessresinas
i
l
i ll A hi
i i l
d ff i
i
wellasvoids.
Finally,thereinforcingmaterialpassesthroughaheateddie,whereresingetscontinuously
cured and the composite acquires its final and intended crosssection
cured,andthecompositeacquiresitsfinalandintendedcrosssection.

Unlikeextrusion,wherethematerialispushedthruadie,theprocessof
pultrusioninvolvespulling ofreinforcingmaterials(fibers,tapes,rovings,
mats,etc.)throughthedie.

Thisdifferenceisattributabletothefactthatthereinforcingmaterial,while
passingthroughthepreformingfixture,itisnotcuredyet,andhenceis
pronetobucklingwhensubjectedtocompressivepushforces.
t b kli
h
bj t d t
i h f

Pultrusion

Pultrusionisusedextensivelytofabricatebars,tubes,rods,andother
structuralshapes.Profilesproducedthiswayareverystrongaswellasstiff
t t l h
P fil
d d thi
t
ll
tiff
inthefiberdirection.

Thisprocessoffabricationworkswellwithresinswhichcurewithout
producingbyproduct.

Occasionally,thisprocessisalsousedwiththermoplasticresins.However,in
suchcases,highpowerandspecialtymachinesarerequiredsince:
Theresinishighlyviscous,andthusforcerequiredtopullthereinforcementissignificantly
highervisvisthatrequiredwhilepultruding compositesectionswiththermoset resins.
Also,duetohighviscosity,properwettingandimpregnationoffiberswithresinismore
difficult.Hence,specializedequipmentisusedforthispurpose.

Pultrusion

Fi 12 2 B i S h
Fig.12.2:BasicSchematicforPultrusionProcess
i f P l
i P

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture13
OtherManufacturingMethods
forComposites

CompositeFabricationUsing
Preformed Molding Compounds (PMCs)
PreformedMoldingCompounds(PMCs)

Severalthermoset compositeproductsarefabricatedusingmatcheddie
p
p
g
moldsthroughprocessessuchascompressionmoldingandinjection
molding.Whilecompositefabricationusingmatcheddiemoldscanbea
wet process it is more convenient to use premixes and prepregs This is so
wetprocess,itismoreconvenienttousepremixesandprepregs.Thisisso
becauseuseofprepregs andpremixesincreasesproductionthroughput,
andmakestheprocessmorecontrolled.

Therearethreetypesofpreformedmoldingcompounds.Theseare:
Doughorbulkmoldingcompounds(DMCsorBMCs)
g
g
p
(
)
Sheetmoldingcompounds(SMCs)
Prepregs

BMCs/DMCs:Thesecompoundshaveaconsistencyofdough,andare
premixesofresin,choppedfibers,andfillers.Thecompoundisoften
available in rope form and its fiber volume fraction is approximately 20%
availableinropeform,anditsfibervolumefractionisapproximately20%.

CompositeFabricationUsing
Preformed Molding Compounds (PMCs)
PreformedMoldingCompounds(PMCs)

SMCs:Thesecompoundsareavailableinsheetform.InSMCs,polyester
resinistypicallyusedasmatrixmaterial,whilechoppedglass,carbonor
kevlar fibersmaybeusedasreinforcements.Fibervolumefractioninsuch
compoundsis2035%.Fibers,thoughchopped,arelongervisvisBMCs.
p
,
g
pp ,
g
Priortomolding,SMCsheetsaretrimmedtoappropriatesize,andthen
pressedandheatedinthemold.

Preimpregnated FiberReinforcedPlastics:Thesecompounds,alsoknown
asprepregs,areusedforproducinghighperformancelaminates.Prepregs
p p g
p
g g p
p g
arereinforcedwithrovings,fabrics,continuousunidirectionalfibers,or
evenrandomandchoppedfibers,andpreimpregnated withpartially
cured resins.
curedresins.
Prepregs,unlikeSMCsandBMCscontainnoadditiveslikefillers,pigments,andother
additives.Carbon,kevlar andglassaretypicalfibersusedinprepregs.
FabricationoffinalproductsusingBMCsandSMCsisdonethroughmatcheddie
Fabrication of final products using BMCs and SMCs is done through matched die
moldingprocess.Incontrast,prepregs areusedinhandlayup,bagmolding,and
windingprocesses.

FabricationofThermoplasticResin
Matrix Composites
MatrixComposites

Thermoplasticmatrixcompositesmayeitherhaveshortfibers,orlong
fibers.Thefabricationprocessforthesetwotypesofcompositesare
significantlydifferent.

Forthermoplasticresincompositesreinforcedwithshortfibers,injection
moldingisthepreferredmethod.Towardsthisend,conventionalinjection
moldingmachines,eitherscrewdriven,orplungerdriven,areusedwidely.
ldi
hi
ith
di
l
di
d id l

Therawmaterialforproductmadefromshort
The
raw material for product made from shortfiber
fiberreinforced
reinforced
thermoplasticcompositescomesinpelletizedform.Thesepelletshave
shortfibersencapsulatedinmatrixmaterial.Severalresinsreinforcedwith
short glass fibers are commercially available
shortglassfibersarecommerciallyavailable.

Someoftheseresinsare:polypropylene,ABS,polycarbonates,andblends
ofpolyphenylene oxide(PPO)andpolystyrene.

FabricationofThermoplasticResin
Matrix Composites
MatrixComposites

Processparametersforshortfiberreinforcedthermoplasticsare
P
t f h t fib
i f
d th
l ti
significantlydifferentthatthoseforplainthermoplastics.These
differencesareattributableto:

Differenceinrheologicalpropertiesofmoltenpellets.
Increasedthermalconductivity.
Increasedwearoftoolduetopresenceofglassfibers
Differenceinshrinkageofreinforcedpelletsvisvisplainthermoplastics.
Directiondependentmechanicalpropertiesofreinforcedplastics.Inreinforcedplastics,
shortfiberstendtoalignwiththedirectionofflowofresininthemold.

Therehavebeenattemptstointroducedryblendsofpolymerandfibers
directlyintotheinjectionmoldingmachine,ratherthanusingpellets
y
j
g
,
gp
whicharepremixesoffibersandresin.However,ithasbeenfoundthat
componentsproducedthiswayhaverelativelycoarsersurfacefinish,and
also variable strength due to nonuniform
alsovariablestrengthduetonon
uniformdistributionoffibersinmatrix.
distribution of fibers in matrix

FabricationofThermoplasticResin
Matrix Composites
MatrixComposites

Stampingandthermoformingaretwoothermethodsusedfor
St
i
d th
f
i
t
th
th d
df
thermoplasticresinmatrixcomposites.

Thesemethodsusereinforcedthermoplasticsheetsastherawmaterial.
Thesesheetsareproducedbylaminatingchoppedstrandmatsusinga
thermoplastic matrix material In certain cases the reinforcement could
thermoplasticmatrixmaterial.Incertaincases,thereinforcementcould
alsorelyoncontinuousrovings.

AZDELisonesuchcommerciallyavailablematerialsinsheetform,which
has40%glass(byweight)boundinapolypropylenematrix.

Unlikeconventionalstampingprocess,wheresheetsofmetalsareusually
formedintofinalshapeatroomtemperatures,stampingofthermoplastic
sheetsrequiresapplicationoftemperaturestosoftenthermoplastic
h
l
f
f
h
l
materials.

FabricationofMetalMatrixComposites
p

Metalmatrixcompositesrequireembeddingofreinforcingfibersintoa
M
t l
ti
it
i
b ddi
f i f i fib i t
metallicmatrix.Thisrequireseithermeltingthematrixmaterial,orhot
pressingmatrixintofibers.Ineithercase,hightemperaturearerequired
toproducethesespecialtycomposites.

Adirectconsequenceofapplicationofhightemperaturesisincreased
A
direct consequence of application of high temperatures is increased
reactivitybetweenspecificfibermatrixcombinations.Forinstance,glass
fibersreactwithaluminumathightemperatures.Suchareactivitymay
lead to degradation of composites properties
leadtodegradationofcompositesproperties.

,
p
q
y
Further,metalmatrixcompositesarefrequentlyusedatelevated
temperatures.Underthoseconditionsthespecificmatrixfiber
combinationsmayreactleadingtoreductionofmaterialsperformance.
Thus appropriate methods have been devised to manage such concerns
Thus,appropriatemethodshavebeendevisedtomanagesuchconcerns.

FabricationofMetalMatrixComposites
p

Fornonreactivefibermatrixsystems,moltenmatrixmaterialissimply
poured to impregnate the fibers
pouredtoimpregnatethefibers.

However,incaseofreactivefibermatrixsystems,fibersareindividually
coatedwithmatrixmaterial,bydrawingthemrapidlythroughmolten
d
h
l b d
h
dl h
h
l
metal,suchthatthereisverylittletimeforfibermatrixreactionstooccur.
Thesecoatedfibersaresubsequentlyhotpressedtoformcomposite
components.
t

Inothercases,fibersareprecoatedwithanonreactivematerial,andonly
themimmersedinthematrixmaterialbath.Forinstance,nickelisusedto
coatgraphitefibers,beforethefibersareimmersedinaluminummatrix.

Inanothermethod,matrixmaterialisalloyedwithsubstancesthatreduce
thematrixmeltingpoint,andthuscompositesprocessingtemperature.
Reduction in processing temperature significantly reduces rate of reaction
Reductioninprocessingtemperaturesignificantlyreducesrateofreaction
betweenfiberandmatrix.Forinstance,additionof12%siliconto
aluminum,reducesitsmeltingpointfrom660Cto580C.

FabricationofMetalMatrixComposites

Plasmasprayingisonemoremethodusedtominimizereactionsbetween
fibersandmatrix.Here,fibers,supportedonathinfoil,areexposedto
be s a d at
e e, be s, suppo ted o a t
o , a e e posed to
sprayofmatrixmaterial.Suchaprocessproducesathinktapeofmetal
matrixcomposite.
Thistapeisporous,easytodeform,andamenabletohotpressingfor
productionoffinalproduct.Inthismethod,metalspraycoolsveryrapidly,
therebyreducingthetimeforfibermatrixreactionstooccur.

Instillothercases,solidmatrix,insheetorpowderform,ishotpressed
In
still other cases solid matrix in sheet or powder form is hot pressed
ontofibers.Suchanapproachworksonlyforfiberswithlargediameters
(e.g.boron).Theprocessrequirestightcontroloftemperatureandpressure
toensureminimalmechanicaldamageandchemicalinteraction.
l
h
ld
d h
l
Suchaprocessisusedtoproducetapes,whichhavematrixsheetsoneither
Such
a process is used to produce tapes which have matrix sheets on either
sideoffibers.Thesetapesmaybesubsequentlyusedtoproducefinal
components.

FabricationofCeramicMatrixComposites

Chemicalvapordeposition(CVD)isanothermethod,throughwhichmetal
matrixcompositesareproduced.
ti
it
d d

Ceramicmatrixcomposites:Thesecompositesarefabricatedusinga2
Ceramic
matrix composites: These composites are fabricated using a 2
stageprocess.
First,fibersarecoatedwithgreenmatrixmaterial.Thisisaccomplishedbypassinga
filament tow through a bath of slurry which contains matrix powder, an organic binding
filamenttowthroughabathofslurrywhichcontainsmatrixpowder,anorganicbinding
agent,andaliquidmedium.Thefibertow,postinfiltrationoftheslurryiswoundona
drum,anddried.
Next,thetowiscut,stacked,andlaidasperdesignrequirements.Atthisstage,itiseither
hotpressed,orfiredattemperaturesexceed1200C.Exposuretohightemperatures
ensuresrapiddiffusionandcompactionofthecomposite.

Careistaken,whilefabricatingceramicmatrixcomposites,tominimize
porosity.Forthis,itisensuredthatmatrixpowderparticlesaresmallerthan
fiberdiameter,asthisensuresincreasedremovalofbindingagentsduring
thefiringprocess.

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture14
CompositeMechanicsTerminologies

ScalesofAnalysisforComposites
y
p
Compositematerialsneedtobeunderstoodatdifferentscales
ofmeasurement.
f
Atthemostfundamentallevel,compositesaremixturesof
fibers (or particles) matrix and an interface material which
fibers(orparticles),matrix,andaninterfacematerialwhich
connectsfibers(orparticles)tothematrixmaterial.
Micromechanics helpsusunderstandinteractionsbetween
helps us understand interactions between
differentconstituentsofcompositeonamicroscopicscale.
Suchafieldofstudyhelpsusunderstand:

Failuremechanismsinfibers(tensile,buckling,splitting,etc.)
Failuremechanisminmatrix(tensile,compressive,shear)
Interfacefailuremechanisms
Fracturetoughness,fatiguelife,andstrength
Basisofmacrolevelelasticproperties

However,micromechanicsisanimpracticaltooltounderstandbehaviorof
However,
micromechanics is an impractical tool to understand behavior of
largestructures,duetocomputationallimitations.

ScalesofAnalysisforComposites
y
p

Attheconstituentlevel,materialunderanalysisisnothomogenous.
Hence its behavior changes significantly between different constituent
Hence,itsbehaviorchangessignificantlybetweendifferentconstituent
materials.

Thenextlevelofanalysisincompositesmaybeconductedforalamina,
i.e.asinglelayerofcompositematerial.Atthislevel,materialisassumed
to be homogenous, and material properties of the lamina is assumed to
tobehomogenous,andmaterialpropertiesofthelaminaisassumedto
beanaveraged(smeared)valueofthoseofconstituentmaterials.Suchan
analysisisknownasmacromechanics.

Suchanapproachofstudyworkswellforindividualcompositelayers.It
helpsuspredictfailureandperformanceofindividuallaminae,intermsof
smearedpropertiesofthecomposite.However,suchanapproachdoes
notrefertolocalfailuremechanisms.

ScalesofAnalysisforComposites
y
p

Atthenextlevel,principalsofmacromechanicalanalysisarefurther
developed to understand stacks of laminae i e laminates Several
developedtounderstandstacksoflaminae,i.e.laminates.Several
theorieshavebeendevelopedtowardsthisend,themostwidelyused
beingClassicalLaminateTheory(CLT).Suchatheorypredictsproperties
oflaminatesasafunctionofthreevariables:
fl i t
f ti
f th
i bl
Propertiesofindividuallayers
Thicknessofindividuallayers
Orientationandarrangementindividuallayers.

Finally,analysisisperformedatthecomponentlevel.Here,structural
analysis isdeployedtounderstandoverallbehaviorofthestructurein
termsofits:

Performance(stresses,deflections,strains)
Performance
(stresses, deflections, strains)
Dynamics
Stability
Failure

ScalesofAnalysisforComposites
y
p

MicromechanicstoStudyFiberMatrixInteraction

Macromechanics toStudyaCompositeLaminate

Macromechanics toUnderstandaSingleLamina

StructuralAnalysisforLargeCompositeStructures

Fig.14.1:DifferentScalesofAnalysisofComposites

BasicTerminology
Micromechanics:Studyofcompositematerialsby
understandinginteractionbetweenconstituent
materials on a microscopic scale
materialsonamicroscopicscale.
Suchanapproachhelpsonetheoreticallycompute
materialproperties,andfailuremechanismsof
composites.
i
Suchanapproachisdifficulttouseforlargestructures
because o co putat o a
becauseofcomputationallimitations.
tat o s

Macromechanics:Studyofcompositematerials
y
p
presumedtobehomogeneous.Insuchanapproachof
study,averaged(smeared)propertiesofcomposite
material are used to account for the effects of
materialareusedtoaccountfortheeffectsof
constituentmaterials.
Suchanapproachworkswellforlargestructures.
Predictionofstressesatmicrolevelisnotaccurate.

Istoropy,Anisotropy,andHomogeneity
Mostcompositematerialsareneitherhomogeneousnor
isotropic.
p
Ahomogeneous materialisonewherepropertiesareuniform
throughout,i.e.theydonotdependonpositioninbody.
Anisotropic materialisonewherepropertiesaredirection
independent.

Compositesareinhomogeneous(orheterogeneous)aswell
as nonisotropic
asnon
isotropicinnature.
in nature.
Aninhomogeneous (orheterogeneous)materialsproperties
varyfrompointtopoint.
Anonisotropic materialisonewherematerialproperties
dependondirection.Insuchmaterialsthemodulusmaybe
different in m t all orthogonal directions (
differentinmutuallyorthogonaldirections(x,y,andz)of
and ) of
measurement.

MechanicalBehaviorofCompositeMaterials
Anonisotropicmaterialmaybe:
Orthotropic:
Orthotropic:Here,thecompositehasthreemutually
Here the composite has three mutually
perpendicularplanesofmaterialsymmetry.
Whenasampleispulledintensionalongeitherofthese
planes,itproducesonlynormalstrains(tensileinpulling
direction,andcompressiveintransversedirections).
Similarly,shearstresswhenappliedalongmaterial
y
pp
g
symmetryplaneswillgenerateonlyshearstrains.
Incontrast,anisotropicmaterialifuniformlypulledinany
direction,willproduceonlynormalstrains.Further,sucha
,
p
y
,
materialwhenexertedwithshearforcealonganyplane,will
exhibitonlyshearstrains.

Anisotropic:Herethecompositehasnoplanesof
materialsymmetry.
Hence,applicationoftensilestressonsuchmaterialswill
li i
f
il
h
i l ill
producenormalaswellasshearstrains.

MechanicalBehaviorofCompositeMaterials

BasicTerminology
Lamina:Aflat(sometimescurvedaswell)sampleof
unidirectional/wovenfibersheldtogetherbyamatrix.
/
g
y
Ifafiberbreaksinalaminaitisthematrix,whichtransfersload
fromonebrokenendtootherbrokenendofthefiberthrough
shear forces.
shearforces.
Pluraloflaminaislaminae.
Alsoknownaslayer,andply.

Laminate:Alaminateisastackofseverallaminae oriented
in different directions which are glued together.
indifferentdirectionswhicharegluedtogether.
Theremaybesignificantshearstressespresentbetweentwo
adjacentpliesduetothetendencyofeachlayertodeform
independently.
independently
Thesestressesaremaximumatedgesofalaminate,andmay
causedelamination atsuchlocations.

BasicTerminology

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture15
BehaviorofUnidirectionalComposites

Lecture Overview
LectureOverview
Materialaxesinunidirectionalcomposites
M t i l
i
idi ti
l
it
Constituent
Constituentvolumefractionanditsrelationshipwith
volume fraction and its relationship with
compositedensity
Importanceofpredictivemethodologiesusedfor
compositematerialproperties
Predictivemodelforlongitudinalstiffness
Predictivemodelforlongitudinalstrength

Material axes in unidirectional composites


Materialaxesinunidirectionalcomposites

Alaminaisthebuildingblockofmoderncompositelaminatedstructures.

Eachlaminamayhaveinitselfmorethanonetypesoffibers.Thesefibers
may be oriented in different directions.
maybeorientedindifferentdirections.

Alaminatehasseverallayers,orlaminae.

Eachlaminamayhaveadifferent:

Thickness
Fiberorientationangle
Fibermaterial
Matrixmaterial

Understandingthemechanicalbehaviorofalaminaisthefirststepin
Understanding
the mechanical behavior of a lamina is the first step in
understandingmechanicsoflaminatedcompositestructures.

Materialaxesinunidirectionalcomposites

Alaminaisalsoknownasaply,oralayer.

Eachlayerinalaminatehasingeneralthreeplanesofmaterialsymmetry.
Because of this they exhibit orthotropic behavior
Becauseofthis,theyexhibitorthotropicbehavior.
Alaminacutacrosstheseplanesofsymmetrywillexhibitsamemechanical
properties.

Lineswhicharenormaltotheseplanesofmaterialsymmetryarecalled
materialaxes.Theseaxesandarequiteoftendesignatedas1,2
q
g
, and3
axes.TheseareshowninFig.15.1.
Axis1runsparalleltothedirectionoffibers,anditsdirectioniscalled
longitudinal direction
longitudinaldirection.
Axis2runsnormaltoaxis1,butintheplaneoflamina.Directionassociated
withaxis2iscalledtransversedirection.Axis3runsnormaltoaxis1andaxis
2 This is also transverse direction
2.Thisisalsotransversedirection.
1,2and3arealsoknownasprincipalmaterialdirections.

Materialaxesinunidirectionalcomposites
Giventhefactthatfibersstrengthandstiffnessissignificantly
larger than that of the matrix a lamina is stiffest and
largerthanthatofthematrix,alaminaisstiffestand
strongestinlongitudinaldirection.
Further,in2and3directionsitsmechanicalpropertiesare
,
p p
roughlythesame.Infact,alaminasmechanicalpropertiesin
anydirectionlyinginthe23planearequitesimilar.
Forthisreason,aunidirectionallaminaisconsideredastransversely
isotropic,i.e.itisisotropicinthe23plane.

The
Thethicknessofatypicalcarbonorglassfiberplyis0.127
thickness of a typical carbon or glass fiber ply is 0 127
mm.Thisthicknessdependsonnumberoffilamentsinatow.
Insuchplies,fiberdiametermaybeapproximately10
p ,
y
pp
y
microns.Eachplymaybeconstructedofyarns orrovings.
TheseareshowninFig.15.2.
Ayarnisacollectionoflongcontinuousandinterlockedfibers.
Arovingisanarrowandlongbundleofseveralfibers.

Materialaxesinunidirectionalcomposites

Fig.15.2
Roving(left)andYarn(right)
Fig.15.21
P i i lM t i lA
PrincipalMaterialAxesina
i
UnidirectionalLamina

FailureinIsotropicv/sTransverselyIsotropic
Materials

Inisotropicmaterials,failurepredictionrequirescalculatingprincipal
st esses o st a s a d co pa g t e to a o ab e st ess/st a
stressesorstrainsandcomparingthemtoallowablestress/strainlimits
ts
prescribedforthematerial.

Innonisotropicmaterials(e.g.transverselyisotropicmaterials),this
approachdoesnotwork.
Thenotionofprincipalstressmakesnosenseforthesematerialsasmaterial
p
p
strengthchangeswithdirection,andthedirectionofprincipalstressmaynot
inmostofthecasescoincidewithdirectionofmaximumstrength.

Thus,forunidirectionalmaterials,weevaluateallowablestressfieldin
contextofdifferentstrengthsofmaterialinprincipalmaterialdirections.
Theseare:
Th
Longitudinaltensilestrength
Longitudinalcompressivestrength
Inplaneshearstrength

Lateraltensilestrength
Lateralcompressivestrength

FailureinIsotropicv/sTransverselyIsotropic
Materials
These
Thesefivematerialstrengthparametersforunidirectional
five material strength parameters for unidirectional
compositesarefundamentalmaterialpropertiesofalamina.
Experimentaldatashowsthatthesematerialstrength
propertiesofaunidirectionallaminaaremutually
independent,particularlyatmacroscale.
Hence,ifweareabletocalculatestressfieldina
unidirectionallaminausing123axesasreferenceframe,
thenwecanpredictfailureinsuchlamina.
h
di f il
i
hl i

VolumeandMassFraction
Therelativeproportionsoffiberandmatrixhaveasignificant
influenceonthemechanicalpropertiesofcompositelamina.
Theseproportionscanbeexpressedeitherasvolumefractions,
orasmassfractions.Whilemassfractionsareeasiertoobtain
d
duringfabricationofcomposites,volumefractionsarehandier
f b
f
l
f
h d
intheoreticalanalysesofcomposites.
Ifv
If c,vm,andv
d f,arevolumesofcomposite,matrix,andfiber,
l
f
it
ti
d fib
respectively,thenvolumefractionofmatrix(Vm)andfiber(Vf)
are defined below.
aredefinedbelow.
Vm =vm/vc

and

Vf =vf/vc

where, vc=vm +vf

Andifmc,,mm,,andmf,,aremassesofcomposite,matrix,and
p
,
,
fiber,respectively,thenmassfractionofmatrix(Mm)andfiber
(Mf)aredefinedbelow.
Mm=Mm/Mc

and

Mf=Mf/Mc

where, mc=mm +mf

VolumeandMassFraction
Usingvolumefractionswecannowcalculatetheoveralldensity
ofthecomposite.Ifm,f,andc aredensitiesofmatrix,fiber
andcomposite,respectively,thendensityofcomposite(c)can
becalculatedasshownbelow.
mc=mm +mf
cvc= mvm +f vf

Dividingthisrelationbyvolumeofcomposite,wecanwrite:
c= mvm /v
/ vc +
+ f vf/ vc
c= mVm +f Vf

(Eq.15.1)

Similarly,wecanalsodeveloparelationforcompositesdensity
intermsofweightfractionsanddensitiesoffiberandmatrix.

What you learnt in this lecture?


Whatyoulearntinthislecture?
Materialaxesofalamina,andthenotionoftransverseisotropy
M t i l
f l i
d th
ti
ft
i t
Howtocalculatedensityofacomposite,usingvolumeandmass
fractionvalues.
The
Therationaleunderlyingdevelopmentofpredictivemethodologies
rationale underlying development of predictive methodologies
forestimatingcompositematerialproperties
Relationstopredictlongitudinalmodulusofaunidirectionallamina
Relations to predict longitudinal modulus of a unidirectional lamina
Relationstopredictstrengthofunidirectionallamina
Differentfailurecriterionforaunidirectionallaminawhich
undergoes pure uniform tension
undergoespureuniformtension

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture16
BehaviorofUnidirectionalComposites

Lecture Overview
LectureOverview
Materialaxesinunidirectionalcomposites
M t i l
i
idi ti
l
it
Constituent
Constituentvolumefractionanditsrelationshipwith
volume fraction and its relationship with
compositedensity
Importanceofpredictivemethodologiesusedfor
compositematerialproperties
Predictivemodelforlongitudinalstiffness
Predictivemodelforlongitudinalstrength

TheNeedforPredictiveModels
for Determining Composite Properties
forDeterminingCompositeProperties

Mechanicalpropertiesofacompositematerialdependon:
p p
p
p

Propertiesofconstituentmaterials
Orientationsofeachlayer
V l
Volumefractionsofeachconstituent
f ti
f
h
tit
t
Thicknessofeachlayer
Natureofbondingbetweenadjacentlayers

Thesepropertiesmaybedeterminedbyconductingsuitableexperiments
as per industry standards
asperindustrystandards.

However,aspecificsetofexperimentscanonlyinformusabouta specific
fibermatrixsystem.Hence,ifwewanttodesignacompositesystemby
tuningitsvolumefraction,orfibermatrixcombination,ororientation,
thenaverylargenumberofexperimentsmayhavetobeconducted.
y g
p
y

TheNeedforPredictiveModels
for Determining Composite Properties
forDeterminingCompositeProperties

Suchaprocessformaterialpropertydeterminationisextremelytedious,
p
p p y
y
,
prohibitivelyexpensive,andtimeconsuming.

SStillfurther,exactfibermatrixcombinationsmaynotbealwaysavailable
ill f h
fib
i
bi i
b l
il bl
fortesting.

Hence,thereisaneedfordevelopingmathematicalmodels,whichcan
reliablypredictdifferentthermomechanicalpropertiesofcomposite
materials.
materials

pp
y
g
yp
Suchapproachesareveryusefulforengineerssincetheyprovide
significantsavingsintimeandcost.

PredictingLongitudinalModulusofUnidirectionalLamina
Consideraunidirectionalcompositelaminawithfiberswhich
arecontinuous,uniformingeometricandmechanical
,
g
properties,andmutuallyparallelthroughoutthelengthofthe
lamina.Wealsoassumethatthebondingbetweenfiberand
matrixisperfect,andthusstrainsexperiencedbyfiber(
f
d h
d b f b ( f),
)
matrix(f)andcomposite(c)aresameinlongitudinal
direction (1direction) For such a composite when loaded in
direction(1direction).Forsuchacomposite,whenloadedin
1direction,thetotalexternalloadPc willbesharedpartlyby
fibers,Pf,andpartlybymatrix,P
p y y
g
m.ThisisshowninFig.16.1.
Fig.16.1:LoadsonComposite,Fibers,&
g
p
,
,
inaUnidirectionalLamina.

PredictingLongitudinalModulusUnidirectionalLamina
g
g

Wefurtherassumethatfibersandmatrixbehaveelastically.Thus,the
W
f th
th t fib
d ti b h
l ti ll Th th
expressionforstressinfibers,andmatrixcanbewrittenintermsoftheir
moduli (Ef,andEm)andstrainsas:
f =Ef f
and
m =EEm m

Further,iftotalcrosssectionalareasoffibersandmatrixareA
,
f andAm,,
respectively,then:
Pf =Aff =AfEf f,
and
d
Pm =Amm=AmEm

Predicting Longitudinal Modulus Unidirectional Lamina


PredictingLongitudinalModulusUnidirectionalLamina

Further,weknowthatloadoncomposite,Pc,issumofPf andPm.Thus,
Pc =Acc =Aff+Amm,
or
or
c =(Af/Ac)f+(Am/Ac)m

However,foraunidirectionalcomposite,Af/Ac andAm/Ac arevolume


fractionsforfiberandmatrix,respectively.Hence,
c =V
Vff+V
Vmm= (VfEf +V
VmEm)
)
(E 16 2)
(Eq.16.2)

And,ifEq.4.2isdifferentiatedwithrespecttostrain(whichissameinfiber
And,
if Eq. 4.2 is differentiated with respect to strain (which is same in fiber
andmatrix)then.
dc /d=Vf(df/d) +Vm(dm/d),or
Ec =VfEf +VmEm
(Eq.16.3)

PredictingLongitudinalModulusofUnidirectionalLamina

Equations16.2and16.3showthatcontributionsoffibersandmatrixto
averagecompositetensilemodulusandstressareproportionately
it t il
d l
d t
ti
t l
dependentontheirrespectivevolumefractions.

Ingeneral,matrixmaterialhasanonlinearstressstrainresponsecurve.For
unidirectionalcompositeshavingsuchnonlinearmatrixmaterials,Eq.16.2
works well in terms of predicting their stress strain However the stress
workswellintermsofpredictingtheirstressstrain.However,thestress
strainresponsecurveinsuchmaterialsmaynotshowupasstrongly
nonlinear,sincefibers,especiallywhentheirvolumefractionsarehigh,
d i t th i t
dominatetheirstressstrainresponse.
t i

Thehigherthefibervolumefraction,thecloseristhestress
The
higher the fiber volume fraction, the closer is the stressstrain
straincurvefor
curve for
aunidirectionallaminatothatforthefiber.

Predicting Longitudinal Modulus of Unidirectional Lamina


PredictingLongitudinalModulusofUnidirectionalLamina

Experimentaldatapertainingtotensiletestspecimensoflaminaagreevery
Experimental
data pertaining to tensile test specimens of lamina agree very
wellwithEqs.16.2and16.3.However,theresultsforcompressivetestsare
notallthatagreeable.

Thisisbecausefibersundercompressiontendtobuckle,andthistendency
isresistedbymatrixmaterial.Thisisanalogoustoastructurewithseveral
y
g
columnsonanelasticfoundation.Foraunidirectionalcomposite,the
compressiveresponseisstronglydependentonshearstiffnessofmatrix
material.
material

Further,Eq.16.2showsusthatloadsharedbyfibersmaybeincreased
eitherbyincreasingfiberstiffnessorbyincreasingitsvolumefraction.
However,experimentaldatashowthatitbecomesimpracticaltoaimfor
p
g
fibervolumefractionsinexcessof80%duetoissuesofpoorfiberwetting
andinsufficientmatriximpregnationbetweenfibers.

PredictingLongitudinalStrengthofUnidirectionalLamina

Topredictlongitudinalstrengthofaunidirectionalply,requiresoneto
understandthenatureofdeformationofsuchaplyasloadincreases.In
general, the stressstrain
general,thestress
strainresponseofunidirectionalpliesundertension
response of unidirectional plies under tension
undergoesfourstagesofchange.
Infirststage,whenstressesaresmall,fiberaswellasmatrixmaterialsexhibit
elastic behavior
elasticbehavior.
Subsequently,matrixstartsbecomingplastic,whilemostofthefiberscontinue
toextendelastically.
Inthethirdstage,bothfibersandmatrixdeformplastically.Thismaynothappen
h h d
b hfb
d
d f
l
ll h
h
incaseofglassorgraphitefibers,astheyarebrittleinnature.
Finally,thefibersfractureleadingtosuddenriseinmatrixstress,whichinturn
leadstooverallcompositefailure.

Aunidirectionallaminastartstofail
A
unidirectional lamina starts to fail intension,whenitsfibersarestretched
in tension when its fibers are stretched
totheirultimatefracturestrain.Hereitisassumedthatallofitsfiberfailat
thesamestrainlevel.Ifatthisstage,thevolumefractionofmatrixisbelow
a certain threshold the it will not be able to absorb extra stresses
acertainthreshold,theitwillnotbeabletoabsorbextrastresses
transferredtoitduetobreakingoffibers.Insuchascenario,theentire
compositelaminawillfail.

PredictingLongitudinalStrengthofUnidirectionalLamina
Thus,ultimatetensilestrengthofaunidirectionalplycanbe
calculatedas:
uc =Vfuf +(1Vf)m
(Eq.16.4)
whereuc anduf areultimatetensilestrengthsofplyandfiber,respectively,
andm
q
g
m isstressinmatrixatastrainlevelequalingfracturestraininfiber.

Ifthefibervolumefractiondoesnotexceedacertainthreshold(Vmin),
thenevenifallthefibersbreak,thematrixthetotalloadonthe
h
if ll h fib b k h
i h
ll d
h
composite.Insuchacondition,theultimatetensilestrengthof
compositemaybewrittenas:
p
y
uc =Vmum=(1Vf)um

(Eq.16.5)

TherelationforV
h
l
f
b d l
db
d
min,canbedevelopedbyequatingEqs.16.4and16.5,
replacingVf byVmin,andsolvingforthelatter.ThisisshowninEq.16.6.
Vmin =(
(um m )/(uf +
um
um m )

(Eq. 16.6)
(Eq.16.6)

PredictingLongitudinalStrengthofUnidirectionalLamina
Further,awelldesignedunidirectionallaminarequiresthatits
ultimatetensilestrengthshouldexceedthatofmatrix.Thiscan
happen only when;
happenonlywhen;
uc =Vfuf +(1Vf)m um ,whereumisultimatetensilestrengthofmatrix.

Thisequationissatisfiedonlyiffibervolumefractionexceedsa
certaincriticalvalue,whichisdefinedas:
Vcrit =(
( um m )/(
)/( uf m )

(E 16 7)
(Eq.16.7)

Thus if:
Thus,if:
Vf <Vmin,thenfailureofmatrixwillcoincidewithfailureofcomposite,whilefiberswillfail
priortofailureofmatrix.
Vf =V
= Vmin,thenfailureofmatrix,fiberandcompositewillhappenatthesametime.
then failure of matrix fiber and composite will happen at the same time
Vf >Vmin,thenfailureoffiber,willimmediatelyleadtofailureofmatrixaswellasofthe
composite.
Vf >V
> Vcritit,thenfailureoffiberwillimmediatelyleadtofailureofmatrixandalsothe
, then failure of fiber will immediately lead to failure of matrix and also the
composite.Insuchacasethestrengthofunidirectionalcompositewillexceedthatof
matrix.

What you learnt in this lecture?


Whatyoulearntinthislecture?
Materialaxesofalamina,andthenotionoftransverseisotropy
M t i l
f l i
d th
ti
ft
i t
Howtocalculatedensityofacomposite,usingvolumeandmass
fractionvalues.
The
Therationaleunderlyingdevelopmentofpredictivemethodologies
rationale underlying development of predictive methodologies
forestimatingcompositematerialproperties
Relationstopredictlongitudinalmodulusofaunidirectionallamina
Relations to predict longitudinal modulus of a unidirectional lamina
Relationstopredictstrengthofunidirectionallamina
Differentfailurecriterionforaunidirectionallaminawhich
undergoes pure uniform tension
undergoespureuniformtension

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture17
BehaviorofUnidirectionalComposites

Lecture Overview
LectureOverview
Predictivemodelsfortransversestiffness
P di ti
d l f t
tiff
ShearmodulusandPoissonsratio
Estimatesfortransversestrength
Predictivemodelsforcoefficientofthermal
expansion
Thermalconductivityy

PredictingTransverseModulusofUnidirectionalLamina

Figure17.1showsasimplemodelforpredictingtransversemodulusof
unidirectionallamina.Here,themodelconstitutesoftwoslabsof
materials fiber and matrix of thicknesses tf andt
materials,fiberandmatrix,ofthicknessest
and tm,respectively.The
respectively The
overallthicknessofcompositeslabistc,whichissumoftf andtm.Itmay
benotedherethatthesethicknessesoffiberandmatrixaredirectly
proportionaltotheirrespectivevolumefractions.
ti
l t th i
ti
l
f ti

Fig.17.1:ASlabLike
ModelforPredicting
TransversePropertiesof
Unidirectional Composites
UnidirectionalComposites

IInsuchasystem,externallyimposedstressonthecomposite(
h
t
t
ll i
d t
th
it ( c)is
)i
assumedtobesameasthatseenbyfiber(f)andalsobymatrix(m).
Thisisincontrasttothemodeldevelopedforpredictinglongitudinal
modulus,wherewehadassumedthatstrains,andnotstresses,in
composite,fiberandmatrixareequal.

PredictingTransverseModulusofUnidirectionalLamina

Further,insuchamodel,whichisakintospringsinseries,theoverall
displacementincomposite(
d
sp ace e t co pos te ( c))intransversedirectionduetoexternalload
t a s e se d ect o due to e te a oad
isasumofdisplacementinfiber(f)anddisplacementinmatrix(m).
c =f +m
Further,recognizingtherelationbetweenstrainsineachconstituent,and
theirthicknesses,aboveequationcanberewrittenas:
c tc =m tm +f tf

Dividingaboveequationbythicknessofcomposite(tc),andrealizingthat
tf/t
/ c,andt
d m/t
/ c equalV
l f andV
d m,respectively,weget:
l
c =m Vm +f Vf

Inlinearelasticrange,strainisaratioofstressandthemodulus.Hence,
aboveequationcanbefurtherrewrittenas:
(c/Ec)=(m/Em)Vm +(f/Ef)Vf

PredictingTransverseModulusofUnidirectionalLamina

However,wehadearlierassumedthatexternallyappliedstressonthe
composite(c)issameasthatseenbyfiber(f)andalsobymatrix(m).
Thus previous equation can be rewritten as:
Thus,previousequationcanberewrittenas:
1/Ec=Vm/Em +Vf/Ef
(Eq.17.1a)
Oralternatively,
Ec =(EfEm)/([(1Vf)Ef +VfEm]

(Eq.17.1b)

Equation17.1givesusanestimatefortransversemodulusof
unidirectional lamina The relation shows that a significant increase in
unidirectionallamina.Therelationshowsthatasignificantincreasein
fibervolumefractionisrequiredtoraiseoveralltransversemodulusin
moderateamounts.Thisisinstarkcontrastwithlongitudinalmodulus,
which is linearly dependent on fiber volume fraction
whichislinearlydependentonfibervolumefraction.

q
,
g
p
,
Equation17.1,eventhoughbasedonasimplemodel,isnotborneout
wellbeexperimentaldata.TOaddressthisinconsistency,several
alternativemodelshavebeendeveloped.

PredictingTransverseModulusofUnidirectionalLamina

However,inthislecturewewillusesimpleandgeneralizedexpressionsfor
ttransversemodulusasdevelopedbyHalpin
a s e se odu us as de e oped by a p aandTsai.Thesearerelatively
d sa
ese a e e at e y
simplerelations,andhenceeasytouseindesignpractice.Theresults
fromHalpin andTsaiarealsoquiteaccurateespeciallyiffibervolume
fraction is not too close to unity
fractionisnottooclosetounity.

AsperHalpin andTsai,transversemodulus(ET)canbewrittenas:
ET/Em =(1+Vf)/(1 Vf)
(Eq.17.2)
where,
=[(E
[( f/E
/ m)
) 1]/[(E
] / [( f/E
/ m)+]
) ]
Here, isaparameterthataccountsforpackingandfibergeometry,and
Here
is a parameter that accounts for packing and fiber geometry and
loadingcondition.Itsvaluesaregivenbelowfordifferentfibergeometries.
=2forfiberswithsquareandroundcrosssections.
=2a/b
2a/b forfiberswithrectangularcrosssection.Herea
for fibers with rectangular cross section Here a isthecrosssectionaldimension
is the cross sectional dimension
offiberindirectionofloading,whileb istheotherdimensionoffiberscrosssection.

ShearModulusandPoissonsRatio

Aperfectlyisotropicmaterialhastwofundamentalelasticconstants,E and
.Itsshearmodulusandbulkmoduluscanbeexpressedintermsofthese
ts s ea odu us a d bu
odu us ca be e p essed te s o t ese
twoelasticconstants.

Likewise,atransverselyisotropiccompositeplyhasfourelasticconstants.
Theseare:

EL,, i.e.elasticmodulusinlongitudinaldirection.
ET i.e.elasticmodulusintransversedirection.
GLT i.e.longitudinalshearmodulus.
LT i.e.Poissonsratio

Adetaileddiscussiononthemathematicallogicunderlyingexistenceof
these four constants will be conducted in a subsequent lecture
thesefourconstantswillbeconductedinasubsequentlecture.

Tillsofar,wehavedevelopedrelationsforEL,andET.Nowwewilllearn
aboutsimilarrelationshipsforGLT andLT.

ShearModulusandPoissonsRatio

Halpin andTsaihavedevelopedrelationssimilartoEq.17.2whichcanbe
usedtopredictlongitudinalshearmodulus,G
used
to p ed ct o g tud a s ea odu us, GLT.Thisisshownbelow.
s s s o be o
GLT/Gm =(1+Vf)/(1 Vf)
where,
=[(Gf/Gm) 1]/[(Gf/Gm)+1]

(Eq.17.3)

ForpredictingPoissonsratioLT,weexploitthefactthatalongitudinal
tensilestraininfiberdirection,willgeneratePoissoncontractionin
transversedirectioninboth,matrixandfibermaterials.
Inthiscontext,wealsousethefactthatrelativestrainvaluesforsucha
contraction will be proportional to each constituent materialssvolume
contractionwillbeproportionaltoeachconstituentmaterial
volume
fraction.Thus,overallPoissonsratioLT forthecompositecanbewritten
as:
LT =fVf +fVm

(Eq.17.4)

TransverseStrength

Wehaveseenthataunidirectionalply,whenputtotensioninfiber
directiontendstobreakatstressvalueswhichexceedmatrixtensile
strength.ThisisparticularlytruewhenfibervolumefractionexceedsV
g
p
y
crit.
Similarly,fibersplayacentralroleinsignificantlyenhancingthestiffnessof
theplyinfiberdirection,andtheoverallstiffnessofthesystemtendsto
far surpass that of pure matrix.
farsurpassthatofpurematrix.

Thisoccursbecausefibers,whicharestrongerandstiffervisvismatrix,
carryamajorportionofexternalload,therebyenhancingcomposites
stiffnessandstrength.

However,thesamemaynotbesaidforaunidirectionalplyloadedin
tensioninthetransversedirection.Thisisbecauseloadsharingbetween
fib
fiberandmatrixinatransverselyloadedplyisveryless.Incontrast,the
d ti i t
l l d d l i
l
I
t t th
extentofloadsharingbetweenfiberandmatrixinalongitudinallyloaded
plyisverysignificant.
Whenaunidirectionalloadissubjectedtotransversetension,fiberswhich
arefarmorestiffvisvismatrix,acttoconstrainmatrixdeformation.

TransverseStrength

Suchaconstraintonmatrixdeformation,tendstoincreaseplystransverse
modulus,thoughonlymarginally(unlessfibervolumefractionishigh).

However,thestoryisevenmorestarklydifferentincaseoftransversestrength.
Thedeformationconstraintsimposedonmatrixbyfiberstendtogeneratestrain
andstressconcentrationsinmatrixmaterial.

Thesestressandstrainconcentrationscausethematrixtofailatmuchlesser
values of stress and strain, than a sample of matrix material which has no fibers at
valuesofstressandstrain,thanasampleofmatrixmaterialwhichhasnofibersat
all.Thus,unlikelongitudinalstrength,transversestrengthtendstogetreduced for
compositesduetopresenceoffibers.

Thisreductionintransversestrengthofaunidirectionalplyischaracterizedbya
factor,S,thestrengthreductionfactor.Theexactvalueofthisfactorcanbe
calculated by using a combination of advanced elasticity formulations and
calculatedbyusingacombinationofadvancedelasticityformulationsand
numericalsolutiontechniques.

Thestrengthofunidirectionalplyintransversedirection,
Th
t
th f idi ti
l l i t
di ti
b
itt
uT,canbewrittenas:
uT =uf /S
(Eq.17.5)

SomeOtherPropertiesofUnidirectionalPlies

Usingapproachesasdescribedearlier,thermalconductivityinL (kL)
d ect o ca be
directioncanbewrittenas:
tte as
kL =Vfkf +Vmkm
(Eq.17.6)

Similarly,transverseconductivity,kT,canbewrittenas:
kT/km =(1+Vf)/(1 Vf)
(Eq.17.7)
where,
where
=[(kf/km) 1]/[(kf/km)+], where,
log =1.732log(a/b)

Finally,longitudinalandtransversethermalexpansioncoefficientshave
beenshowninengineeringliteraturetobe:
L =(E
( fVf f +EmVm m)/E
)/ L
(
(Eq.17.8)
)
T =(1+
= (1+f)Vf
ff +(1+
+ (1+m)Vm
m LLT

(Eq 17 9)
(Eq.17.9)

What you learnt in this lecture?


Whatyoulearntinthislecture?
Predictivemodelsfortransversestiffness
P di ti
d l f t
tiff
ShearmodulusandPoissonsratio
Estimatesfortransversestrength
Predictivemodelsforcoefficientofthermal
expansion
Thermalconductivityy

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

MechanicsofLaminated
Mechanics
of Laminated
CompositeStructures
p
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture18
BehaviorofShortFiberComposites

Lecture Overview
LectureOverview
B
Backgroundinformationaboutshortfiber
k
di f
ti
b t h t fib
composites
Loadtransfermechanisminshortfibers
Longitudinalandtransversemoduliforshortfiber
compositeswithunidirectionalalignment
it
ith idi ti
l li
t
Modulusofrandomlyorientedshortfiber
d l
f
d l
d h
fb
composites

AboutShortFiberComposites

Wehaveseenearlierthatunidirectionalcompositestendtobeverystiff
and strong in fiber direction but very weakinthetransversedirection.
andstronginfiberdirection,but
weak in the transverse direction
Theirweaknessintransversedirectionisattributabletopresenceof
significantstressconcentrationattheinterfaceofmatrixandfiber.

Giventheseattributes,unidirectionalcompositesareveryusefulin
applications where state of stress is well known.
applicationswherestateofstressiswellknown.
Insuchapplications,laminationsequenceofcompositecanbetailormadeto
bearexternalloadsoptimally.

However,ifexternallyappliedloadsareomnidirectional,oriftheir
directioncanvaryintime,thensuchlaminatesfabricatedbystackingup
unidirectionallaminae maynotnecessarilymeetourdesignneeds.

AboutShortFiberComposites

Wemaystillbeabledesignalaminateforsuchcases(thatiswhen
l di i
loadingisomnidirectional)whichisequallystronginalldirections,but
i di ti
l) hi h i
ll t
i ll di ti
b t
eveninsuchadesign,thetopandbottomlayerswillbeweakin
transversedirections,andfailurecouldgetinitiatedfromhere.

Hence,insuchapplications,itisusefultohavelaminawhichhavein
plane isotropy
planeisotropy.

Onewaytoproducesuchlaminaisbyusingshortfiberswhichare
randomlyoriented.Suchcomposites,ingeneralaresignificantlyless
expensivethanunidirectionalcomposites.Thefiberlengthsintheseare
between 1 to 8 cm.
between1to8cm.

Suchcompositesareusedextensivelyingeneralpurposeapplications,
suchascarbodypanels,boats,householdgoods,etc.Inmostofsuch
applications,glassfiberisusedasthereinforcingmaterialformatrix.

LoadTransferMechanisminShortFiberComposites

Incompositematerials,fibersareinvariablysurroundedbymatrix
material.Hence,externalloadisdirectlyappliedtomatrix,andfromhere,
ate a e ce, e te a oad s d ect y app ed to at , a d o
e e,
itgetstransferredtofibers.

Apartofthisloadgetstransferredtofibersattheirends,whileremaining
portionofthisloadgetstransferredtofibersthroughtheirexternal
cylindricalsurfaces.

Forunidirectionalcompositeswithcontinuousfibers,transferofloadat
fiber ends may be very small vis vis load transfer through fiberssexternal
fiberendsmaybeverysmallvisvisloadtransferthroughfiber
external
surface.

Thisisbecausefibersareverylong,andhencetheircylindricalsurfaces,
acrosswhichloadgetstransferredthroughshearmechanism,are
sufficiently long In such fibers the effect of load transfer through fiber
sufficientlylong.Insuchfibers,theeffectofloadtransferthroughfiber
endsmaynotsignificantlyaffectoverallmechanicsofloadtransfer.

LoadTransferMechanisminShortFiberComposites

However,inshortfibercompositesthesamemaynotbenecessarilytrue.
Insuchcomposites,thelengthofthefiberisnotsufficientlylongsuchthat
suc co pos tes, t e e gt o t e be s ot su c e t y o g suc t at
muchofloadtransferhappensacrosscylindricalsurfacesoffibers.

Thus,insuchfibers,boththeends,aswellasexternalcylindricalsurfaces
offibersplayasignificantroleinmatrixtofiberloadtransfer.

Hence,itisimportanttounderstandroleofendeffectsincontextofload
transfertofibers.Withoutthisunderstanding,ourunderstandingof
reinforcing effects in short fiber composites will be inaccurate and flawed
reinforcingeffectsinshortfibercompositeswillbeinaccurateandflawed.

LoadTransferMechanisminShortFiberComposites

Considerashortfiberoflengthlembeddedinmatrixwhichisshownin
Fig.18.1.Thefigurealsoshowsthedetailsofaninfinitesimalportionof
g 8
e gu e a so s o s t e deta s o a
tes a po t o o
fiberoflengthdz,whichexperiencesnormalstressinlengthdirection,and
shearstress,,alongitscylindricalsurface.

Pleasenotethatwhilenormalstressatoneendofinfinitesimalfiberisf,
itisf+df atitsotherend.

Thisvariationinnormalstressalongthelengthofinfinitesimallylongfiber
is because some of the load gets transferred from matrix to fiber due to
isbecausesomeoftheloadgetstransferredfrommatrixtofiberdueto
applicationofshearstressonitscylindricalsurface.

LoadTransferMechanisminShortFiberComposites
Fig.18.1:ForceEquilibriumofanInfinitesimalPortionof
Discontinuous Fiber Which is Aligned to External Load
DiscontinuousFiberWhichisAlignedtoExternalLoad

LoadTransferMechanisminShortFiberComposites

Fromprinciplesofstaticequilibrium,wecannowwriteequationofforce
equ b u o t s
equilibriumforthisinfinitesimallysizedportionoffiber.
tes a y s ed po t o o be
r2f+(2 r dz)f=r2(f+df)

Cancellingouttermr2ffrombothsides,andrearrangingremaining
termsweget:
dff /dz =2/r
= 2/r

Integratingaboveequationyields,
f=fo+(2/r) dz,wheretheintegrallimitsare0toz.

Quiteoften,fiberseparatesfromthematrixduetopresenceoflarge
f
fb
f
h
d
fl
stressconcentration.Inothercases,matrixyieldsatthefiberend.The
implicationofeithercasesisthattheintegrationconstantforabove
equation,fo,iszero.Thus,aboveequationcanberewrittenas:
f=(2/r) dz

LoadTransferMechanisminShortFiberComposites

Theintegralequationshownearliercanbeevaluatedifvariationofshear
st ess, , t espect to coo d ate , s o
stress,,withrespecttocoordinatez,isknown.Atthispoint,wemakean
t t s po t, e a e a
assumption thatshearstressattheinterfaceoffiberandmatrixis
constantalongfiberlength,andequalsmatrixyieldshear,i.e.y.Suchan
assumption may be made for a system where matrix material transmits
assumptionmaybemadeforasystemwherematrixmaterialtransmits
maximumpossiblestresstofiber,whichwouldbey.Forsuchacase,the
integralequationcanbesimplifiedas:
f=2y z/r
/
(
(Eq.18.1a)
)

Forshortfibers,maximumfiberstressisexpectedtooccuratmid
For
short fibers maximum fiber stress is expected to occur at midlength
length,
i.e.z =l/2,whileitwillbezeroatitsextremitiesforreasonsexplained
earlier.Hence,theequationwrittenabovewillholdgoodonlyforvaluesof
z =0tol/2,andfortheregionz=l/2tol,theequationwillhavetohavea
0 to l/2 and for the region z l/2 to l the equation will have to have a
negativeslope.Further,themaximumvalueoffiberstresswillbe,asper
aboveequation:
f_max =y l/r,correspondingtoz =l/2.
(Eq.18.1b)

LoadTransferMechanisminShortFiberComposites

Equation18.1placesnolimitontheupperboundforfiberstress,andcan
approachverylargevaluesifl
app
oac e y a ge a ues ismadeverylarge.However,inrealitythere
s ade e y a ge o e e ,
ea ty t e e
willindeedbealimit,whichwillcorrespondtothestressborneby
continuousandinfinitelylongfibersinunidirectionalplies.Thisstress,as
calculated earlier is Ef/Emc.Equatingthisvaluetomaximumfiberstressin
calculatedearlierisE
Equating this value to maximum fiber stress in
shortfiber(asperEq.18.1)givesusaloadtransferlength,lt,whichis
requiredtoachievemaximumpossiblestressinfiber.Thisisshownbelow.
f_max =y lt/r=Ef/Emc
or,
or
lt/r=f_max /y =(Ef/Emc)/ y

(Eq.18.2a)
(Eq.18.2b)

Thus,afiberwhichisatleastlt long,developsmaximumfiberstress
(Ef/Emc)asdefinedearlier,whentheexternallyappliedstressisc.

L dT
LoadTransferMechanisminShortFiberComposites
f M h i i Sh t Fib C
it

Hence,ifweincreaseexternalstressc,wewillhavetoincreaselt toensure
maximumloadinfiber,asf_max,whichequalsEf/Emc,will alsoincrease.

However,thereisalimitbeyondwhichexternalstressc cannotbe
increased.

Thislimitcorrespondstoapointwhenthestressinfiberequalsitsultimate
strength (uf ),
strength(
),
Atthislimit,anyfurtherstressinexternalstresswillleadtofailureoffiber.
Thus,theconditionformaximumpossiblestressinfiberis:

f_max =uf =Ef/E


/ mc

(
(Eq.18.3)
)

Load Transfer Mechanism in ShortFiber


LoadTransferMechanisminShort
FiberComposites
Composites

Forsuchalimitingstress,thereisacorrespondingminimumfiberlength
For
such a limiting stress there is a corresponding minimum fiber length
whichisrequiredtosupportsuchalevelofstress.

Mathematically,thevalueofminimumfiberlengthcanbecalculatedfrom
Eq.18.2bandisgivenbelow.
lmini /r=
/r = uff/y
(Eq 18 4)
(Eq.18.4)

Thus,anydesignofashortfibercompositeshouldensurethatitsfiberisat
leastlmin long,becauseinsuchasystemtheoverallcompositestrengthwill
bewillmaximized.

Iffibersareshorterthanthiscriticallength,thencompositestrengthwould
notbeatitsmaximumvalue,therebyaddingweightandcosttothe
structure.Finally,iflisverylargecomparedtol
Fi ll if l i
l
d lmin,thencomposite
h
i
increasinglybehavesasonewithcontinuousfibers.

MechanicsofLaminated
Mechanics
of Laminated
CompositeStructures
p
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture19
BehaviorofShortFiberComposites

Load Transfer Mechanism in ShortFiber


LoadTransferMechanisminShort
FiberComposites
Composites

Tillsofar,wehaveassumedthatthematrixmaterialinfibermatrixinterface
regionisperfectlyplastic.

Thisisnotentirelytrue.Inreality,mostmatrixmaterialsexhibitelastoplastic
This
is not entirely true In reality most matrix materials exhibit elasto plastic
behavior.Developinganalyticalsolutionsforsuchsystemsisnoteasy.

Hence,numericalmethodsmaybeusedtosolvesuchproblemstogetbetter
understandingofloadtransfermechanismsinshortfibercomposites.

Severalsuchstudieshaveshownthatloadtransferatfiberendsisnot
significant,andhenceourearlierassumptionoffo beingzero,stands
validated,thoughinanapproximatesense.

LoadTransferMechanisminShortFiberComposites

Figure19.1isaplotofvariationoffiberstrengthforthreedifferentfiber
lengths.

Fig.19.1
g

LoadTransferMechanisminShortFiberComposites

FollowingobservationscanbemadefromFig.19.1.

Iffiberlengthislessthanlt,thenthenormalstressinfiberiszeroateither
endsoffiber,anditreachesapeakvalueatmidfiberlength.Insuchacase,
thelongerthefiber,thehigheristhevalueofpeaknormalstresswhich
occursatitsmidlength.

Iffiberlengthequalslt,thennormalstressinfibergetsmaximized.However,
theshapeofstressplotstillremainstriangular.

Finally,iffiberlengthexceedslt,thennormalstressinfiber:
Risesfromzerotoamaximumvalueoverpartofthefiberlength.
Rises from zero to a maximum value over part of the fiber length.
Remainsconstantonceithasmaximized.
Fallsbacktozero,overremainingpartoffiberlength.

Utilizationoffiberstrengthismaximizedinthethirdconfiguration.

ModulusofShortFiberComposites

EEventhoughmathematicallyrigoroussolutionscanbedevelopedto
en tho gh mathematicall rigoro s sol tions can be de eloped to
computemoduliofshortfibercomposites,itisusuallydesirabletohave
relativelysimplerelationsforestimatingthesamefromadesign
perspective.Here,wedirectlyciteresultsofHalpin andTsai,whichhelp
uscalculatewithreasonableaccuracy,longitudinalandtransversemoduli
ofshortfibercomposites,withfibersalignedinasingledirection.
EL/Em =[1+(l/r)LVf)/(1 LVf)
where,
h
L =[(Ef/Em) 1]/[(Ef/Em)+l/r].
Also,
ET/Em =[1+2TVf)/(1 TVf)
where,
T =[(Ef/Em) 1]/[(Ef/Em)+2]

(Eq.19.1)

(Eq.19.2)

ModulusofShortFiberComposites

ItmaybenotedfromEq.19.3,thattransversemodulusofunidirectional
shortfibercompositesdoesnotdependonl/r ratio,anditsvalueequals
thatforcontinuousunidirectionalcomposite.

Earlier,wehaddiscussedtheneedforrandomlyorientedshortfiber
composites,sincetheyareisotropicinaplane,andhenceareappropriate
f
foromnidirectionalloads.
i di
i
ll d

ModulusofShortFiberComposites

Suchcompositesdonotcrackeasilyintheirsurfacelayersinthe
transversedirection.

Predictingtheirmodulusisanalyticallydifficult.Hence,weciteawell
Predicting
their modulus is analytically difficult Hence we cite a well
knownempiricalresult,whichpredictsmodulusforarandomlyoriented
shortfibercomposites.
Erandom =(3EL +5ET)/8
Here,moduliEL andET maybecalculatedfromrelationsgivenearlier,or
determinedexperimentally.

Aboveequationisagoodengineeringtoolfordesigningcompositeswith
randomly oriented fibers
randomlyorientedfibers.

What you learnt in this lecture?


Whatyoulearntinthislecture?
B
Backgroundinformationaboutshortfiber
k
di f
ti
b t h t fib
composites
Loadtransfermechanisminshortfibers
Longitudinalandtransversemoduliforshortfiber
compositeswithunidirectionalalignment
it
ith idi ti
l li
t
Modulusofrandomlyorientedshortfiber
d l
f
d l
d h
fb
composites

MechanicsofLaminated
Mechanics
of Laminated
CompositeStructures
p
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture20
BehaviorofShortFiberComposites

Vmin
and Vcritit forShort
for ShortFiber
FiberComposites
Composites
i andV

Theaveragelongitudinalstressinashortfibercompositewith
unidirectionally orientedfiberscanbecalculatedusingruleofmixturesas:
c =Vff+Vmm.
(Eq.20.1)
Equation20.1isamodifiedformofEq.16.2,wheref isaveragefiberstress,
whichmaybecalculatedbyintegratingf overfiberlength,anddividingthis
valuebyfiberlength.

Ifstressisdistributedlinearlyoverfiberlength,asshowninFig.19.1,then
If
stress is distributed linearly over fiber length as shown in Fig 19 1 then
Eq.20.1mayberewrittenas:
c =Vf(f)max +Vmm forl <lt
(Eq.20.2a)
c =Vf((1 lt/(2l))f)max +Vmm forl >lt

(Eq.20.2b)

Vmin
and Vcritit forShort
for ShortFiber
FiberComposites
Composites
i andV

Equation20.2bcanbeapproximatedtoEq.20.3,whenfiberlengthl,is
significantlylargerthanloadtransferlength,lt.
c =Vf(f)max +Vmm forl >>lt
(Eq.20.3)

Theseequationshelpexplainthefollowingphenomenon:
Whenfibersareshorterthanloadtransferlength,thenmaximumfiberstressislessthan
averagefiberstrength.Hence,insuchcomposites,fibersneverfracture,regardlessofhigh
thevalueofexternallyappliedstressis.
Insuchcases,matrixorinterfacefailurecoincideswiththefailureofcomposite.

Thus,ultimatestrength,cu,ofacompositewherefiberlengthislessthan
criticallengthlc canbefoundusingEq.20.2a,andincorporatingy andmu as
showninthefollowingrelation.
cu =Vf(yl/d)+Vmmu forl <lc
(Eq.20.4)
Note:Thevalueoflmin issameaslc,whichisdefinedinEq.18.4.

Vmin andVcrit forShortFiberComposites

Forthecasewhenfiberlengthexceedscriticallength,lc,theultimate
strength,cu,ofacompositecanbefoundusingthefollowingrelation:
cu =Vf(1lc/2l)(f)max +Vm(m)fu

(Eq.20.5)

Forthecasewhenfiberlengthexceedscriticallength,lc inverysignificant
terms,Eq.20.5canbeapproximatedas:
, q
pp
cu =Vf(f)max +Vm(m)fu

forl >lc

forl >>lc

(Eq.20.6)

WhiledevelopingEqs.20.5and20.6,ithasbeenassumedthatthevolume
fraction for fiber exceeds a certain minimum threshold Vmin
fractionforfiberexceedsacertainminimumthreshold,V
such that the
i ,suchthatthe
breakageofallfiberscausessuddenriseinmatrixstresses,andthis
incrementissolargethatmatrixmaterialisunabletobearsuchanincreases
stress level Hence in such a composite failure of fibers corresponds with
stresslevel.Hence,insuchacomposite,failureoffiberscorrespondswith
failureofoverallcompositematerial.

Vmin andVcrit forShortFiberComposites

ExtendingthemethodologyusedforcontinuousfibersasdescribedinEqs.
16.6and16.7,wecanalsodevelopsimilarrelationsforVmin andVcrit for
shortfibercomposites.

ThusrelationsequivalenttoEqs.16.6and16.7forshortfibercomposites
Thus
relations equivalent to Eqs 16 6 and 16 7 for short fiber composites
are:
(Eq.20.7)

(Eq.20.8)

Vmin andVcrit forShortFiberComposites

ComparingEqs.16.6and16.7withEqs.20.7and20.8,respectively,wefind
thatthevaluesofVmin andVcrit forshortfibercompositesarehigherthat
thoseforcontinuousfibercomposites.

Thisisbecauseloadtransferonfibersinshortfibercompositesisnot
This
is because load transfer on fibers in short fiber composites is not
maximized.

However,asfiberlengthbecomeslarge,visvisloadtransferlength,the
valuesofVmin andVcrit forshortfibercompositesandcontinuousfiber
composites come very close
compositescomeveryclose.

ForcaseswhenfibervolumefractionislessthanVmin,compositefractureis
notcoincidentalwithfiberfracture.Rather,postfiberfracture,theload
bornebyfibersgettransferredtomatrixmaterial,andcompositeeventually
failswhenmatrixmaterialisunabletosupportexternallyappliedload.
pp
y pp

FailureofShortFiberComposites

WhenfibervolumeislessthanVmin,thecompositestrength,asexplained
earlier,isnotdeterminedbyloadatwhichfiberfractureoccurs.

Insuchacase,theultimatestrengthofcompositeisgivenbythefollowing
relation:
cu =(1
( Vf))mu forVf <Vmin

((Eq.20.9)
q
)

Shortfibercompositestendtohavehigherstressconcentrationsinmatrix
materialduetothepresenceofaverylargenumberoffiberends.Thisfactor
i ld
h
f
l
b
f fib
d Thi f
reducesthecompositestrengthevenfurther.

Todeterminestrengthofarandomlyorientedshortfibercomposite,
strengthofasymmetricquasiisotropiclaminate[0/45/45/90]s is
determined and used as an estimate However such an estimate is usually
determinedandusedasanestimate.However,suchanestimateisusually
foundtobehigherthanexperimentaldata.

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

MechanicsofLaminated
Mechanics
of Laminated
CompositeStructures
p
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture21
BehaviorofRibbonFiberComposites

Ribbon Reinforced Composites: Introduction


RibbonReinforcedComposites:Introduction
Quiteoften,ribbonsareused,insteadoffibers,asthereinforcement
materialincomposites.

Ribbons,alsoknownastapes,areessentiallyfilamentswithrectangular
Ribbons
also known as tapes are essentially filaments with rectangular
crosssectionalarea,wherewidthofthecrosssectionissignificantlylarger
thanitsthickness.

Atypicalcrosssectionforsuchatapeisshownbelow.Thedimensionsofthe
cross section are wt andt
crosssectionarew
and tt,standingfortape
, standing for tapewidth,
width,andtape
and tapethickness,
thickness,
respectively.

tt

wt

Ribbon Reinforced Composites: Introduction


RibbonReinforcedComposites:Introduction

Compositesreinforcedwithribbonsofferfollowingadvantagesoverthose
reinforcedwithfibershavingcircularcrosssection.
Higherstiffnessandstrengthinlongitudinalaswellasinplanetransversedirection:Thisis
attributabletothefactthateachribbonswidthissignificantlargevisvisitsthickness.
Thisgeometricfeatureenhancesthestrengthaswellasthestiffnessofsuchcomposites.
Adirectadvantageofthisfeatureisthatsuchcompositesmayexhibitequalstrengthinall
directionintheLTplane,whereTdirectioncorrespondstoinplanetransversedirection.
This is a very significant advantage of such composites over unidirectional composites
Thisisaverysignificantadvantageofsuchcompositesoverunidirectionalcomposites
reinforcedwithfiberswithcircularcrosssection.
Highlyresistanttopuncturewhenimpingedbysharpobjects
Highly resistant to puncture when impinged by sharp objects
Significantlyreducedpermeabilitytofluids,bothgasesandliquids:Thisfeatureis
attributable to the fact that fluid particles or molecules have to undertake a rather long and
attributabletothefactthatfluidparticlesormoleculeshavetoundertakearatherlongand
circuitousroutearoundtheimpermeabletape,topassthroughtheoverallcomposite.
Suchcompositescanachievehighervolumefractionsvisvisthosewithcircularfibers.
p
g
Thisfeatureisattributabletotheirrectangularcrosssection.

Ribbon Volume Fraction


RibbonVolumeFraction

ConsiderthefollowingcrosssectionofaribbonfibercompositealongtheT
Tplane.

Here,

wt =widthoftape
idth of tape
tt =widthoftape
O=overlapbetweentworibbons
gT =gapbetweentwoadjacentribbonsinT
b t
t
dj
t ibb
i T direction
di ti
gT =gapbetweentwoadjacentribbonsinT direction

Ribbon Volume Fraction


RibbonVolumeFraction

ForthepackingarrangementasshowninFig.21.1,thevolumefractionfor
tape(orribbon)canbeexpressedas:
(Eq. 21.1)
(Eq.21.1)

Equation21.1canalsobeexpressedintermsofoverlap,O,as:
(Eq.21.2)

Equation21.1showsthattapesvolumefractioncanbeincreased
significantly,ifgapsbetweentwoadjacenttapes,andalsobetweentwo
adjacentlayersoftapes,aremadeverysmall.Theoretically,ribbonvolume
fractionof100%isachievableinsuchaconfiguration.However,thereare
some practical limitations, which prevent us from achieving such a mark.
somepracticallimitations,whichpreventusfromachievingsuchamark.

Moduli of Ribbon Reinforced Composites


ModuliofRibbonReinforcedComposites

The modulus of ribbon reinforced composites in fiber direction can be


calculated by rule of mixtures. Thus, for such composites, their longitudinal
modulus is:
EL = VfEt + VmEm
(Eq 21.3)
(Eq.
21 3)
Here, Et, is the elastic modulus of tape in length direction.

The inplane transverse tensile performance of these composites is similar to


that of unidirectional shortfiber
short fiber composites in longitudinal direction.
direction Thus,
Thus
we can use following HalpinTsai equation to calculate the inplane
transverse modulus (ET) for these composites.
ET/Em = (1 + 2tVt)/(1 tVt)
(Eq. 21.4)
where,
t = [(Et/Em) 1] / [(Et/Em) + ],
] and
= tape
tapess aspect ratio = wt/tt

Moduli of Ribbon Reinforced Composites


ModuliofRibbonReinforcedComposites

Equation 21.4 works well for tapes, with moderate aspect ratios. However,
when aspect ratios are very large, then we may as well use rule of mixtures
(Eq. 21.3) to calculate transverse modulus.

In such a case, the modulus of the material in longitudinal (L) as well as in


plane transverse directions (T) is essentially the same, and the composite
exhibits
hibit inplane
i l
i t
isotropy
i LT
in
L T plane.
l

Such a behavior of ribbonreinforced composites is markedly different than


that of unidirectional composites with circular fibers, which exhibit
transverse isotropy in TT pl

Finally, it may be pointed out that the modulus of ribbonreinforced


composite in T direction may be found by using Eq. 21.4, while using the
reciprocal
i
l off (w
( t/tt) as tapes
t
aspectt ratio,
ti .

Strength of Ribbon Reinforced Composites


StrengthofRibbonReinforcedComposites

Ribbon reinforced composites longitudinal strength can be calculated using


relations similar to those used for unidirectional composites with circular
fibers.

Their inplane transverse strength is approximately equal to that their


longitudinal strength, provided:
The aspect fiber for the tape is very high, and ,
Failure occurs due to fiber splitting in L direction, rather than by interlaminar shear effects.
This once again requires the aspect ratio of the tape to be very large.

Strong adhesion between matrix and tape is required to ensure high values
of composites ultimate strength. In presence of weak interfacial bonds, this
strength gets reduced by significant fraction.

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

MechanicsofLaminated
Mechanics
of Laminated
CompositeStructures
p
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture22
AnalysisofanOrthotropicPly

Introduction
Mostofthecompositematerialsareneither
homogeneous nor isotropic
homogeneousnorisotropic.
Ahomogeneous materialisonewherepropertiesarein
thebody,i.e.theydonotdependonpositioninbody.
y,
y
p
p
y
Anisotropic materialisonewherepropertiesaredirection
independent.

Compositesareinhomogeneous(orheterogeneous)as
wellasnonisotropicmaterials.
Inaninhomogeneous(orheterogeneous)material
propertiesofmaterialvaryfrompointtopoint.
ti
f t i l
f
i tt
i t
Anonisotropicmaterialisone,wherematerialproperties
depends on direction of observation. Thus, a materialss
dependsondirectionofobservation.Thus,amaterial
modulusmaybedifferentinx,y,andz directions.

Introduction

Considerarectangularslabofisotropicmaterial.
Itthisslabispulledintension,asshowninFig.22.1a,thenitonlyproduces
normalstrains.Thesestrainsaretensileinloadingdirection,andcompressive
(duetoPoissonseffect)intransversedirection.
Further,ifthisslabissubjectedtopureshearstresses,thenasshowninFig.
22.1b,theslabexhibitspureshearstraininXYplane.
p
p
Theseareimportantcharacteristicofisotropicmaterials,i.e.normalstresses
produce pure normal strains and shear stresses produce pure shear strains
producepurenormalstrains,andshearstressesproducepureshearstrains.

Introduction

Next,weconsiderarectangularslaboffullyanisotropicmaterial.
Itthisslabispulledintension,asshowninFig.22.2a,thenshearaswellas
normalstrainswilldevelopinthebody.Further,ifthisslabissubjectedtopure
shearstresses,thenasshowninFig.22.2b,theslabexhibitsnotonlyshear
straininXYplane,butalsonormalstrains.
Thisisaveryimportantcharacteristicofanisotropicmaterials,i.e.normal
stressesproducenormalaswellasshearstrains,andshearstressesproduce
normalstrainsinadditiontoshearstrains.

Introduction

Finally,weconsiderarectangularslaboforthotropicmaterial.
In
Ingeneral,thismaterialbehavesinwaysverysimilartoanisotropicmaterials.
general this material behaves in ways very similar to anisotropic materials
Thus,whensubjectedtonormalstresses,itwillnotonlyexhibitnormal
strains,butalsoshearstrains.
However,theresponseofthesematerialsmimicsthatofisotropicmaterial,if
theedgesofslabareparalleltoaspecial setofthreemutuallyperpendicular
axes.
axes
Theexactorientationofthesethreemutuallyperpendicularaxesdependson
theinternalmaterialstructure,andincaseofunidirectionalcomposites,on
h i
l
i l
di
f idi
i
l
i
thedirectionoffibers.
Theseaxesareknownasnaturalmaterialaxes.Also,theplanesforwhich
theseaxesactasnormals areknownasplanesofmaterialsymmetry.Incase
ofunidirectionalcompositesthedirectionoffiberisonesuchmaterialaxis,
andiscalledlongitudinalaxis.Thedirectionnormaltothelongitudinalaxisis
termedtransverseaxis.

HookesLawforOrthotropicLamina

Understandingmechanicsofasolidrequiresonetoknowrelationshipsbetween
strainsandstresses.Forisotropicsolids,thisrelationshipissimpleand
straightforward.Foranisotropicsampleunderpuretensilestressthe
relationshipbetweenstressesandstrainsisgivenbelow.
t =Et
where,
, t andc arestressandstrainindirectionoftension,andE
,
isYoungs
g
modulusofthematerial.

Wealsoknowthatduetosuchatensilestressthematerialsampleexperiences
We
also know that due to such a tensile stress the material sample experiences
contractionintransversedirections,andtheconsequentlateralstraincanbe
expressedas:
c =t,,where isPoissonsratioforthematerial.

Further,itisalsoknownthattherelationbetweenshearstress,,andshear
strain for isotropic solids is:
strain,,forisotropicsolidsis:
=G,
whereG ismaterialsshearmodulus,anditcanbeexpressedintermsofE and.

Hence,anisotropicmaterialhastwofundamentalelasticconstants,whichrelate
stressesandstrains.

HookesLawforOrthotropicLamina

Wehavetodevelopsimilarmathematicalrelationshipsbetweenstresses
and strains present in an orthotropic lamina
andstrainspresentinanorthotropiclamina.

g
yp
AsshowninFig.22.3,thereareatotalofninedifferenttypesofstresses;
11,22,33, 12,13, 21, 23, 31, 32.Here,
11,22,and33 arenormalstresses.Theycanbecompressiveortensileinnature.Their
firstsubscriptindicatestheplaneonwhichtheyareacting,andthesecondsubscript
indicatethedirectioninwhichtheypointto.
12,13, 21, 23, 31, 32 areshearstresses.Theirfirstsubscriptindicatestheplaneonwhich
theyareacting,andthesecondsubscriptindicatethedirectioninwhichtheypointto.
Th
Thus,shearstress,
h
l
1 di
i i h 2 di
i
I
h
12,actsonplane1,anditpointsinthe2direction.Incontrast,shear
stress21,actsonplane2,anditpointsinthe1direction.

Similarly,thereareninedifferentcomponentsofstraintensor.Theseare:
Si
il l h
i diff
f
i
Th
11,22,33,12,13, 21, 23, 31, 32.Here,firstthreearenormalstrains,
whiletheremainingsixaretensorial shearstrains.

HookesLawforOrthotropicLamina
Figure22.3:Differenttypesofstrainswhichcanactonaninfinitesimal
material element.
materialelement.
2

22
1
21

23
3

12
32

11
31

33

13

HookesLawforOrthotropicLamina

Theninestresstensorcomponentsarerelatedinamostgeneralsensewith
ninestraincomponentsthroughthefollowingequations.

Thesearenineequationsoverall.Indicesi,j,k,andlcanassumevaluesof1,
ese a e
e equat o s o e a . d ces , j, , a d ca assu e a ues o ,
2or3.Eijkl isthegeneralizedstiffnesstensor.Thesummationonleftsideis
onindicesk,andl.Thus,thereareatotalof81elasticconstantsforafully
anisotropic material
anisotropicmaterial.

Now,wecanshowfromprincipalofequilibrium,thatthevaluesofcross
shearstressesareequal.Thus,
12 =21 , 23 =32 , 31 =13.

ThisimpliesthatvaluesofEijkl andEjikl aresame.Thisreducesthenumberof


stiffnessconstantsto54.Further,wecanalsoshowthroughprinciplesof
geometry,theequalityofcrossshearstrains.Thisfurtherreducesthe
numberofelasticconstantsto36.

HookesLawforOrthotropicLamina

Hencethestressstrainrelationsforafullyanisotropicmaterialcanbe
expressedas:

Now,byfactoringintothermodynamicconsiderationspertainingto
symmetryofstrainenergydensityfunction(detailsnotdiscussedhere),it
can be shown that the stiffness matrix as defined above has to be
canbeshownthatthestiffnessmatrixasdefinedabovehastobe
symmetric.Hence,
E1122 =E2211,
E1133 =E3311,
E1112 =E1211,
E1123 =EE2311,
E1131 =EE3111,
E2233 =EE3321,
E2212 =E1222,
E2223 =E2322,
E2231 =E3122,
E3312 =E1233,
E3323 =E2333,
E3331 =E3133,
E1223 =E2312,
E1231 =E3112,
E2331 =E3123.

HookesLawforOrthotropicLamina

Thus,ananisotropicsolidrequiresonly21independentelasticconstants
withoutanylossofgenerality.

Atthisstage,weintroducethenotionoforthotropy,whichrequires
existenceofthreeplanesofmaterialsymmetry.Theexistenceofsucha
symmetryimpliesthatnormalstressproduceonlynormalstrains,andshear
stressesonlyproduceshearstresses.

Mathematically,thisimplies:
E1112 =0
E1123 =0
E2212 =0
E2223 =0
E3312 =0
E3323 =0
E1223 =0
0
E1231 =0
0

E1131 =0
E2231 =0
E3331 =0
E2331 =0
0

HookesLawforOrthotropicLamina

Thus,foranorthotropicmaterial,thetotalnumberofelasticconstantsis9.
Using these constants, we can write the stress strain relation as:
Usingtheseconstants,wecanwritethestressstrainrelationas:
i =Qijj
i,j =1,2,3,4,5,6.
(Eq.22.1)
where,
Qij isthestiffnessmatrix,i representssixdifferentstresscomponents,and
j representsengineeringstrainvector.
represents engineering strain vector

Equation22.1isageneralizedHookesLawfororthotropicsolids.

HookesLawforOrthotropicLamina

Equation8.1mayalsoberepresentedas:

Eq .22.2

InEq.22.2,subscripts1,2and3coincidewithorthotropicmaterialaxes.
Nowalaminamaybeassumedtohaveonlytwodimensionsasitsthickness
is very small compared to its in plane dimensions Hence all the terms
isverysmallcomparedtoitsinplanedimensions.Hence,alltheterms
relatedtothicknessdirectionmaybedropped.Thestressstrainrelationship
forsuchalaminais:
Eq.22.3

HookesLawforOrthotropicLamina

Finally,forthecasewhenstressesareknowninanorthotropiclamina,and
wewishtoknowstrains,wecansimplymultiplybothsidesofEq.22.3by
inverse of stiffness matrix [Q] This yields us expressions which may be used
inverseofstiffnessmatrix[Q].Thisyieldsusexpressionswhichmaybeused
tocalculatestrainsintermsofstressesandacomplianceconstants
representedby[S].ThegeneralformofsucharelationisshowninEq.22.4.

Eq 22.4

Inaboveequation,compliancetermsrelatestresstostrain.Theseterms
maybeexpressedintermsofstiffnesscoefficientsasshowninEqs.22.5.
S11 =Q22/(Q11Q22 Q212),
S22 =Q
Q11/(Q11Q22 Q212),
)
Eq.22.5
S12 =Q12/(Q11Q22 Q212),
(Eq.8.5)
and
S66 =1/Q66.

HookesLawforOrthotropicLamina

Similarly,followingequationmaybeusedtofindoutstiffnessconstantsof
anorthotropiclamina,ifitscompliancecoefficientswereknown.
Q11 =SS22/(S11S22 S212),
)
Q22 =S11/(S11S22 S212),
Eq.22.6
Q12 =SS12/(S11S22 S212),
((Eq.8.6)
q. 8.6)
and
Q66 =1/S66.

ItneedstobereiteratedherethatEqs.22.3to22.6areonlyapplicablefora
twodimensional
two
dimensionalorthotropiclamina.Suchmaterialsrequireonlyfour
orthotropic lamina Such materials require only four
independentelasticconstants.Forathreedimensionalorthotropiclamina,
nineelasticconstantsareneeded.

Thus,understandingofthreedimensionalorthotropyinvolvesmore
complexitycomparedtothatofisotropyortwodimensionalorthotropy.
p
y
p
py
py

MechanicsofLaminated
Mechanics
of Laminated
CompositeStructures
p
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture23
AnalysisofanOrthotropicPly

Lecture Overview
LectureOverview
Introduction
d i
Engineeringconstantsforan2Dorthotropic
lamina
Relationship
Relationshipbetweenengineeringconstantsand
between engineering constants and
complianceandstiffnessmatrices
Restrictionsonelasticconstants

Introduction

Inpreviouslecture,wehavedevelopedstressstrainrelationshipsfora
twodimensionalorthotropicmaterial.

Also,wehavedefinedfourstiffnessconstants[Q],whichcanbeusedto
evaluatestressesintermsofstrains.

Additionally,wehavedefinedfourcomplianceconstants[S],whichrelate
strainsandstresses.Relationshipsbetweencomponentsof[S]and[Q]
ha e also been defined
havealsobeendefined.

However,neithercomponentsof[S]northoseof[Q]areeasytomeasure.
Hence there is a need to define a third set of constants known as
Hence,thereisaneedtodefineathirdsetofconstants,knownas
engineeringconstants,whichmaybedeterminedexperimentally.
Isotropicmaterialshavetwoindependentengineeringconstants.These
;
g
( ),
( )
are;Youngsmodulus(E),andPoissonsratio().

Similarly,weneedfour,easytomeasureengineeringconstantsfortwo
dimensionalorthotropicmaterials,whichmaybeusedtocalculate
elementsof[Q]and[S]matrices.
l
f[ ] d[ ]

EngineeringConstantsfora2DOrthotropicLamina

Atwodimensionalorthotropiclinearlyelasticlaminahasfourengineering
constants.Theseare:
Longitudinal
Longitudinalmodulus(E
modulus (EL):Ifaunidirectionallaminaispulledintensionalong
): If a unidirectional lamina is pulled in tension along
itsfiberlength,thenitslongitudinalmodulusisdefinedas:
EL =L/L.
(Eq.23.1)
Transversemodulus(ET):Ifaunidirectionallaminaispulledintensionacross
itsfiberlength,i.e.transversely,thenitstransversemodulusisdefinedas:
ET =T/T.
(Eq.23.2)
Shearmodulus(G
S ea odu us (GLT)):IfaunidirectionallaminaissubjectedtopureshearinLT
a u d ect o a a
a s subjected to pu e s ea
plane,thenitsshearmodulusisdefinedas:
GLT =LT/LT.
(Eq.23.3)
MajorPoissonsratio(LT):Itistheratioofnegativeoftransversestrainand
longitudinalstrainforaunidirectionallaminapulledinfiberdirection.
Mathematically:
LT = T/L.
(Eq.23.4)

RelationshipbetweenEngineeringConstantsandElementsof
[Q]&[S]Matrices

Consideranorthotropiclaminaunderarbitrarystateofstresssuchthat:
StressinfiberdirectionisL
StressintransversedirectionisT
ShearstressinLTplaneisLT

Suchalaminawillexhibitstrainsduethesestresses.Thesestrains
are:
L:Straininthefiberdirection
T:Strainintransversedirection
LT :ShearstraininLTplane
Shear strain in L T plane

If
If,thelaminaisstressedonlyinthelongitudinaldirection(i.e.
the lamina is stressed only in the longitudinal direction (i e T,and
and
LT arezero)then,usingEq.22.2,wecanwrite:
L =Q11 L +Q12 L
T =0=Q12 L +Q22 T

RelationshipbetweenEngineeringConstantsand[Q],[S]Matrices

Solvingforstrainsweget:
L=Q22/(Q11 Q22 Q212)L
2
TT =Q
Q12
L
12 /(Q11 Q22
22 Q 12))

Rearrangingtheseequationsweget:
L/L=(Q11 Q22 Q212)/Q22
L/T =(Q11 Q22 Q212)/Q12

Recognizingthedefinitionsoflongitudinalmodulus,andmajorPoissons
ratiofromEqs.23.1,and23.4respectively,andcomparingthosewithabove
equations,wecanwrite:
EL =(Q11 Q22 Q212)/Q22
LT =Q

Q12/Q22

(Eq.23.5)
(Eq 23 6)
(Eq.23.6)

Andsimilarly,wecanalsowrite:
ET =(Q11 Q22 Q212)/Q11
GLT =Q66

(Eq.23.7)
(Eq.23.8)

RelationshipbetweenEngineeringConstants
and Elements of [Q] [S] Matrices
andElementsof[Q],[S]Matrices

Similarly,engineeringconstantscanalsobeusedtodefineelementsof
Si
il l
i
i
t t
l b
d t d fi
l
t f
compliancematrix.Themethodologyfordevelopingtheserelationsisvery
similartooneusedearliertodevelopEq.23.9 23.14.

Herewedirectlywritetheresultingequations.
S11 =1/E
1/EL
S22 =1/ET
S12 =LT/EL =TL/ET
S66 =1/GLT

(Eq.23.15)
(Eq
23 15)
(Eq.23.16)
(Eq.23.17)
(Eq.23.18)

ConstraintsonValuesofElasticConstants

Anisotropicmaterialhasseveralelasticconstants;E,,G,K,etc.However,
out of these only two are mutually independent The remaining constants
outofthese,onlytwoaremutuallyindependent.Theremainingconstants
canbeexpressedintermsofothertwo.Forinstance,ifE,and,are
assumedtobemutuallyindependent,thenshearandbulkmoduliofthe
materialcanbeexpressedas:
t i l
b
d
G =E/[2(1+ )],andK =E/[3(12)]

Theseequivalencerelationshaveimplicationsonthevaluesofelastic
constants.Thus;therelationK =E/[3(12)]impliesthatPoissonsratio
cannotexceed0.5,forinthatcase,K
t
d 0 5 f i th t
K wouldbenegative,implyingthat
ld b
ti i l i th t
applicationofanexternalinwardpressurewouldcausethematerialtobulge
outwards,whichwouldbeinconsistentwithphysicallawsofnature.

Similarly,therearerestrictionsonvaluesofelasticconstantsfororthotropic,
and transversely isotropic materials as well
andtransverselyisotropicmaterialsaswell.

ConstraintsonValuesofElasticConstants

Foratransverselyisotropicmaterial,therearefiveindependentelastic
constants.IfitsnaturalmaterialaxesaredesignatedasL,T,andT;whereT
isanaxisnormaltoboth,L andT,axes,thenitsfiveindependentelastic
constantsare,EL,ET,GLT,LT,andTT.Forsuchamaterialtobetransversely
isotropicimpliesthatfollowingconditionsmustbesatisfied.
ET =EET
GLT =GLT
LT =LT
GTT =GTT =ET/[2(1+
/
TT)]

Finally,toensurefundamentalphysicallawsarenotviolated,thefollowing
y,
p y
,
g
equationsactsasrestraintsonvaluesofelasticconstants.
EL,ET,ET,GLT,GLT,andGTT >0
(1 LTTL),(1
(1
) (1 LTTL),(1
) (1 TTTT)>0
)>0
1 LTTL LTTL TTTT 2LT TL TT >0

(Eq.23.19a)
(Eq
23 19a)
(Eq.23.19b)
(Eq.23.19c)
(Eq.23.19d)

(Eq.23.20a)
(Eq 23 20b)
(Eq.23.20b)
(Eq.23.20c)

DetailsofaboveequationscanbefoundinLemprierepaper:Poissonsratio
inOrthotropicMaterials,AIAAJournal,Nov.1968.

What you learnt in this lecture?


Whatyoulearntinthislecture?
Theneedforengineeringconstants
h
df
i
i
Definitionsofengineeringconstantsforan2D
orthotropiclamina
p
Relationship
Relationshipbetweenengineeringconstantsand
between engineering constants and
complianceandstiffnessmatrices
Restrictionsonelasticconstants

MechanicsofLaminated
Mechanics
of Laminated
CompositeStructures
p
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture24
AnalysisofanOrthotropicPly

Lecture Overview
LectureOverview
Transformationofstressesandstrains
Stressstrainrelationsforalaminawithany
orientation
i
i
Strengthofanorthotropiclamina

Introduction

Earlier,whilediscussingthestressstatein2Dorthotropicmaterials,itwas
Earlier
hile disc ssing the stress state in 2 D orthotropic materials it as
assumedthatreferenceaxesformeasuringstressesandstrainswere
coincidentwithmaterialaxes.Inreality,thatmaynotbethecase.

Hence,thereisaneedtodevelopstressstrainrelationsina2D
orthotropic lamina oriented arbitrarily Towards this goal as a first step
orthotropiclaminaorientedarbitrarily.Towardsthisgoal,asafirststep,
wehavetotransformstressesandstrainsfrommaterialaxestoarbitrary
axes,andviceversa.

ConsideratetrahedronwithverticesABCP.ItsfaceABC,withsurfacearea
Aand,normaln(withdirectioncosines,n
,
(
, x,,ny,,andnz),
),issubjectedto
j
stressvectorT,suchthatthetotalexternalforceonfaceABCisTA.
Further,thex,y,andz componentsofT areTx,Ty,andTz,respectively.

Further,weassumethatthelengthofnormaltofaceABCpassingthrough
Pish.SuchatetrahedronisshowninFigure24.1.

EngineeringConstantsfora2DLamina
y
B
Ty

n
Tx

Tx

Fig.24.1:TetrahedronatPointP

EngineeringConstantsfora2DOrthotropicLamina

Further,weassumethatthebodyisinequilibrium,andthus,otherthree
facesexperiencenormalandshearstresses.

Giventhatthebodyisinequilibrium,wecanwritethefollowingthree
equilibriumequations.
xxAnx +yxAny +zxAnz =TxA
xyAnx +yyAny +zyAnz =TyA
xzAnx +
+ yzAny +
+ zzAnz =TTzA,
A

EliminatingAfromaboveequations,wegetCauchystressformulae,asfollows.
xxnx +yxny +zxnz = Tnx = Tx
xynx +yyny +zynz =Tny = Ty
(Eq.24.1)
xznx +yzny +zznz =Tnz = Tz

InEq.24.1,Tx,Ty,andTz,arex,y,andz,componentsofstressvectorT.Further,T,
can also be resolved in terms of its normal and tangential component with respect
canalsoberesolvedintermsofitsnormalandtangentialcomponent,withrespect
tosurfaceA.Thenormalcomponentcanbeexpressedas:
n =Txnx +Tyny +Tznz
(Eq.24.2)

EngineeringConstantsfora2DOrthotropicLamina

CombiningEquations24.1and24.2,wecanwritetherelationfornormal
stressas:
n =xxnx2 +yyny2 +zznz2 +2xynxny +2yznynz +2zxnznx

((Eq.24.3)
q
)

Eq.24.3canbeusedtotransformnormalstressfromonesetofaxesto
anothersetofaxes.
th
t f

Now,letusconsiderFig.24.2.Here,weassumethatthestressstateata
Now,
let us consider Fig. 24.2. Here, we assume that the stress state at a
pointwithrespecttoanarbitrarysetofaxes,x,y,andz isknown.We
wouldliketousethisinformationtocalculatethestressstatewithrespect
to natural material axes of the system
tonaturalmaterialaxesofthesystem.
T

y
L

z,T

Fig.24.2:Orientationof
NaturalMaterialAxeswith
reference to Arbitrary Axes
referencetoArbitraryAxes

EngineeringConstantsfora2DOrthotropicLamina

FromFig.24.2,itisseenthatthematerialaxissystemisessentiallyarotation
ofxy axes,aroundz axisbyanangle.Thusthedirectioncosinesforthe
material axis system (LTT),
materialaxissystem(L
T T ),withrespecttox
with respect to xyz
y z systemare,cos
system are, cos ,sin
,sin and
and
1.

Thus,normalstressesxx,andyy canbewrittenas:
L=xxcos2 +yy sin2 + 2xy cossin
T=
= xxsin2 +
+ yy cos2 +
+ 2xy cossin
cos sin

(Eq.24.4a)
(Eq 24 4b)
(Eq.24.4b)

Usingsimilarapproach,wecanalsowritetheequationforshearstressas:
LT=xxcos sin+yy cos sin+ xy cos2 sin2
(Eq.24.4c)

Eqs.24.4ac,canalsobewritteninmatrixformas:

EngineeringConstantsfora2DOrthotropicLamina

Similarequationscanalsobeusedtotransformstrainsfromone
coordinatesystemtoanotherone.Thestraintransformationequations
are:
Eq.24.6

InEquations24.5and24.6,[M]istransformationmatrix,andisdefinedas:

Eq.24.7

Itmaybenotedhere,thatunlikestresstransformationequations,strain
transformationequationshaveafactorofwithinstrainvectors.Thisis
becausesuchatransformationrequiresusageoftensorstrains,andnot
engineeringstrains.Whilemathematicaldefinitionsofnormaltensor
strainandnormalengineeringstrainsareidentical,tensorshearstrainis
onehalftimesthatofengineeringshearstrain.

TransformationofEngineeringConstants

Now,thatwehaverelationswhichcanbeusedtotransformstrainsfrom
onesystemtoother,weproceedtodeveloprelationswhichwillhelpus
transform engineering constants. Premultiplying
transformengineeringconstants.Pre
multiplyingEq.24.5by[T]
Eq. 24.5 by [T]1 on
on
eithersides,weget:
[T]1{}LT =[T]1 [T]{}xy or{}xy=[T]1{}LT

(Eq.24.8)

where,{}LT and{}xy arestressesmeasuredinxy,andLT reference


frames,respectively.

Further,fromEq.21.3,wecanwrite:
{}LT =[Q]{}
[Q] {}LT

(Eq 24 9)
(Eq.24.9)

PuttingRHSofEq.24.9inRHSofEq.24.8,weget:
{}xy=[T]1[Q]{}LT

(Eq.24.10)

TransformationofEngineeringConstants

Andfinallyexpressing{}LT intermsof{}xy ,usingappropriate


transformations,inEq.24.10,weget:
{}xy=[T]1[Q][T]{}xy
{}xyy =[Q]{}xyy

or,
(Eq.24.11)

Equation24.11helpsuscomputestressesmeasuredinxy coordinate
system in terms of strains measure in the same system Here [Q] is the
systemintermsofstrainsmeasureinthesamesystem.Here,[Q]isthe
transformedstiffnessmatrix,anditsindividualcomponentsare:
Q11 =Q11 cos4 +Q22 sin4 +2(Q12+2Q66)sin2 cos2
Q22 =Q11 sin4 +Q22 cos4 +2(Q12+2Q66)sin2 cos2
Q12 =(Q11 +Q22 4Q66)sin2 cos2 +Q12 (cos4 +sin4)
Q66 =(Q
(Q11 +Q
Q22 2Q12 2Q66)sin2 cos2 +Q
Q66 (cos4 +sin
sin4)
Q16 =(Q11 Q22 2Q66)sin cos3 (Q22 Q12 2Q66 )sin3cos
Q26 =(Q11 Q22 2Q66)sin3 cos (Q22 Q12 2Q66 )sin cos3
(E 24 12)
(Eq.24.12)

TransformationofEngineeringConstants

FollowingobservationscanbemadefromEq.24.12.
Unlike,[Q]matrix,[Q]matrixisfullypopulated.
TermsQ16,andQ26 areidenticallyzero.However,termsQ16,andQ26,arenot
necessarilyzero,andtheirdefinitioninvolveslinearcombinationsoffour
elements of [Q] matrix
elementsof[Q]matrix.
Foraspecially orthotropiclamina,i.e.whenitsloadingdirectioncoincides
withlaminasmaterialaxes,applicationofnormalstressesproduceonly
normalstrains,andapplicationofshearstressesproducepureshearstrains.
Foragenerallyorthotropiclamina,i.e.whenloadingdirectionandmaterial
axesarenotcoincidental,applicationofnormalstressesproducenormalas
wellasshearstrains.ThisoccursbecauseofnonzerovaluesfortermsQ16,and
Q26,whichcouplenormalandshearresponses.Thesetermsarealsoknownas
crosscouplingstiffnesscoefficients.

TransformationofEngineeringConstants

Usingatransformationproceduresimilartotheoneusedtotransform
stiffnessmatrix[Q],wecanalsotransformthecompliancematrix[S]toan
arbitrary coordinate system. The elements of transformed compliance
arbitrarycoordinatesystem.Theelementsoftransformedcompliance
matrix[S]aredefinedbelow.
S11 =S11 cos4 +S22 sin4 +(2S12+S66)sin2 cos2
S22 =S11 sin4 +S22 cos4 +(2S12+S66)sin2 cos2
S12 =(S11 +S22 S66)sin2 cos2 +S12 (cos4 +sin4)
S66 =2(2S
= 2(2S11 +2S
+ 2S22 4S12 S66)sin2 cos2 +S
+ S66 (cos4 +sin
+ sin4)
S16 =2(2S11 2S22 S66)sin cos3 2(2S22 2S12 S66 )sin3cos
S26 =2(2S11 2S22 S66)sin3 cos 2(2S22 2S12 S66 )sin cos3
(Eq.24.13)

StrengthofanOrthotropicLamina
Inisotropicmaterials,failurepredictionrequirescalculating
principalstressesorstrainsandcomparingthemtotheir
respectiveallowablestressandstrainlimits.
i
ll
bl
d
i li i
Innonisotropicmaterialssuchanapproachdoesnotwork.
l
h
hd
k
Thenotionofprincipalstressmakesnosenseforthesematerials,as
material strength changes with direction and direction of principal
materialstrengthchangeswithdirection,anddirectionofprincipal
stressmaynotinmostofthecasescoincidewithdirectionof
maximumstrength.

Foranisotropicmaterial,wecanfullydescribeallowable
stressfieldbyknowingthematerialstensile,compressiveand
t
fi ld b k
i th
t i l t il
i
d
shearstrength.

FailureinIsotropicv/sTransverselyIsotropic
Materials
Similarly,for2Dorthotropicmaterials,weevaluateallowable
stress field in context of five different strengths of material
stressfieldincontextoffivedifferentstrengthsofmaterial
measuredwithrespecttoitsprincipalmaterialdirections.
Theseare:

Longitudinaltensilestrength(LU)
Lateralortransversetensilestrength(TU)
Longitudinalcompressivestrength(LU)
Lateralortransversecompressivestrength(LU)
In plane shear strength (LTU)
Inplaneshearstrength(

These
Thesematerialstrengthparametersforanorthotropiclamina
material strength parameters for an orthotropic lamina
areitsfundamentalmaterialproperties.

FailureinOrthotropicMaterials

Similartoisotropicmaterials,severaltheorieshavebeendevelopedto
p ed ct a u e o t ot op c ate a s So e o t e o e de y used
predictfailureinorthotropicmaterials.Someofthemorewidelyused
theoriesarebasedonmaximumstress,maximumstrain,andmaximum
work.

MaximumStressTheory:Asperthistheory,failurewilloccuroncestresses
measuredwithrespecttoprincipalmaterialaxes,exceedtheirrespective
allowablelimits.Thus,forfailureatleastoneofthefollowingconditions
mustbeviolated.
For tensile loads:
Fortensileloads:
L<LU,
T<TU,
LT<LTU.
Forcompressiveloads:
L<LU,
T<TU.

(Eq.24.14)

Onelimitationofthistheoryisthatdifferentmodesofpotentialfailuredo
notinteractwitheachother.

FailureinOrthotropicMaterials

MaximumStrainTheory:Asperthistheory,failurewilloccuroncestrains
Ma
im m Strain Theor As per this theor fail re ill occ r once strains
measuredwithrespecttoprincipalmaterialaxes,exceedtheirrespective
allowablelimits.Thus,forfailure,atleastoneofthefollowingfive
conditionsmustbeviolated.
Fornormaltensilestrainstheconditionsare:
LL <
< LU,,

TT <
< TU,

LT
< LTU.
LT <

Andifnormalstrainsarecompressive,thenfailurecriteriaare:
L<LU,

(Eq.24.15)

Ifmaterialislinearlyelastic,thenEq.24.15canberewrittenas:
L<
< LU/EL,
L<LU/EL,

T<TU.

T<
< TU/ET,
T<TU/ET.

LT<
< LTU/GLT.
(Eq.24.16)

Predictionsfrommaximumstressandmaximumstraintheoriesarevery
similar,withminordifferencesbeingattributabletoroleofPoissonsratio.
This is true for linear elastic materials. For nonlinear
Thisistrueforlinearelasticmaterials.Fornon
linearelasticmaterials,Eq.
elastic materials, Eq.
24.16shouldnotbeused,andsignificantdifferenceshouldbeexpected
betweenresultsfromthesetwotheories.

FailureinOrthotropicMaterials

TsaiHillorMaximumWorkTheory:Asperthistheory,failureoccurswhenthe
Tsai
Hill or Ma im m Work Theor As per this theor fail re occ rs hen the
followinginequalityconditionisviolated.
(L/LU)2 (L/LU)(T/TU)+(T/TU)2+(LT/LTU)2 <1

(Eq.24.16)

Here,ifnormalstressesarecompressivethencompressivestrengthshouldbe
Here
if normal stresses are compressive then compressive strength should be
usedintheequation.Also,ifthelaminaissubjectedtounidirectionalnormal
stress,thenaboveequationcanbesimplifiedas:
(cos2/LU)2 (cos sin/LU) 2 +(sin2/TU)2+(cos sin/LTU)2 <(1/ x)2 (Eq.24.17)

Unlikemaximumstressandstraintheories,Eq.24.16providesasingle
criterionforpredictingfailure.Italsoaccountsforinteractionbetween
different strengths of the material Predictions of strength from this theory are
differentstrengthsofthematerial.Predictionsofstrengthfromthistheoryare
slightlylesserthanthosefrommaximumstressandmaximumstraintheories.

Allthetheoriesdiscussedtillsofarworkonlyforalaminasubjectedtobiaxial
stressstateandnotfortriaxialstressstate.

What you learnt in this lecture?


Whatyoulearntinthislecture?
Transformationofstressandstrains
Stressstrainrelationsforalaminawithany
orientation
i
i
Strengthofanorthotropiclamina

MechanicsofLaminated
Mechanics
of Laminated
CompositeStructures
p
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture25
AnalysisofaLaminatedComposite

Introduction

Oneverysignificantadvantageofferedbycompositesisthattheir
propertiescanbetailormade;layerbylayer,tomeetspecificfunctional
requirements.
i

Further,eachlayercanbeitselfengineeredbyalteringselectionoffiber
Further
each layer can be itself engineered by altering selection of fiber
materials,havingamixoffibers,changingtheirorientation,usingmatrix
materialwithappropriateproperties,andcontrollingfibervolume
fraction.
fraction

y
p
p
y
y
Analyticalmodelsdevelopedthusfarhelpuscalculatefairlyaccurately
mechanicalpropertiesofeachlamina.Thesemodelsallowvariabilityof
propertiesoffibersandmatrices,volumefractions,andfiberorientation.

Thenextstepinthisjourneyistodevelopatheoreticalconstructwhich
willhelpuspredictthemechanicalresponseofalaminate,i.e.acollection
oflaminae,stackedupandbondedtogether.Eachlaminainthisstackup
mayhavedifferentproperties.The1st stepforpredictingtheresponseofa
laminateinvolvesdevelopingstressstrainrelationsforacompositeplate.

StrainFieldinaLaminate

Beforedevelopinganunderstandingaboutvariationofstrainsina
laminate,wewillmakecertainassumptionsaboutit.Theseare:
Laminatesaremanufacturedsothattheyactassinglelayer materials.In
typicalapplications,sucharesponsefromthelaminateisrequiredsothatits
overallstrengthandstiffnesscanbemaximized.
Therequirementofsinglelayermaterialsnecessitatesthattheadhesive
bondbetweentwoadjacentlayersisperfectinthesenseithas:
Almostzerothickness
Nosheardeformation Thus,adjacentlaminacannotslipovereachother.

Theassumptionofsinglelayermaterialalsoimpliesthatdisplacementsare
continuousacrossthebondbetweentwoadjacentlayers.
Laminatesarethininthesensetheiroverallthicknessissignificantlysmaller
otherdimensionsofthelaminate.

StrainFieldinaLaminate

ConsiderFig.25.1.Thefigureshowshowasectionoflaminate,takeninxz
direction,appearsafterdeformationduetoapplicationofforces.Here,z,
i h hi k
isthethicknessdirectiononreferencecoordinatesystem.
di
i
f
di

StrainFieldinaLaminate

ThelowerleftsideportionofFig.25.1isaviewofundeformedlaminate.
ThelowerrightsideportionofFig.25.1showsthedeformedstateof
l i
laminatessection.

Intheun
In
the undeformed
deformedsection,lineABCD,isperfectlystraightandnormalto
section line ABCD is perfectly straight and normal to
midplaneofthelaminate.Thislineisassumedtoremainstraightand
normaltomidplaneevenaftergettingdeformed.Thisimpliesthat:
Outofplaneshearstrains
O t f l
h
t i
d yz,arezero.
xz,and
Thereisnointerlaminarshearorslipping.

Further,itisassumedthatthelengthoflineABCDremainssameafter
deformation.Thisinturnimpliesthatstraininzdirection,zz,iszero.

StrainFieldinaLaminate

Assumptionsofnormality,inextensibilityandstraightnessforlineABCD
aretogetherknownasKirchhoffLoveassumptionsinshelltheory,and
g
p
y,
Kirchhoffsassumptionsinplatetheory.

FFurther,duetodeformationofplate,pointBundergoestranslationby
h d
d f
i
f l
i B d
l i b
amountuo,vo,andwo,inx,y,andz directions,respectively.Also,theline
ABCDrotatesaboutBbyanangle inthez plane.Figure25.1doesnot
showvo displacementexplicitlybecausethefigureisasideviewofthe
laminateundergoingdeformation.

Thus,displacementofpointC,whichisz distanceawayfrommidplaneis:
u(x,y,z)=uo(x,y) z(x,y)==uo z

(Eq.25.1)

q 5 , e use e ac a ispartialdifferentialofw
s pa a d e e a o o inxdirection.
d ec o
InEq.25.1,weusethefactthat

StrainFieldinaLaminate

Similarly,wecanalsowritetherelationfordisplacementv(z),as:
(Eq.25.2)

Also,forsmalldisplacements,followingrelationsholdforstrains.
(Eq.25.2a)

Now,usingdefinitionsforu,andv,inabovestraindefinitions,weget:

(Eq. 25.3)
(Eq.25.3)

Also,asmentionedearlier,zz ,xz,andyz arezero.

StrainFieldinaLaminate

AsperEq.25.3,normalandshearstrainsatapointinalaminatecanbe
decomposedintotheirmidplane,andcurvaturecomponents.Thus,Eq.
25 3
25.3mayberewrittenas:
b
i
(

((Eq.25.4)
q
)

wherethemidplanestrainsaredefinedas:
h
h
id l
i
d fi d

(Eq.25.5)

StrainFieldinaLaminate

And,midsurfacecurvaturesaredefinedas:
(Eq.25.6)

InEq.25.6,thelasttermrepresentstwistcurvatureofmidsurfaceof
compositelaminate.

Equations25.325.6arevalidonlyforplatesandnotforshells.Thisis
becauseourstraindefinitions,asperEq.25.2aarevalidonlyforplatesas
th d
theydonotaccountforashellscurvature.
t
tf
h ll
t

quation 5.4 shows that strains vary linearly over the thickness of a
Equation25.4showsthatstrainsvarylinearlyoverthethicknessofa
compositeplate,withtheaveragestraincomputedoverplatesthickness
equalingmidplanestrain.

StressesinaLaminate

Ifonewereabletocomputemidplanestrainsandcurvatureoftheplate,
thenpredictingstressesoverthelaminatesthicknessissimplyamatterof
multiplyingthesestrainswithstiffnessconstantsusingstrainstiffness
li l i
h
i
i h iff
i
i
iff
relationsonalayerbylayerbasis.

Thus,stressesinkth layerofthelaminatemaybecalculatedusing
followingrelations.
(Eq.25.7)

Since[Q]matrixvariesdiscontinuouslybetweentwoadjacentlayers,variationof
stresses between two layers need not be linear or even continuous Thus stresses
stressesbetweentwolayersneednotbelinear,orevencontinuous.Thusstresses
arediscontinuousbetweentwoadjacentlayers,eventhoughstrainvarieslinearly
acrossentirelaminatethickness.However,overthethicknessofasinglelamina,
stress variation is linearly continuous
stressvariationislinearlycontinuous.

MechanicsofLaminated
Mechanics
of Laminated
CompositeStructures
p
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture26
AnalysisofaLaminatedComposite

Lecture Overview
LectureOverview
Introduction
ResultantForcesandMoments
Piecewise
Piece wiseintegrationforcalculatingresultant
integration for calculating resultant
forcesandmoments.

Introduction

Inpreviouslecture,mathematicalrelationshavebeendeveloped,which
define:
Variationofstrainsoverthethicknessofalaminate
Variationofstressesoverthethicknessofalaminate

Givenmidplanestrainsandcurvature,theserelationsmaybeusedto
calculatestressesinaplate.

Inalargenumberofrealapplications,wemaynotnecessarilyknowmid
plane strains and curvatures for a composite, and sans their knowledge,
planestrainsandcurvaturesforacomposite,andsanstheirknowledge,
predictingstressesincompositelaminatesisnotpossiblejustbyusing
equationsdevelopedearlier.

However,inaseveralcaseswedoknowthevalueofexternallyapplied
loadsandmomentsonplates.Thus,thereisaneedtodeveloprelations
whichconnectmidplanestrains,midplanecurvatures,stresses,and
externalforcesandmoments.

ResultantForcesandMoments

Considerasmallpartofcompositeplate,whichisacteduponbyforces
andmomentsonitsedgesasshowninFig.26.1duetodifferentstresses.
H
Here,N
Nx,N
Ny andN
d Nxy areresultantforces
l
f
perunitlengthactingonthe
i l
h i
h
edgesofthecompositeplateindirectionsasshowninFig.26.1.Similarly,
Mx,My andMxyy areresultantmoments perunitlengthactingontheedges
ofthecompositeplateindirectionsasshowninFig.26.1.

Fig.26.1:ForcesandMomentsatMidPlaneofaPlate

ResultantForcesandMoments

Usingprinciplesofequilibrium,wecanrelatestressestoforceresultants
byintegratingappropriatestresscomponentsthroughtheplatethickness.
Thus,weget.
Th

(Eq.26.1)

Inaboveequation,t,representsthethicknessofcompositeplate.

ResultantForcesandMoments

Similarly,usingprinciplesofequilibrium,wecanrelatestressestomoment
resultantsbyintegratingappropriateproductsofstresscomponentsand
di
distancefrommidplane,throughtheplatethickness.Thus,weget.
f
id l
h
h h l
hi k
Th

(E 26 2)
(Eq.26.2)

Intheseequations,unitofforceresultants(N
In
these equations unit of force resultants (Nx,N
Ny andN
and Nxy)isN/m,while
) is N/m while
thatformomentresultant(Mx,My andMxy)isN.Also,Fig.26.1depicts
conventionsusedforpositiveresultantforcesandresultantmoments.

ResultantForcesandMoments

ResultantForcesandMoments

ConsiderFig.26.2.Lookingatit,andalsorealizingfrompreviousanalysis,
weinferthatvariationofstressis:
Discontinuousoverthethicknessofthewholelaminate.
Linearlycontinuousoverthethicknessofasinglelayer.Suchavariationof
stressesoverlaminatethickness.

Thus,theintegrandsforresultantforcesandmoments,asdefinedinEqs.
26 1 and 26 2 are not continuous functions of z
26.1and26.2arenotcontinuousfunctionsofz.

,
y
p
p
Rather,theyarepiecewisecontinuousoverthethicknessofcomposite
plate.Hence,theirintegrationoverentirethicknessrequiresoneto:
Piecewiseintegratethefunctionovereachlaminasthickness.
Adduplaminaspecificintegralsforallthelayers.
Add up lamina specific integrals for all the layers

Thisisaccomplishedsubsequently.

ResultantForcesandMoments

ConsiderFig.26.3,whichshowscrosssectionofthestackupofann
layeredorthotropiclaminate.Here,thez coordinateoftopandbottom
surfacesofk
f
f kth laminateisz
l i
i k,andz
d k1.Further,aspertheconventioninthis
F h
h
i i hi
schematic,topmostlayer,withazcoordinateoft/2isconsideredthe1st
layer,whilethebottommostlayerisconsideredthenthlayer.

ResultantForcesandMoments

Forsuchaschematic,therelationsofresultantforcesandmoments,using
Eqs.26.1and26.2canbewrittenas:

(Eq.26.3)
and,

(Eq.26.4)

ResultantForcesandMoments

Equations26.4and26.5aresummationsofintegrals.Iftherearen layers
inthecomposite,thentherewillben summations.

Inthisway,contributionofeachlayerissummedupwhilecalculating
resultant forces and moments
resultantforcesandmoments.

Afterintegrationandsummation,coordinatez nolongerappearsin
expressionsforresultantforcesandmoments.

Theseforceresultants,N
These
force resultants Nx,N
Ny,andN
and Nxy,andmomentresultants,M
and moment resultants Mx,M
My,
andMxy,getappliedonacompositeplatesmidplane,therebygenerating
stressesandstrainsintheplate.

Itshouldbenotedherethateventhoughtheseforceandmoment
resultant do not vary with respect to the zdirection,
resultantdonotvarywithrespecttothez
direction,theyareindeed
they are indeed
functionsofx andy coordinates.

MechanicsofLaminated
Mechanics
of Laminated
CompositeStructures
p
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture27
AnalysisofaLaminatedComposite

Lecture Overview
LectureOverview
Introduction
StiffnessMatricesforLaminate
DiscussiononStiffnessMatrixElements
Discussion on Stiffness Matrix Elements
SpecialLaminationSequences

Introduction

Earlier,resultantstressandmomentshavebeendefinedasintegralsof
stress,andstresstimesdistancefromaplatesmidplane,respectively.

SubstitutingdefinitionsofstressfromEq.25.7inEq.26.5,weget:

Thiscanbesimplifiedas:

Sinceweknowthatmidplanestrainsandcurvaturesareindependentofz
wecantakethemoutoftheintegralandsummationoperationsinthe
aboveequation.

LaminateStiffnessMatrices

Also,[Q]remainsconstantoverthethicknessofeachlayer,butitsvalue
changesfromonelayertotheother.Thus,therelationforresultant
stressesbecomes:
b

LaminateStiffnessMatrices

Thisequationcanberewrittenas:

(Eq.27.1)

where,
h

(Eq.27.2)

LaminateStiffnessMatrices

Similarly,therelationformomentresultantscanbedevelopedasfollows:
(Eq.27.3)

where,
( 2 )
(Eq.27.4)

Matrix[A]iscalledextensionalstiffnessmatrix.

Matrix[B]iscalledbendingextensioncouplingmatrix.

Matrix [D] is called bending stiffness matrix


Matrix[D]iscalledbendingstiffnessmatrix.

LaminateStiffnessMatrices

ExtensionStiffnessMatrix:Thismatrixinfluencesextensionalstrainsinthe
l i t
laminate.
Foragivenresultantforce,midplanestrainsdecreaseaselementsofthis
matrixincreaseinmagnitude.
Magnitudeofextensionalstiffnessincreasesdirectlyinproportiontothe
y ,
( k zkk11))equalsthicknessofk
q
thicknessofeachlayer,since(z
th lamina.
TermsA16 andA26 coupleshearandnormalresponsesofthelaminate.If
either of these terms is nonzero
eitherofthesetermsisnon
zero,then:
then:
Anextensionalresultantforcewillgeneratenotonlyextensionalstrain,butshear
strainaswell.
Similarly,shearforceresultantN
Similarly shear force resultant Nxy willgeneratenotonlyshearstraininthe
will generate not only shear strain in the
laminate,butextensionalstrainaswellifthesetermsarenonzero.

LaminateStiffnessMatrices

ExtensionBendingCouplingMatrix[B]:Thismatrixcouplesextensional
responsetothebendingresponseofthelaminate.
t th b di
f th l i t
Themagnitudeoftermsin[B]matrixdependsonthesquareofthedistanceof
eachlaminassurfacefromthemidplane.
Ifthemagnitudeofthismatrixisnon
If the magnitude of this matrix is nonzero
zero,then:
then:
Acompositelaminatewillexhibitbendingandtwisting,evenifexternalmomenton
itisperfectlyzero.
Acompositelaminatewillexhibitextensionalandshearstrains,evenifexternal
A composite laminate will exhibit extensional and shear strains, even if external
resultantforcesonitarezero.

In
Inverylargenumberofapplicationsthecouplingofbendingandextensional
very large number of applications the coupling of bending and extensional
responsesiscautiouslyavoided,asitcantriggerearlymaterialfailure.Insuch
cases,laminatesarecarefullyengineeredtoensurethatallelementsof[B]
arezero.

LaminateStiffnessMatrices

BendingMatrix[D]:Thismatrixinfluencesthebendingresponseofa
l i t
laminate.
Magnitudeoftermsin[D]matrixdependsonthecubeofthedistanceofeach
laminassurfacefromthemidplane.
A
A[D]matrixwithlargemagnitudeimpliesthataunitbendingmomentwill
[D] matrix with large magnitude implies that a unit bending moment will
generateverylittlecurvatureinthelaminateandviceversa.
Terms
TermsD
D16 andD
and D26 couplebendingandtwistingresponsesofthelaminate.If
couple bending and twisting responses of the laminate If
eitherofthesetermsisnonzero,then:
Apurebendingmomentwillgeneratenotonlybendingcurvaturekx,andky,but
twist curvature kxy,aswell.
twistcurvature,k
as well
Similarly,apuretorquewillgeneratenotonlytwistcurvatureinthelaminate,but
bendingcurvaturesaswell.

LaminateStiffnessMatrices

Equations27.1and27.3canalsobeexpressedinonesinglesetof
equationsexpressedinmatrixformat.Thisisshownbelow.
ti
di
ti f
t Thi i h
b l

(Eq.27.5)

where
where,
N isavectorforresultantstresses.
M isavectorforresultantmoments,,
o isavectorformidplanestrains,and,
isavectorformidplanecurvatures.

EquilibriumEquations

Usingprinciplesofmechanics,itcanbeshownthatforcompositeplates,
thereareatotalofthreeequilibriumequations.Thesearelistedbelow.
(Eq.27.6)

(Eq.27.7)
(Eq.27.8)

Further,itcanalsobeshownthatembeddedwithinEq.27.8arethree
Further it can also be shown that embedded within Eq 27 8 are three
equilibriumconditions;forcebalanceinz direction,andmomentbalance
inx andy directions.

SpecialLaminationSequences
p
q

Here,welistcertainspeciallaminationsequencesandassociated
t
terminologies,whicharefrequentlyusedincompositeindustry,tomeet
i l i
hi h
f
tl
di
it i d t t
t
specificfunctionalrequirements.
SymmetricLaminate:Suchlaminatesaresymmetricinlaminationsequence
acrosstheirmidplanes.:Suchlaminates:
Exhibitnocouplingbetweenbendingandextensionalresponsesbecausethevalue
ofallelementsforsuchlaminatesbendingmatrixarezero.
Donotbendandtwistwhencooledafterfabrication.

Crossplylaminates:Here,alllayersinthelaminatehaveanorientationof
either0or90degrees.Forsuchlaminates:
ValuesoftermsA16,A26,B16,B26,D16,andD26 arezero.
Shearandextensionalresponsesarenotcoupled.
Bendingandtwistingresponsesarenotcoupled.

SpecialLaminationSequences
p
q
AnglePlyLaminates:Alllayersinsuchlaminateshaveanorientationofeither
or For such laminates if:
,or.Forsuchlaminates,if:
Thelaminatehasanequalnumberofpliesorientedineitherdirections,thenterms
A16,A26 arezero.
Thelaminatehasalargenumberofpliestotalinganoddnumberofplies,andthe
The laminate has a large number of plies totaling an odd number of plies and the
plyorientationalternatesbetween,or,then,couplingmatrix[B]iszero,and
termsD16,andD26 areverysmall.

AntiSymmetricLaminates:Here,thematerialorientationofkth layerabove
midplaneisnegativeofkth layerbelowthemidplane.Forsuchlaminates:
TermsA
Terms A16,A
A26,D
D16,andD
and D26 arezero.
are zero
However,matrix[B]isnonzero.

Balanced
BalancedPlyLaminates:Foreveryplywithanorientation,thelaminatealso
Ply Laminates: For every ply with an orientation the laminate also
hasacorrespondingplyofsamethickness,butorientation inthelaminate.
Forsuchcases,valueoftermsA16 andA26 iszero.

SpecialLaminationSequences
p
q
QuasiisotropicLaminate:Suchalaminateiswidelyusedintheindustry.An
important property of such a laminate is that its extensional stiffness matrix is
importantpropertyofsuchalaminateisthatitsextensionalstiffnessmatrixis
similartothatforisotropicmaterials.Thus,forsuchmaterials:
A11 =A22
A66 =(A
(A11 A12)/2
A16 =A26 =0.

Suchalaminatecanbeconstructediffollowingconditionsaremet.
h l i
b
d if f ll i
di i
Thelaminateshouldhavemorethantwolayers.
Alllayersshouldhaveidenticalstiffnessmatrices[Q],andthicknesses.
Thedifferenceinorientationangleoftwoadjacentlayersmustbeequal.Thus,the
anglebetweentwoadjacentlayersshouldbe2/n,wheren istotalnumberof
layersinthecompositeplate.
Twoexamplesofquasiisotropiclaminatesare:
T
l
f
ii t i l i t
[0/60]isaquasiisotropicthreelayerlaminate.
[0/45/90]isaquasiisotropicfourlayerlaminate.

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture28
FailureofUnidirectionalComposites

Introduction

Failureofcompositesis,unlikemetals,acomplexmultistageprocess.
Failureofacompositesamplemaygettriggeredinacertainmode,but
itspropagationandfinalfailuremodesmaybesignificantlydifferent.

Inalargenumberofcases,compositefailuregetsinitiatedinternally,and
itisonlyoncefailurehaspropagatedbeyondacertainextent,that
changes in compositessbehaviorandappearanceareobserved.
changesincomposite
behavior and appearance are observed.

Theinternalfailureofacompositesamplecouldmanifestas:

Breakingoffibers
B
ki
f fib
Developmentofmicrocracksinmatrix
Debonding betweenfibersandmatrix
Delamination i e separation of different layers of a laminate
Delamination,i.e.separationofdifferentlayersofalaminate

Here,weexploredifferentfailuremechanismsofcomposites,firstatply
level and subsequently at laminate level
level,andsubsequentlyatlaminatelevel.

Failure of Unidirectional Layers


FailureofUnidirectionalLayers

Inmanycompositesamples,beforefailureoccursatmacroscopicscale,
y
p
p ,
p
,
thematerialresponsechangessignificantly.Thischangeinmaterial
response,whichprecedesactualmaterialfailure,isamanifestationofa
large number of microfailures
largenumberof
micro failures aswellasnon
as well as nonlinear
linearmaterialbehavior.
material behavior

Forunidirectionallaminates,thestressstrainbehavioristypicallylinear.
However,asexternallyappliedloadexceedsacertainthreshold,the
stressstrainresponsecurvemay becomeincreasinglynonlinear.This
thresholdcouldbeonedefinitionofthefailureloadofunidirectional
ply.

Alternatively,thefailureloadofaunidirectionalplycouldbetheactual
Al
i l h f il
l d f
idi
i
l l
ld b h
l
loadatwhichthecompositefractures.

Failure of Unidirectional Layers


FailureofUnidirectionalLayers

Iffailureinunidirectionallaminaisconsideredtobecompositematerials
proportionallimit,thensuchafailurecriteriaensuresasignificantmargin
ofsafety.

However,inaverylargenumberofcompositesthestressstrainresponses
curveisfairlystraighttothepointoffailure.Thisisso,becauseofa
combination of two reasons:
combinationoftworeasons:
Mostofthefibersusedinmoderncompositelaminatesexhibitbrittlefailure.
Thefibervolumefractioninaverylargenumberofcompositesismaximized,andhence,
thefiberfailureandcompositefailureoccuratsameloadlevel.

However,inmaterialswhichhaveeitherverylowfibervolumefractionor
wherematrixmaterialisverystiff(visvisfiber),theoverallstressstrain
responseofcompositemaybeconsideredasitsproportionallimit.

Infollowingslides,differentfailuremodesofunidirectionallayershave
In
following slides, different failure modes of unidirectional layers have
beendiscussed.

FailureofUnidirectionalLayerdueto
LongitudinalTension

Whenaunidirectionallaminaissubjectedtoincreasingtensileforcein
j
g
longitudinaldirection,allfibersdonotfailataspecificloadlevel.Rather,
fibersfailinaseriesoffailureevents,withtheweakestfiberbreakingfirst.
This is because fiber strength is a statistically distributed function
Thisisbecause,fiberstrengthisastatisticallydistributedfunction.

Becauseofthisreason,fiberbreakagemayinitiateatloadssometimes
evenlessthanhalfofultimatetensilestrengthoflamina.
l
th h lf f lti t t il t
th f l i

Loadbornebybrokenfibersgetsredistributedinthecomposite,thereby
increasingstressesinunbrokenfibers.

Duetothisreason,andalsoduetoincreasingload,thenumberoffibers
D
t thi
d l d t i
i l d th
b
f fib
breakingatagivenloadincreases.ThisphenomenonisshowninFig.28.1.

FailureofUnidirectionalLayerdueto
LongitudinalTension

Fig 28 1: CumulativeNumberofFiberBreakswithIncreasingLongitudinalLoad
Fig.28.1:
Cumulative Number of Fiber Breaks with Increasing Longitudinal Load

FailureofUnidirectionalLayerdueto
LongitudinalTension

Oncenumberofbrokenfibersexceedsacertainthreshold,thecomposite
maybecometooweakataspecificcrosssectiontobearanyfurther
increment in load.
incrementinload.

Atthispoint,theunidirectionallaminabreaksintotwoparts.Sucha
f il
failurecanoccurinatleastthreedifferentfailuremodes.Theseare:
i t l t th
diff
t f il
d Th
Brittlefailureoffibers:Insuchamode,thefiberexhibitsbrittlefailure.
Brittlefailureoffiberswithfiberpullout:Insuchamode,thefibernotonlyexhibits
brittlefailure,butalsopullsoutofmatrixduetodebonding offiberandmatrix.
Brittlefailureoffibersaccompaniedwithfiberpullout,aswellasshearfailureat
l f l
ffb
d hfb
ll
ll
h
f l
interfacematrixlocation,and/ormatrixdebonding fromfibers.

AschematicdepictionofthesethreefailuremodesareshowninFig.28.2.
h
d
f h
h
f l
d
h

FailureofUnidirectionalLayerdueto
LongitudinalTension

Fig.28.2:DifferentFailureModesofaUnidirectionalLaminainLongitudinalTension
Fig
28 2: Different Failure Modes of a Unidirectional Lamina in Longitudinal Tension
(Left:BrittleFailure,Center:BrittleFailurewithFiberPullout,Right:BrittleFailurewith
Debondingand/orMatrixCracking)

FailureofUnidirectionalLayerdueto
LongitudinalTension

Glassfibersareverybrittle,andtheircomposites,especiallywithlowfiber
volumefractionstendtoexhibitbrittlefiberfailure.

Glassfiberswithmoderatefibervolumefraction(between40%and65%)
exhibitbrittlefiberfailurewithfiberpullout.

Glassfibercompositeswithhighfibervolumefractionsexhibitthethird
mode of failure i e brittle fiber failure accompanied with fiber pullout as
modeoffailure,i.e.brittlefiberfailureaccompaniedwithfiberpullout,as
wellasshearfailureatinterfacematrixlocation,and/ormatrixdebonding
fromfibers.

Graphitefibercompositeshoweverexhibitsecondandthirdmodesof
failure.

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture29
FailureofUnidirectionalComposites

FailureofUnidirectionalLayerUnder
LongitudinalCompression

Whenaunidirectionallaminaissubjectedtoincreasingcompressiveforce
inlongitudinaldirection,itcanfailindifferentmodes.Thesefailuremodes
are:

Tensilefailureintransversedirection
Microbucklingoffiberswhilematrixisstillelastic
Microbucklingoffibersonlyaftermatrixhasyieldedandhasdebonded
g
y
y
withfibers
Shearfailure

Microbucklingoffiberswhilematrixisstillelastic:Thisfailuremode
Microbuckling
of fibers while matrix is still elastic: This failure mode
typicallyoccursespeciallywhenfibervolumefractionisverylow.
Insuchacase,individualcontinuouslongfibersactasverylongandslendercolumns,
supported throughout their length on an elastic foundation
supportedthroughouttheirlengthonanelasticfoundation.
Insuchasituation,whenfibersarecompressedbeyondathreshold,theybuckleat
relativelylowvaluesofexternalcompressiveload,becausethetransversesupport
offeredbymatrixisnotsignificantasitsmodulusisverylowvisvisthatoffibers.
y
g
y
Thus,insuchcases,microbucklingfibersoccurs,whilematrixisstillelastic.

Microbuckling of Fibers
MicrobucklingofFibers

Microbucklingoffibersprecededbymatrixyieldinganddebonding:When
fibervolumefractionismoderateorhigh,thenthesupportofferedbythe
matrixintransversedirectionbecomessignificant.Thisisbecausethe
transversemodulusofcompositeisappreciablyhigherthanofpurematrix
material.
In
Insuchacase,matrixbeginstoyield.
such a case, matrix begins to yield.
Thisisfollowedbydebonding ofthematrixfiberinterface,ormicrocrackingofmatrix
material.
Oncedebondingg ormicrocrackingoccursinmatrix,thelateralsupportofferedbymatrix
g
,
pp
y
islost,andfibersundergomicrobuckling.

Twoadjacentfibersinaunidirectionalcompositeundercompressionmay
Two
adjacent fibers in a unidirectional composite under compression may
eitherbuckleinasortofcooperativewayorindependentofeachother.
Thisisdiscussedfurther.

Microbuckling of Fibers
MicrobucklingofFibers

ConsiderFig.29.1.Herefouradjacentfibershavebuckledinawaysuch
thattransversedeformationsofaparticularfiberisoppositeinsignasthat
ofadjacentfiber.Insuchacase,thematrixmaterialbetweentwofibersis
exhibitspredominantlyextensional strains,i.e.thestrainsareeither
compressive,ortensileinnature.Microbucklingofthismodeiscommonly
known as extension mode microbuckling.
knownasextensionmodemicrobuckling.

Next,considerFig.29.2.Herefouradjacentfibershavebuckledinaway
suchthattransversedeformationsofaparticularfiberaresameinsignas
thatofadjacentfiber.Insuchacase,thematrixmaterialbetweentwo
fibersisexhibitspredominantlyshear strains,i.e.thestrainsareeither
compressive,ortensileinnature.Microbucklingofthismodeiscommonly
knownasshearmodemicrobuckling.

Microbuckling of Fibers
MicrobucklingofFibers

Extensionmodemicrobucklingtypicallyoccursincomposites,whichhave
verylowfibervolumefraction.Insuchunidirectionalcomposites,the
distancebetweentwoadjacentfibersisfairlylarge.

Shearmodemicrobucklingtypicallyoccursincomposites,whichhavevery
moderateorhighfibervolumefraction.
d t
hi h fib
l
f ti

Insuchunidirectionalcomposites,thedistancebetweentwoadjacent
In
such unidirectional composites, the distance between two adjacent
fibersissmall,andthus,transversedeformationofonefiberhasa
significantinfluenceonthatoftheadjacentfiber.

MicrobucklingofFibers
g

Fig. 29.1:ExtensionalModeFiberMicro
BucklinginUnidirectionalLamina
Under Longitudinal Compression
UnderLongitudinalCompression

Fig. 29.2:ShearModeFiberMicro
BucklinginUnidirectionalLamina
Under Longitudinal Compression
UnderLongitudinalCompression

Microbuckling of Fibers
MicrobucklingofFibers

Significantworkhasbeendonetocalculatelongitudinalcompressive
strengthofunidirectionallaminatriggeredbydifferentfailure
mechanisms.

Ithasbeenfoundthattheoreticalcalculationsforthisstrength,as
performedbyRosenwhousedmicrobucklingeventasfailurepointforthe
f
db R
h
d i b kli
t f il
i t f th
composite,areinsignificantdisagreementwithmeasuredvalues.

Incontrast,ifmatrixdebonding isusedasthefailureinitiationpointfor
calculatinglongitudinalcompressivestrength,thenconsequentialfailure
criteria is in good agreement with experimental observations
criteriaisingoodagreementwithexperimentalobservations.

TransverseTensileFailure

Asmentionedearlier,transversetensilefailureisanotherimportant
As
mentioned earlier transverse tensile failure is another important
failuremodeforunidirectionallaminasubjectedtocompressivestressin
fiberdirection.

Insuchacase,theunidirectionalcompressiveforcecausestensilestrains
intransversedirectionduetoPoissonratioeffect.

Ifthevalueofthistransversetensilestrainexceedstheultimate
transversestraincapabilityoflamina,cracksdevelopatfibermatrix
i
bili
fl i
k d l
fib
i
interface,whichpropagateinfiberdirectiontocausecompositefailure.
ThisisshowninFig.29.3.

Fig.29.3:Transversetensile
g
failureinacomposite
specimencausingcracksat
matrixfiberinterface

Shear Failure
ShearFailure

Insomecases,unidirectionallaminafailsinshearwhensubjectedto
compressiveloads.SuchafailuremodeisdepictedinFig.29.4.
i l d S h f il
d i d i t d i Fi 29 4

Suchafailuremodetypicallyhappens,whenfibervolumefractionsare
Such
a failure mode typically happens, when fiber volume fractions are
veryhigh,andfibersareverywellalignedtodirectionofloading.Insucha
case,thefailureofcompositecanbedirectlycorrelatedtoshearfailureof
fibers.
fibers

Fig.29.4:Unidirectional
composite under high
compositeunderhigh
compressionmayfailundershear
especiallyiffibervolumefraction
ishigh.

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture30
FailureofUnidirectionalComposites
UnderTransverseTension

FailureofUnidirectionalLayerUnderTransverse
Tension

Aunidirectionalcompositeismostpronetofailurewhenitissubjectedto
transverse tension There are several sources of transverse tensile loads
transversetension.Thereareseveralsourcesoftransversetensileloads.
Theseare:
Applicationofexternalloads
Matrixshrinkageduetocuring
M ti hi k
d t
i
Hygrothermalstressesduetochangesintemperatureandmoisture

Transversetensileloadingcausessignificantstressconcentrationfactorin
thematrixattheinterfacelocations.Fig.30.1showstheselocations.

Fig.30.1:Location(inred)of
StressConcentrationina
TransverselyLoaded
UnidirectionalComposite

FailureofUnidirectionalLayerUnder
TransverseTension

Duetohighvalueofstressconcentrationfactors,localfailurecanhappen
inthreepossiblemodes.Theseare:
Matrixcracking
Interfacedebonding
Fibersplittingtransversely

Whilebulkofthefailureinvolvescrackingofmatrix,orinterface
debonding,fibersplittingmayoccurespeciallyiffiberitselfisweakin
transverse direction and the unidirectional composite is highly aligned in
transversedirection,andtheunidirectionalcompositeishighlyalignedin
transversedirection.

However,mostofthefailuresoccurattheinterface(debondingormatrix
cracking)sincepeakstressesduetostressconcentration,occuratthe
fibermatrix
fiber
matrixinterface.
interface.

FailureofUnidirectionalLayerUnder
TransverseTension

Figure30.2showshowmicrocracksdevelopinaunidirectionallamina
(undertransversetension)atmatrixfiberinterfacelocations,andlater
progressivelydevelopleadingtoultimatefailure.

Itisseeninthisfigurethatfailuresequenceconstitutesoffollowingsteps:
Initiationofmicrocracksatafewlocations
ii i
f i
k
f l
i
Growthinnumberandsizeofmicrocracksintermsacrossthelamina.
Coalescingofseveralmicrocrackstoformlongcrackindirectionnormaltotensileload.
Th
Thesecracksgrowfurtherveryrapidlyleadingtofailureoflamina.
k
f th
idl l di t f il
fl i

FailureofUnidirectionalLayerUnder
TransverseTension

Fig.30.2:Evolutionofdamageina
unidirectionalcompositelamina
subjectedtotransversetensileload.

Stress Concentration
StressConcentration

Stressconcentrationinalaminaduetopresenceoftransversetensileload
ischaracterizedbyastressconcentrationfactor.Thisfactor,k ,asshown
inFig.30.1,istheratioofpeakstressinlamina(max),andaverageapplied
stress(T).

Th
Thevalueofk
l
f k dependsonseveralfactors,including:
d
d
lf t
i l di
Fibervolumefraction.Thevalueofk increaseswithincreasingfibervolumefraction.
Theratioofmatrixandfibermaterialmoduli.Boronepoxyunidirectionallamina,which
h
hasamatrixtofibermaterialmoduliratioof120,hasveryhighstressconcentration
t i t fib
t i l
d li ti f 120 h
hi h t
t ti
factor,visvisglassepoxy,andgraphiteepoxysystems.

Thevalueofk
Th
l
f k maybedeterminedeitherexperimentallyusingphoto
b d t
i d ith
i
t ll
i
h t
elasticmethods,analyticalaswellasnumericalmethods.

Stress Concentration
StressConcentration

Determinationofk throughanalyticalmethodinvolvesmodelingofathin
sliceoflaminarunningthroughcentersoffibersinloadingdirectionasa
seriesmodel.

Usingsuchanapproachforalamina,wherefibersarepackedinasquare
array,thevalueofk
th
l
f k canbecalculatedusingthefollowingrelation.
b
l l t d i th f ll i
l ti
(Eq. 30.1)
(Eq.30.1)

Anotherquantity,whichisarguablymoreusefulforatransverselyloaded
unidirectional lamina is the strain concentration factor k.
unidirectionallaminaisthestrainconcentrationfactor,k

Strain Concentration Factor


StrainConcentrationFactor

Thestrainconcentrationfactor,k andstressconcentrationfactorare
relatedasfollows.
(Eq. 30.2)
(Eq.30.2)

WhiledevelopingEq.30.2,itwasassumedthatfibersaremuchstiffer
thanmatrixmaterial,andareperfectlybondedtothematrix.

Strainconcentrationfactorincreasesmuchmorerapidlythanstress
concentrationfactorforcompositeswhichhavehighvolumefraction,asin
suchsystems,theratioofcompositestransversemodulusandmatrix
modulusishigh.

FailureStressforTransverseTensile
Loading

Whenpredictingfailureofaunidirectionallaminaloadedtransverselyin
tension,residualcuringstresses,aswellasstressesduetomismatchof
thermalexpansioncoefficientsofmatrixandfibers,mustbeaccountedfor
appropriately.Thisisdoneasfollows.

EEquations30.1and30.2canbeusedfurthertocalculateultimatefailure
ti
30 1 d 30 2
b
d f th t
l l t lti t f il
strengthofunidirectionallaminaTU,whenitisloadedtransverselyin
tension.Usingmaximumstresscriterion,andalsoassumingthatmatrix
behaveslinearly,andfibermatrixbondisperfectandverystiff,weget:
(Eq 30 3)
(Eq.30.3)
Here,mU isfailurestrengthofmatrix,andrm ismaximumvalueof
residualradialstress.

FailureStressforTransverseTensile
Loading

Similarly,Equations30.1and30.2canbeusedfurthertocalculateultimate
failurestrengthofunidirectionallaminaTU,whenitisloadedtransversely
intensionusingmaximumstraincriterion.Thisrelationisgivenbelow.

(Eq.30.4)

Ingeneral,thevalueof
In
general the value of TU aspredictedbyEq.30.3or30.4,islessthan
as predicted by Eq 30 3 or 30 4 is less than
experimentallydeterminedvalue.Thisisso,becauseEqs.30.3and30.4
predictthestresslevelatwhichlocalmicrocracksstartdeveloping,while
measuredvaluesrelatetoultimatebreakingofthecompositespecimen.
d l
l t t lti t b ki
f th
it
i
Thisprocessoffailureofcompositeatmacrolevel,hasbeendepicted
earlierinFig.30.2.

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture31
FailureofUnidirectionalComposites
TransverseCompression,Shear,
h
and OutofPlane
andOut
of PlaneLoading
Loading

Failure Due to Transverse Compression


FailureDuetoTransverseCompression

Aunidirectionallamina,whensubjectedtocompressiveload,canfailin
variousways.Thesefailuremodesare:
Matrixshearfailure
Matrixshearfailureaccompaniedwithdebondingand/orcrushingoffibers

Figure31.1showshowaunidirectionallaminasubjectedtotransverse
Figure
31 1 shows how a unidirectional lamina subjected to transverse
loadmayfailinshear,accompaniedwithdebondingoffibers.

Failure Due to Transverse Compression


FailureDuetoTransverseCompression

Ithasbeenexperimentallyobservedthattransversecompressionstrength
p
y
p
g
ofaunidirectionallaminaislessthanitslongitudinalcompression
strength.

However,ifconstraintsareimposedonthelaminasuchthatthe
deformationindirectionnormaltoloadfiberaxesareprevented,thenthe
transversecompressivestrengthmaybecomparabletolongitudinal
compressivestrength.

Thisincreaseintransversecompressivestrengthisattributabletothefact
thatduetoimpositionofsuchconstraints,failurenowoccursdueto
shearingoffibers,whicharesignificantlystrongerthanmatrixand
h i
f fib
hi h
i ifi
l
h
i
d
interface.Insuchasituation,transversecompressivestrengthshould
increasewithfibervolumefraction,andthishasindeedbeenconfirmed
byexperiments.

Failure Due to Inplane Shear


FailureDuetoInplaneShear

Figure31.2showsarepresentationofunidirectionallaminasubjectedto
g
p
j
inplaneshearforce.

AsshowninFig.31.2,aunidirectionallaminadevelopshighvaluesof
shearstressconcentration atthefibermatrixinterface,whensubjectedto
inplaneshearforces.Thishighshearstressconcentrationcancauseshear
failureinthematrix,whichmaybeaccompaniedbyfibermatrix
,
y
p
y
debondingaswell.

Failure Due to Inplane Shear


FailureDuetoInplaneShear

Ingeneral,thefailureofaunidirectionallaminaduetoinplaneshearforce
g
,
p
mayoccurinthreedifferentmodes.
Failureofmatrixduetoshearstress.
Failureofmatrixduetoshearstressaccompaniedwithfiber
Failure of matrix due to shear stress accompanied with fibermatrix
matrixdebonding
debonding
Fibermatrixdebonding

Theinplaneshearstrengthofaunidirectionallamina,LTU canbe
expressedasratioofmatrixshearstrength,
d
ti f t i h
t
th mu,andshearstrain
d h
t i
concentrationfactor,k,usingthefollowingrelation:

Eq.31.1

Failure Due to OutofPlane


FailureDuetoOut
of PlaneLoading
Loading

Aunidirectionallaminamaybesubjectedtooutofplaneloadingaswell.
y
j
p
g
Thisloadingcouldbeapplicationofeitherofthefollowing:
Tensileorcompressivestressinoutofplanedirection,i.e.3.
Shearstress
Shear stress 23.
Shearstress13.

Ifthematerialistransverselyisotropicin23plane,andisnormallyloaded
If
the material is transversely isotropic in 2 3 plane and is normally loaded
outofplanethrough3,then,suchaloadingisequivalentapplicationof
inplaneload2.

Similarly,aunidirectionallaminawhichisisotropicin23planeresponds
to application of outofplane
toapplicationofout
of planeshearstress
shear stress 13,inwayssimilartothose
in ways similar to those
whenitseesinplaneshearstress12.

Failure Due to OutofPlane


FailureDuetoOut
of PlaneLoading
Loading

Further,aunidirectionallaminawhichisisotropicin23planerespondsto
applicationofoutofplaneshearstress23,inanequivalentwaywhenitis
exerteduponbybiaxialtension/compressionalongaxesy,andz,which
t d
b bi i l t i /
i
l
d
hi h
areat45to2 and3axes.ThisisshowninFig.31.3.

Fig.31.3:Unidirectionalcompositesfailuremodedueto
applicationofpureoutofplaneshearalongalignedwith12
plane

Failure Due to OutofPlane


FailureDuetoOut
of PlaneLoading
Loading

Forsuchabiaxialloading,themostprobablefailuremodewouldbe
g,
p
crackingofmatrixindirectionnormaltoy axis.ThisisshowninFig.31.3.
Thereasonforsuchafailuremodeisthefactthatthematerialis
significantly weaker in transverse tension visvis
significantlyweakerintransversetension,vis
vistransverse
transverse
compression.

However,thefailurestrengthforsuchafailuremodemaybe
approximatelyequal(notexactlyequal)thatofsampleunderpure
transversetension.Thisisbecausethesampleisloadedbiaxially,andnot
p
y,
uniaxially.

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture32
StrengthofaCompositeLamina

Failure Criteria for Isotropic Materials


FailureCriteriaforIsotropicMaterials
Isotropic
Isotropicmaterialscanfailinavarietyofways.Failureinsuch
materials can fail in a variety of ways. Failure in such
materialscanbepredictedbyusingoneofthefollowing
failurecriteria.
Forbrittlematerials
Maximumprincipalstresscriterion
Maximumprincipalstraincriterion
CoulombMohrcriterion

Forductilematerials
MaximumshearstressorTresca criterion
vonMises stressordistortionenergycriterion

To
Tousethesecriteria,especiallyinmulti
use these criteria, especially in multiaxial
axialloadingsituation,the
loading situation, the
conceptofprincipalstressandprincipalstrainsisquitefrequently
invoked.

Failure Criteria for Isotropic Lamina


FailureCriteriaforIsotropicLamina
However,
However,noneofthefailurecriteriausedforisotropicmaterialsare
none of the failure criteria used for isotropic materials are
ofmuchuseforpredictingfailureincompositelamina.
Thisso,becausetheplanesalongwhichthelaminamaybepossibly
theweakest,maynotbenecessarilyalignedwiththedirectionof
principal
principal stressesinalamina.
stresses in a lamina
Thus,forthesamereason,theconceptofprincipalstressesisof
for the same reason the concept of principal stresses is of
Thus
littleuseincaseofcompositematerials.
Forthisreason,severalalternativefailuretheorieshavebeen
developed,whichmaybeusedtopredictfailureofcomposite
l i
lamina.

DifferentStrengthsofaCompositeLamina

Thestrengthofaunidirectionalcompositelamina maybecharacterizedbyfive
differentmaterialparameters.Theseare:

Forathreedimensionalanalysis,i.e.forcompositelaminates,fouradditional
strengthparameters,arerelevant.Theseare:

Longitudinaltensilestrength,u1.
Longitudinalcompressivestrength,u1
Transversetensilestrength,u2.
Transversecompressivestrength,u2
Inplaneshearstrength,u12.

Interlaminartensilestrength,uI
Interlaminarcompressivestrength,
p
g
uI
uI
Interlaminarshearstrength,u13,forthe13plane.
Interlaminarshearstrength,u23,forthe23plane.

Fortransverselyisotropicmaterials,with23asplaneofisotropy:
uI =u2 uI=u2,andu13 =u23

Here,allmaterialpropertiesaremeasuredinabsolute numericalvalues.

SignConventionforShearStresses

ApositiveshearstressappliedinLT
di ti
directioncanalsobeexpressedasa
l b
d
specimenwhichexperiencestensile
stressat45degrees(anticlockwise
turn w r t xaxis) of value and a
turnw.r.t.xaxis)ofvalue,anda
compressivestressappliedin45
degreedirection(i.e.clockwiseturn
g
xaxis).
)
of45degreesw.r.t

AnegativeshearstressappliedinL
T direction can also be expressed as
Tdirectioncanalsobeexpressedas
aspecimenwhichexperiences
compressivestressat45degrees
(anticlockwiseturnw.r.t.xaxis)of
value,andatensilestressapplied
in45degreedirection(i.e.
clockwiseturnof45degreesw.r.t x
axis).
i)

Fig.32.1:Signconventionfor
positiveandnegativeshearstresses.

SomeObservationsonShearStrength
g

Figure32.1showsthatwhenaunidirectionallaminaissubjectedto
g
j
positive shearstress12,(i.e.shearstressreferredtoprincipalmaterial
planes),itisequivalenttoapplicationofnormaltensileandcompressive
loads at 45tolongitudinal(fiber)direction.
loadsat45
to longitudinal (fiber) direction

Giventhis,thestrengthofalaminasubjectedtopure12doesnotget
affectedbysense (positiveornegative)ofshearstress.However,thesame
isnottruewhenshearstressisappliedatanangletoprincipalmaterial
directions.

ConsiderFig.32.2asshownonthenextslide.

SomeObservationsonShearStrength

Fig.32.2a:A
Lamina
Lamina
subjectedto
purepositive
shearat45deg.
h
t 45 d
tofiber
direction.
Fig.32.2b:A
Lamina
Lamina
subjectedto
purenegative
shearat45deg.
h
t 45 d
tofiber
direction.

SomeObservationsonShearStrength

InFig.32.2a,alaminaissubjectedtopurepositiveshearat45tofiber
direction This stressstate is equivalent to a tensile stress state in
direction.Thisstressstateisequivalenttoatensilestressstatein
longitudinaldirection,andcompressivestressstateintransverse
direction.

InFig.32b,thesamelaminaissubjectedtopurenegativeshearat45to
fiber direction. This stressstate
fiberdirection.Thisstress
stateisequivalenttoacompressivestressstate
is equivalent to a compressive stress state
inlongitudinaldirection,andtensilestressstateintransversedirection.

LookingatFig.32aandFig.32b,andnotingthefactthatmostcomposite
laminaareweakestintransversetension,wecanmakethecasethatthe
laminawouldbeweakerundernegativeshear,andstrongerinpositive
shear.

FailureTheoriesforCompositeLamina

Failuretheoriesforcompositelaminacanbeclassifiedintothreedistinct
groups These are:
groups.Theseare:
Noninteractiveorlimittheories:Here,failuremodesarepredictedbycomparing
individualstressesorstrainsrespectivetotheirultimatestressesandstrains.However,
such theories do not account for interplay between different stress components.
suchtheoriesdonotaccountforinterplaybetweendifferentstresscomponents.
Examplesofsuchtheoriesaremaximumstresscriteria,andmaximumstraincriteria.
Interactivetheories:Thesetheoriesgoastepfurtherthanlimittheories,andalso
g
p
,
accountforinteractionbetweenvariousstress/straincomponents.Examplesofsuch
theoriesarethoseofTsaiWuandTsaiHill.Theyareabletopredictoverallfailure,but
cannotpredicttheexactfailuremode.
Failuremodebasedtheories:Thesetheoriesprovideseparatecriteriaforfailureof
matrix,fiberandinterface.ExamplesofsuchtheoriesarethoseofPuck,andHashim
Rotem.
Rotem

Here,wediscussthreetheoriesinparticular,maximumstress,maximum
strain,andTsaiHill.
i
d
i ill

MaximumStressTheory

Tousethistheory:
Calculate
Calculatestressesinmaterialdirectionsonalayer
stresses in material directions on a layerbylayer
by layerbasis.
basis
Failureoccurs,ifatleastoneofthefollowingconditionsinanylayeris
satisfied.
1>u1 if1>0.
1>u1 if1<0.
2>u2 if2>0.
2>u2 if2<0.
3>u3 if3 >0.
3>u3 if3<0.
|12|>u12
|13|>u13
|23|>u23

Theseequationsinred colorarenotrelevantfortwodimensionalstateofstress.

MaximumStrainTheory

Tousethistheory:
Calculate
Calculatestrainsinmaterialdirectionsonalayer
strains in material directions on a layerbylayer
by layerbasis.
basis
Failureoccurs,ifatleastoneofthefollowingconditionsinanylayeris
satisfied.
1>u1 if1>0.
1>u1 if1<0.
2>u2 if2>0.
2>u2 if2<0.
3>u3 if3 >0.
3>u3 if3<0.
|12|>u12
| 13|>u13
| 23|>u23

Theseequationsinred colorarenotrelevantfortwodimensionalstateofstress.

TsaiHillTheory

Tousethistheory:
Calculatestressesinmaterialdirectionsonalayerbylayerbasis.
Calculate stresses in material directions on a layer by layer basis
Failureoccurs,ifthefollowingconditionissatisfiedinanylayer.
(1/F1)2 +(2/F2)2 +(12/F6)2 (12/F1)2 >1.
where,
F11 =
u11 if
if 11 >0.
>0
F1=u1 if1<0.
F2=u2 if2>0.
F2=u2 if2<0.
F6 =u12

It
Itmaybenotedthattheaboverelationisvalidonlyifthelamina
may be noted that the above relation is valid only if the lamina
hasatwodimensionalstressstate.
Thisisaninteractivetheory,andispopularlyused.

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture33
HygrothermalEffects

SourcesofHygrothermalStresses

Mostcompositesmaterialsarecuredbyapplicationofheat.Inother
cases, when external heat is not applied, the curing process itself
cases,whenexternalheatisnotapplied,thecuringprocessitself
producessignificantheatduetoonsetofexothermicreactions.

Priortocuring,resinisinaviscousfluidicstateandthus,composite
Prior
to curing resin is in a viscous fluidic state and thus composite
constituentsarereasonablyfreetomovewithrespecttoeachother.
However,oncecuringprocessiscomplete,thematrixgetssolidified,andit
no longer permits stressfree motion of different constituent materials
nolongerpermitsstressfreemotionofdifferentconstituentmaterials.

However,atthetimeofcuring,bulktemperatureofcompositeis
significantlyhigh(duetoapplicationofexternalheatorduetogeneration
i ifi
l hi h (d
li i
f
lh
d
i
ofheatattributabletoexothermiccuringreactiveprocess).Thus,the
positionofdifferentcompositeconstituentsgetslockedinatan
elevated temperature
elevatedtemperature.

Ascompositeproductcoolsdowntoroomtemperature,thermalstresses
getgeneratedduetodifferencesinCTEofconstituentmaterialsof
composite.

SourcesofHygrothermalStresses

Thus,almostallcompositematerialshaveacertainlevelofinsitu thermal
stresses owing their existence to the composite manufacturing process
stressesowingtheirexistencetothecompositemanufacturingprocess.

Similarstressesalsoexistincompositeswiththermoplasticresins,as
processingandsolidificationtemperaturesoftheseresinsissignificantly
higherthancompositeusetemperatures.

Themagnitudeofthermalstressesincreaseswithincreasingtemperature
differencebetweencuringtemperature,andcompositeusetemperature.

Thus,thelevelofthermalstressesinacompositesampleusedat
cryogenic temperatures may be higher than that in a sample subjected to
cryogenictemperaturesmaybehigher,thanthatinasamplesubjectedto
roomtemperature.Forasimilarreason,detailedthermalstressanalysis
calculationshavetobeconductedonaircraftturbineblades,andmissile
nose cones where ambient temperatures may be in excess of 1000 C
nosecones,whereambienttemperaturesmaybeinexcessof1000C.

SourcesofHygrothermalStresses

Compositesarealsosensitivetopresenceofmoistureandhumidity.
Unlike metals which do not absorb moisture a very large number of
Unlikemetals,whichdonotabsorbmoisture,averylargenumberof
compositesabsorbmoisture.Thisisbecauseseveralpolymerbased
matrixmaterialsabsorbmoisture.

Whileallpolymersdoabsorbsomeamountofmoisture,nylonsin
particular have one of the highest propensity to absorb moisture.
particularhaveoneofthehighestpropensitytoabsorbmoisture.
Dependingontheirgrade,thesematerials,at50%RH,canabsorbasmuch
waterweighingasmuchas0.7to2.7%oftheirweights.At100%RH,
these values increase to 1 4 to 9 5%
thesevaluesincreaseto1.4to9.5%.

Moistureabsorption,besidesothereffects,alsoisasourceofinternal
stressesinthecomposite.

Stressesincompositesduetotemperatureandmoisturearecollectively
Stresses
in composites due to temperature and moisture are collectively
termedashygrothermalstresses.

NatureofHygrothermalEffects
Hygrothermaleffectsinfluencemechanicalbehaviorof
composites in two different ways These are:
compositesintwodifferentways.Theseare:
Mechanicalpropertiesofthecompositemaychangewithchangesin
temperatureandmoisturecontent.
Ingeneral,fiberpropertiesdonotgetsignificantlyaltereddueto
changesinmoisturecontentandtemperature.Incontrast,matrix
material properties are sensitive to these variables Hence those
materialpropertiesaresensitivetothesevariables.Hence,those
compositeproperties,whicharestronglyinfluencedbymatrix
properties,exhibithighsensitivitytohygrothermaleffects.Specifically,
these properties are:
thesepropertiesare:
Transversetensileandcompressivemodulusandstrength
Inplaneshearmodulusandstrength
Longitudinalcompressivestrength

Internal
Internalstressesdevelopinthepart.Thesestressesarestrong
stresses develop in the part. These stresses are strong
functionsoftemperatureandmoisturecontentofthecomposite.

EffectsofTemperatureonCompositeProperties

Asdiscussedearlier,unlikefibers,matrixmaterialpropertiesaresensitive
tochangesintemperature.Hence,compositeproperties,whichare
stronglyinfluencedbymatrixproperties,exhibithighsensitivityto
temperature.

Whiletheexactmagnitudeofthesesensitivitiesmayvarybetween
differentcomposites,listedbelowaresomebroadlygeneralizedandkey
(p
y
g p
p y y
)
observations(particularlytocontinuousfibergraphiteepoxysystem)in
thiscontext.

Transverseproperties:Transversemodulusdecreasesmonotonicallywith
Transverse
properties: Transverse modulus decreases monotonically with
increasingtemperature.However,materialsstrengthandfailurestraindo
notchangesignificantly.

Inplaneproperties:Inplaneshearmodulusdecreasesmonotonicallywith
increasingtemperature.However,ultimateshearstrengthdoesnot
changesignificantly.
h
i ifi tl

EffectsofTemperatureonCompositeProperties

Interplayofmoistureandtemperature:Ithasbeenfoundthatsmallto
moderateconcentrationsofmoisture(lessthan1%)havenosignificant
impactonmaterialpropertiesatroomtemperature.However,atelevated
temperature,presenceofmoisturehasaverysignificantadverseimpact
onshearandtransversestrengthsandmoduliofcomposites.

Glassfibercompositesexhibitlargestrengthreductions,especiallyifthe
p
y
,g
matrixisthermoplasticorrubberyinnature.Incontrast,glassfiber
compositeswithregularthermoset resins(whichtendtobebrittle)suffer
lessdegradationintheirstrengthsduetoexposuretoelevated
p
y
temperaturesandhumidity.

Also,exposureofboilingwaterdegradesseveralmechanicalpropertiesof
glass composites with vinylester matrix.
glasscompositeswithvinylester
matrix

Ingeneral,theinterplayoftemperature,moistureandmechanical
propertiesofcompositesisverycomplex,andshouldbeunderstoodona
ti
f
it i
l
d h ld b
d t d
casebycasebasis.

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture34
ThermalStressesinPlates

Lecture Overview
LectureOverview
Introduction
MechanicalandThermalStrains
StiffnessMatrixforaLamina
Stiffness Matrix for a Lamina
ThermalForcesandMoments

Introduction

Achangeinabodystemperaturecausesitsdimensionstogrowor
contract thereby generating thermal strains
contract,therebygeneratingthermalstrains.

Foralinearsystem,i.e.wherethermalstrainisdirectlyproportionalto
changeintemperature,theexpressionforthermalstrain(T)forisotropic
materialis:
T =T
= T
where, iscoefficientofthermalexpansion,andT isriseinbodystemperature.

Foranorthotropicunidirectionallamina,thermalstrainsinlongitudinal
andtransversedirectionsaredefinedas:
TL=
LT
TT=TT
where,L andTarecoefficientsofthermalexpansioninlongitudinaland
transverse directions respectively Also it should be noted here that there are no
transversedirections,respectively.Also,itshouldbenotedherethatthereareno
shearstrainsintheLTplaneassociatedwiththermalexpansion.Hence,TLT =0.

Introduction

InearlierequationsforTLand TL, thevaluesofLand L,havebeen


de ed ea e
definedearlierinEqs.17.8and17.9.Theserelationsarebeingreproduced
qs
8 a d 9 ese e at o s a e be g ep oduced
hereaswell.
L =(EfVf f +EmVm m)/EL
(Eq.17.8)
T =(1+f)Vf f +(1+m)Vm m LLT
(Eq.17.9)

Equations17.8and17.9arevalidforcompositeswithfibershaving
Equations
17 8 and 17 9 are valid for composites with fibers having
isotropicproperties.Incase,fiberusedinthecompositeareorthotropic
(carbonandKevlar),theyhavedifferentaxialandtransverseproperties.
For composites made from orthotropic fibers and isotropic matrix a
Forcompositesmadefromorthotropicfibersandisotropicmatrix,a
differentequationforT,asproposedbyHasin shouldbeused.This
equationisgivenbelow.
T =(1+LTf Lf/Tf)Vf Tf +(1+m)Vmm (LTfVf f +mVm)(E)L/EL (Eq.34.1)
where,
EL = ELfVf+E
+ EmVm
(E)L=ELfVfLf +EmVm m

Introduction

Lookingatexpressionsforthermalstrainswithrespecttomaterialaxes,it
can be stated that Land
canbestatedthat
and Tareidenticaltothermalstrainscorresponding
are identical to thermal strains corresponding
totemperatureincrementofunity.Hence,thesecoefficientsfollowthe
sametransformationlawasthatfollowedbythestrainvector.

Thus,coefficientofthermalexpansionsmeasuredwithrespecttoan
arbitrary coordinate system (xy)
arbitrarycoordinatesystem(x
y)canbewrittenas:
can be written as:
Eq.34.1

Here,[T]1 istheinverseof[T]asdefinedinEq.10.7.Usingtheserelations,
thermal strains in arbitrary coordinate system can be written as:
thermalstrainsinarbitrarycoordinatesystemcanbewrittenas:
Eq.34.2

MechanicalandThermalStrains

Thermalstrainsbythemselvescannotgenerateaforceoramoment,
unless the body is not completely free to deform due to temperature
unlessthebodyisnotcompletelyfreetodeformduetotemperature.
Thus,atthelevelofawholelaminate,therearenoresultantforcesand
momentsduetotemperaturealone.

However,atthelevelofalamina,thesamemaynotbetrue.Thisis
because a lamina by itself is not entirely free to bend or twist or expand
becausealaminabyitselfisnotentirelyfreetobendortwistorexpand
duetochangesintemperature.

Thesestressesinalaminaareattributabletostrainswhichareinexcessof
thermalstrainsasdefinedinEq.34.2.Theseexcessivestrainsareknown
asmechanicalstrains,andaredenotedbyasuperscriptM.Thus:
Eq.34.3

MechanicalandThermalStrains

InEq.34.3,weseethatmechanicalstrainisthedifferenceoftotalstrain,
and thermal strain.
andthermalstrain.

Further,thermalstressesatindividualplylevelmaybecalculatedby
multiplying mechanical strain vector with lamina stiffness matrix Thus:
multiplyingmechanicalstrainvectorwithlaminastiffnessmatrix.Thus:
Eq 34 4
Eq.34.4

However,inEq.34.4,midplanestrainsandmidplanecurvaturesarenot
However
in Eq 34 4 midplane strains and midplane curvatures are not
known.

EEquation34.4maybeintegratedoverthickness(assumingtemperatureis
ti 34 4
b i t
t d
thi k
(
i t
t
i
constantoverthickness)asperEq.26.1toyieldrelationsforforce
resultantvector.Similarly,Eq.34.4maybemultipliedwithz,andthen
integrated over thickness as per Eq 26 2 to yield relations for moment
integratedoverthicknessasperEq.26.2,toyieldrelationsformoment
resultantvector.

StiffnessMatrices

Thus,wegetfollowingrelationsforforceandmomentresultants.

Eq.34.5

Eq.34.6

ThermalForcesandMoments

Here,thermalforceandmomentvectorsaredefinedas:

Eq.34.7
q 19.6)
(Eq.19.6)
(Eq.

Finally,theequilibriumequationsfortheplateareessentiallythesameas
Fi
ll th
ilib i
ti
f th l t
ti ll th
definedinEqs.27.6,27.7and27.8.Thisisso,sinceresultantforceand
momentequationsalreadyincludethermaleffectsonaccountoftheir
reviseddefinitions.

ThermalForcesandMoments

Thermalstressesgetinducedinalaminatewheneverthetemperatureof
laminate differs from that of its free stress state
laminatediffersfromthatofitsfreestressstate.

Duringthefabricationofcompositeplates,pliesarestackedtogetherat
elevatedtemperatures.Atthesetemperatures,matrixmaterialpermeates
intodifferentlayers,andbindsthembecauseitgetscured.Later,the
cured laminate is cooled to room temperature.
curedlaminateiscooledtoroomtemperature.

Asaresultofthisprocess,thermalstressesgetinducedinalaminate
betweendifferentlayers,becauseindividuallayersarenolonger,after
curing,freetocontractduringthecoolingprocess.Thesestresses,which
getinducedinthelaminateduetosuchcoolingareknownasresidual or
curingstresses.

Residual stresses if not properly managed may lead to failure of laminate


Residualstresses,ifnotproperlymanaged,mayleadtofailureoflaminate.

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture35
HygroscopicStressesinPlates

Lecture Overview
LectureOverview
Introduction
MechanicalandHygroscopicStrains
StiffnessMatrixforaLamina
Stiffness Matrix for a Lamina
HygrothermalForcesandMoments

Introduction

Hygroscopy istheabilityofasubstancetoabsorbwatermoleculesfrom
the surrounding environment This property is exhibited by a large number
thesurroundingenvironment.Thispropertyisexhibitedbyalargenumber
ofpolymersusedincompositefabricationincludingnylon,ABS,
polycarbonate,cellulose,andpolymethylmethacrylate.

Hygroscopicmaterialsswellduetomoistureabsorption.Theamounta
particular material is affected by moisture absorption is known as
particularmaterialisaffectedbymoistureabsorptionisknownas
CoefficientofHygroscopicExpansion(CHE).Thisisalternativelyreferredas
CoefficientofMoistureExpansion(CME).However,somematerials
contact
contact uponmoistureabsorption.Suchmaterialshaveanegativevalue
upon moisture absorption Such materials have a negative value
ofCME.

CoefficientofMoistureExpansion(CME)isdefinedastheratioofthe
proportionallengthvariationofasampletoitstotheproportionalmass
p
p
, y
y
variationduetomoistureevaporationorabsorption.Thus,symbolically:
=(lo/l)/(mo/m)
(Eq.35.1)

Introduction

Equation35.1isvalidformaterialswithisotropichygroscopicproperties.
Orthotropic materials may have three different coefficients of moisture
Orthotropicmaterialsmayhavethreedifferentcoefficientsofmoisture
expansioncoefficients,L,T,andT,correspondingtoprincipalmaterial
directions.

MicromechanicalrelationsforCMEforunidirectionallaminaare
analogous to those for CTE for similar materials. Thus, CME values for
analogoustothoseforCTEforsimilarmaterials.Thus,CMEvaluesfor
unidirectionallaminacanbewrittenas:

L =(EfVf f +EmVm m)/E


/ L

(Eq.35.2)

T =(1+
= (1+f)Vf f +(1+
+ (1+m)Vm m LLT

(Eq 35 3)
(Eq.35.3)

Equations35.2and35.3arevalidforcompositeswithfibershaving
isotropicproperties.

Introduction

Incase,fibersusedinthecompositeareorthohygroscopic(Kevlar),they
have different axial and transverse water absorption properties
havedifferentaxialandtransversewaterabsorptionproperties.
Forcompositesmadefromsuchorthotropicfibersandisotropicmatrix,a
differentequationforT,asproposedbyHasin shouldbeused.This
equationisgivenbelow.
T =(1+LTf Lf/ Tf)Vf Tf +(1+m)Vmm (LTfVf f +mVm)(E )L/EL (Eq.34.4)
where,
EL = ELfVf+EmVm
and
(E )L=E
= ELffVf Lff +E
+ EmVm m

Introduction

However,manyfibers(glass,graphite,boron)donotabsorbmoisture.
Hence the value of forsuchfibersiszero.Insuchacase,therelations
Hence,thevalueof
for such fibers is zero In such a case the relations
forlongitudinalandtransversemoisturecoefficientscanbewrittenas:
L =EmVm m/EL
(Eq.35.5)
T =(1+m)Vm m LLT

(Eq.35.6)

Equations35.5and35.6arevalidforcompositeswithfibershaving
isotropicproperties.Foracompositewithorthotropicfibers,butisotropic
matrix,relationsforlongitudinalandtransversemoisturecoefficientsare:
T =(1+m)Vmm mVm(E )L/EL
(Eq.35.7)
where,
EL = ELfVf+EmVm

and

(E )L=EmVm m

Introduction

Further,therelationsforhygroscopicstrains(H)inaunidirectionalply
are:
HL=Lc
and
(Eq.35.8)
HT=Tc
where,
HLL =Hygroscopicstraininlongitudinaldirection.
Hygroscopic strain in longitudinal direction.
HT=Hygroscopicstrainintransversedirection.
c =c co
c =Ratioofmoisturemassincompositeandmassofcompositesample
R i f
i
i
i
d
f
i
l
co =Ratioofmoisturemassincompositeandmassofcompositesample,atastate
whenhygroscopicstrainsinthecompositearezero.
Itshouldbenotedherethattherearenohygroscopicshearstrainswithrespectto
LTaxes.Hence,HLT =0.

Introduction

LookingatEquations35.8,itcanbestatedthatLandTarethermal
strains in a sample corresponding to hygroscopic moisture concentration
strainsinasamplecorrespondingtohygroscopicmoistureconcentration
incrementofunity.Hence,thesecoefficientsfollowthesame
transformationlawasthatfollowedbythestrainvector.
Thus,coefficientofthermalexpansionsmeasuredwithrespecttoan
arbitrarycoordinatesystem(xy)canbewrittenas:
(Eq.35.9)

Here,[T]1 istheinverseof[T]asdefinedinEq.10.7.Usingtheserelations,
hygroscopicstrainsinarbitrarycoordinatesystemcanbewrittenas:
(Eq.35.10)

MechanicalandHygroscopicStrains

Hygroscopicstrainsbythemselvescannotgenerateaforceoramoment,
unless the body is not completely free to deform due to temperature
unlessthebodyisnotcompletelyfreetodeformduetotemperature.
Thus,atthelevelofawholelaminate,therearenoresultantforcesand
momentsduetomoistureeffectsalone.

However,atthelevelofalamina,thesamemaynotbetrue.Thisis
because a lamina by itself is not entirely free to bend or twist or expand
becausealaminabyitselfisnotentirelyfreetobendortwistorexpand
duetochangesinchangesinmoisturecontent.

Thesestressesinalaminaareattributabletostrainswhichareinexcessof
moisturestrainsasdefinedinEq.35.10.Theseexcessivestrainsareknown
asmechanicalstrains,andaredenotedbyasuperscriptM.Thus:
(Eq.35.11)

HygroscopicStresses

InEq.35.11,weseethatmechanicalstrainisthedifferenceoftotalstrain,
and hygroscopic strain.
andhygroscopicstrain.

Further,hygroscopicstressesatindividualplylevelmaybecalculatedby
multiplying mechanical strain vector with lamina stiffness matrix Thus:
multiplyingmechanicalstrainvectorwithlaminastiffnessmatrix.Thus:
(Eq.35.12)

Equation35.12maybeintegratedoverthickness(assumingmoistureis
Equation
35 12 may be integrated over thickness (assuming moisture is
constantoverthickness)toyieldrelationsforforceresultantvector.
Similarly,Eq.35.12maybemultipliedwithz,andthenintegratedover
thickness, to yield relations for momentresultant
thickness,toyieldrelationsformoment
resultantvector.
vector.

Themethodologyforthisisidenticaltothatdiscussedwhiledeveloping
Eqs 34 5 and 34 6
Eqs.34.5and34.6.

EquilibriumEquations

Similartothecaseforthermalstresses(asdiscussedinLecture34),these
force and moment resultant vectors have a hygroscopic component as
forceandmomentresultantvectorshaveahygroscopiccomponentas
well.

Thedefinitionsofhygroscopicforceandmomentresultantsareidentical
analogoustothermalforceandmomentresultantsasdefinedinEqs.34.7.

Finally,theequilibriumequationsfortheplateareessentiallythesameas
definedinEqs.27.6,27.7,and27.8.Thisisso,sinceresultantforceand
momentequationsalreadyincludehygroscopiceffectsonaccountoftheir
reviseddefinitions.

Theseequationscanbesolvedtounderstandtheroleofhygroscopic
strainsoncompositestresses.

HygrothermalEffects

Compositesexhibithygrothermalstressesandstrainswhenexposedto
temperature and moisture Analysis of such stresses can be conducted by:
temperatureandmoisture.Analysisofsuchstressescanbeconductedby:
FindingstrainsinunidirectionallaminabymodifyingEq.35.8asshownbelow:

HTL=
= LT+
T + Lc,
c
HTT=LT+Tc

(Eq.35.13)

LT =0.
Thesestrainsmaynextbetransformedtoxy coordinatesystem,whichiscommonforall
compositelayers.
Goingfurther,byusingsuperpositionprinciple,stressesandstrainsatlaminatelevelmaybe
calculatedbyusingtheapproachasdiscussedearlierinthislecture,andalsoinLecture34.
FurtherdetailsonthesestressesarediscussedinfollowingLecture36.

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture36
HygrothermalStressesinPlates

Lecture Overview
LectureOverview
Introduction
HygrothermalStrains
StiffnessMatrixforaLamina
Stiffness Matrix for a Lamina
HygrothermalForcesandMoments

Introduction

Hygrothermalstrains,asdefinedinEq.35.13canbewrittenas:
HTL=LT+
T Lc,

HTT=LT+Tc
(Eq.35.13)
LT =0.
0.

StrainsasdefinedinEq.35.13aremeasuredwithrespecttomaterialaxes
L andT.Whenthesamestrainsaremeasuredwithrespecttoxy
coordinatesystemtherelationsforthesestrainsare:
(Eq.36.1)

Here,[T]1 istheinverseof[T]asdefinedinEq.10.7.

MechanicalandThermalStrains

Hygrothermalstrainsbythemselvescannotgenerateaforceora
moment unless the body is not completely free to deform due to
moment,unlessthebodyisnotcompletelyfreetodeformdueto
temperatureandmoisture.Thus,atthelevelofawholelaminate,there
arenoresultantforcesandmomentssolelyduetohygrothermaleffects.

However,atthelevelofalamina,thesamemaynotbetrue.Thisis
because a lamina by itself is not entirely free to bend or twist or expand
becausealaminabyitselfisnotentirelyfreetobendortwistorexpand
duetohygrothermalchanges.

Thesestressesinalaminaareattributabletostrainswhichareinexcessof
hygrothermalstrainsasdefinedinEq.36.1.Theseexcessivestrainsare
knownasmechanicalstrains,andaredenotedbyasuperscriptM.Thus:
(Eq.36.2)

MechanicalandThermalStrains

InEq.36.2,weseethatmechanicalstrainisthedifferenceoftotalstrain,
and hygrothermal strain.
andhygrothermalstrain.

Further,hygrothermalstressesatindividualplylevelmaybecalculatedby
multiplying mechanical strain vector with lamina stiffness matrix Thus:
multiplyingmechanicalstrainvectorwithlaminastiffnessmatrix.Thus:
Eq 36 3
Eq.36.3

However,inEq.36.3,midplanestrainsandmidplanecurvaturesarenot
However
in Eq 36 3 midplane strains and midplane curvatures are not
known.

EEquation36.3maybeintegratedoverthickness(assumingtemperature
ti 36 3
b i t
t d
thi k
(
i t
t
andmoisturecontenddonotchangeinthicknessdirection)toyield
relationsforforceresultantvector.Similarly,Eq.36.3maybemultiplied
with z and then integrated over thickness to yield relations for moment
withz,andthenintegratedoverthicknesstoyieldrelationsformoment
resultantvector.

HygrothermalForce&MomentResultants

Thus,wegetfollowingrelationsforforceandmomentresultants.
(Eq.36.4)

and
(Eq.36.5)

Here,vectors{N
,
{ HT}}and{M
{ HT}}areinternalhygrothermalstressand
yg
momentresultantvectors,respectively.Ifthesearenonzero,theneven
withoutapplicationofexternalforceandmomentresultants,i.e.{NM}and
{MM},respectively,deflectionsandcurvaturesmaydevelopinthe
} respectively deflections and curvatures may develop in the
composite.

HygrothermalForcesandMoments

Equations36.6providethedefinitionofhygrothermalforceandmoment
resultants.
resultants

(Eq.36.6)

HygrothermalForcesandMoments

Equations36.4and36.5maybeusedinequilibriumequationsas
mentioned in Lecture 27 to analyze composite plates subjected to
mentionedinLecture27toanalyzecompositeplatessubjectedto
hygrothermalstresses.

Hygrothermalforceandmomentresultantscanbephysicallyinterpreted
asdescribedbelow.
Consider
Consideralaminatewhichisnotsubjectedtoexternalloads,butdeformsdueto
a laminate which is not subjected to external loads, but deforms due to
hygrothermaleffects.
Insuchacase,hygrothermalforceandmomentresultantsmaybeinterpretedasthose
, yg
y
p
forceandmomentresultants,whicharerequiredtoproducedeformationsintheplate
equalingthoseattributabletohygrothermaleffectsalone.

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture37
HygrothermalStressesinPlates

Lecture Overview
LectureOverview
HygrothermalLoadDeformationRelations
HygrothermalCoefficientsforLaminates
HygrothermalForcesandMoments
Hygrothermal Forces and Moments

HygrothermalForce&MomentResultants

ConsiderEquations36.4and36.5,i.e.relationsbetweenmechanically
applied force and moment resultants and hygrothermal force and
appliedforceandmomentresultants,andhygrothermalforceand
momentresults.
(Eq.36.4)
and
d
( q 36 5)
(Eq.36.5)

Theserelationscanbeusedtocomputecoefficientsofthermaland
moistureexpansionformultidirectionallaminates. Thisisdiscussed
further.

HygrothermalForce&MomentResultants

Ifexternallyappliedmechanicalforcesandmomentsarezero,thenLHSof
Eqs 36 4 and 36 5 is zero In such a case these two equations can be
Eqs.36.4and36.5iszero.Insuchacase,thesetwoequationscanbe
writteninmatrixformas:

(Eq.37.1)

InversionofEq.37.1yieldsusrelationsformidplanestrainsand
curvaturesintermsofhygroscopicforceandmomentresultants.These
equationsareshownbelow.

CalculatingHygrothermalExpansionCoefficients
for Laminate
forLaminate

(Eq. 37.2)
(Eq.37.2)

InEq.37.1,thetermsin[]representmembersofinverseof[ABD]matrix
asusedinEq.37.2.

Also,itneedstobereiteratedherethatEq.37.2helpsuscalculate
hygrothermalstrainsinacompositelaminate,ifexternalloadsand
momentsappliedtothelaminatearezero.

Insuchacase,Eq.37.2maybeusedtocomputecoefficientsofthermal
In
such a case Eq 37 2 may be used to compute coefficients of thermal
andmoistureexpansionfortheentirelaminate.Thisisdiscussedfurther.

CalculatingHygrothermalExpansionCoefficients
for Laminate
forLaminate

CalculationofCTEforEntireLaminate
For
Forthecase,whenc
the case when c =0,andT
= 0 and T =1,midplanestrains,
= 1 mid plane strains ox,oy and
and oxy aresameas
are same as x,
st
y,xy,respectively.Thus,1 threeequationsinfromEq.37.2mayberewrittenas:

Eq.37.3

InEqs.37.3,{NT}and{MT}arethermalforceandmomentresultantsforlaminatewhen
temperaturerisefromreferencetemperatureis1C.
InEqs.37.3,alltermsontheRHScanbecalculatedifmaterialpropertiesatplylevelare
known.Termsin[]bracketscanbecomputedbycalculatingtheinverseof[]matrixas
definedinEq.37.1.
Further,valuesofthermalforceandmomentresultantsmaybecalculatedbyusing
simplifiedversionofEq.36.6shownasfollows.

CalculatingHygrothermalExpansionCoefficients
for Laminate
forLaminate

Eq.37.4

CalculatingHygrothermalExpansionCoefficients
for Laminate
forLaminate

CalculationofMoisture(Hygric orHygroscopic)ExpansionCoefficientfor
Laminate
Forthecase,whenc =1,andT =0,midplanestrains,ox,oy andoxy aresameasx,
y,xy,respectively.Thus,1st threeequationsinfromEq.37.2mayberewrittenas:

Eq.37.5

InEqs.37.5,{NH}and{MH}arethermalforceandmomentresultantsforlaminatewhen
moisture increment from reference moisture condition is 1%
moistureincrementfromreferencemoistureconditionis1%.
InEqs.37.5,alltermsontheRHScanbecalculatedifmaterialpropertiesatplylevelare
known. Terms in [] brackets can be computed by calculating the inverse of [ ] matrix as
known.Termsin[]bracketscanbecomputedbycalculatingtheinverseof[]matrixas
definedinEq.37.1.
Further,valuesofhygroscopicforceandmomentresultantsmaybecalculatedbyusing
,
yg
p
y
y
g
simplifiedversionofEq.36.7shownasfollows.

CalculatingHygrothermalExpansionCoefficients
for Laminate
forLaminate

Eq.37.6

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture38
ThermalStressesinBeams

Lecture Overview
LectureOverview
AnalysisofThermalStressesinSemiInfinite
y
LaminationSequence
q
PlatewithUnsymmetric
BoundaryConditions
EquilibriumEquations
Equilibrium Equations
ConstitutiveRelations
SolutionofProblem
Comments

FreeFreeUnsymmetric Laminate

Considerafreefreeunsymmetric semiinfiniteplate.Alternatively,ifthe
dimensions of the plate are very large in one direction visvis other
dimensionsoftheplateareverylargeinonedirectionvisvisother
direction,itsbehaviorapproximatesthatofasemiinfiniteplate.Letthe
dimensionsofsuchaplatebea Xb.

TheplateundergoesauniformtemperatureriseofT.

Thelaminationsequenceforsuchaplateisassumedtobe[02/902]T.

Sincetheplateisunrestrainedatallofitsedges,itsBCscanbewrittenas:
BCs atx=a/2

BCsatx=+a/2

Nx =0

Nx+ =0

Nxy =0

Nxy+ =0

Mx =0
0

Mx+ =0
0

Qx_eff=0

Q+x_eff=0

FreeFreeUnsymmetric Laminate

Also,becausea >>b,wecanstatethat:

Applying these conditions in equilibrium equations, we get:


Applyingtheseconditionsinequilibriumequations,weget:

FreeFreeUnsymmetric Laminate

Next,usingBCsforNx,andNxy,weget:
c1 =0
0
c2 =0

Also,sincethereisnoexternalload,q,andexternalmomentsatboth
endsoftheplatearezero,wegetfollowingconditionsfromtheequation
f
formomentequilibrium:
t
ilib i
c3 =0
c4 =0
0

Thus,thesolutionfortheplateforforcesandmomentsis:
Nx =Nxy =Mx =0.
(Eq.20.1)

FreeFreeUnsymmetric Laminate

Next,wesolveforthedisplacementfieldofthisplate.

Here,werealizethattheplatehasacrossplylaminationsequence.Thus:
A16 =A26 =0
B12 =B16 =B26 =B66 =0
D16 =D26 =0.

Also,foracrossplylaminateitcanbeeasilyshownthat:
NTxy =0
MTxy =0
=0

Thus,relationsforNx,Nx andNxy,canbewrittendownusingEq.19.4as:

FreeFreeUnsymmetric Laminate

Similarly,relationsforMx,My,andMxy canbewrittenas:

Intheserelations,therearefiveunknowns(uo,vo,wo,Ny,andMy),and
fivenontrivialequations(threefromEq.20.2,andtwofromEq.20.3).
H
Here,superscriptreferstototalderivativeofanentitywithrespecttox.
i t f t t t l d i ti
f
tit ith
tt

us, t ese e equat o s ca be so ed, a d subseque t y teg ated to


Thus,thesefiveequationscanbesolved,andsubsequentlyintegratedto
getexpressionsforuo,vo,wo,Ny,andMy.Fromsuchanexerciseweget
theexpressionsfordisplacementsas:

FreeFreeUnsymmetric Laminate

InEq.20.4;

Theseexpressionsmaybeusedtofurthercalculateforceandmoment
resultantsusingEqs.20.2and20.3.

Thus,thecurvatureofafreefreesemiinfiniteplatemaybepredicted.

ItmaybenotedherethatthetermB11 changessignwhenlamination
sequencechangesfrom[02/902]Tto[902/02]T.Suchachange:
Hasnoinfluenceonthesignofuo,asitisdependentonsquareofB11.
However,thesignofwo,getsinvertedbecausesignofB11aswellasMTx flipas
laminationsequencegetsinverted.

R f
References
1.

Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, Agarwal,


B D and
B.D.
d Broutman,
B t
L J.,
L.
J John
J h Wiley
Wil & Sons.
S

2
2.

Mechanics
M
h i off Composite
C
i Materials,
M
i l Jones,
J
R M.,
R.
M McGraw
M G
Hill.

3.

Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials, Daniel, I.


M and Ishai,
M.
Ishai O.,
O Oxford University Press.
Press

IntroductiontoComposite
Introduction
to Composite
MaterialsandStructures
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture39
ResidualStressesDuetoCuring

Residual Stresses Due to Curing


ResidualStressesDuetoCuring

Consideracompositelaminatewithtwoplieswithorientationsof0and
45,withthicknessesof5and3mm,respectively.Thestiffnessmatrix,[Q]
withrespecttomaterialaxesissameforbothlayers,andisdefinedas:
Q11 =20
Q12 =0.7
Q22 =2.0
Q66 =0.70GN/m
0 70 GN/ 2.
Thematerialisprocessedat175C.Itisatthistemperature,thematrix
materialgetscured.Subsequently,thelaminateiscooledtoroom
temperature25C,andusedatthesametemperature.CTEforthe
materialatplylevelis:
L =7.0X1066/C
/
T =23.0X1066/C
/
Calculateresidualstressesandshapeofthelaminateatroom25C.
p

Residual Stresses Due to Curing


ResidualStressesDuetoCuring

Step1:Calculatestiffnessmatricesforeachlayer.
For0degreelayer,Q andQ areidentical.

For45layer,valuesofdifferentQij termsare:
Q11 =Q
= Q22=6.55GPa
= 6 55 GPa
Q12=5.15GPa
Q16 =Q26=4.50GPa
Q66 =5.15GPa

ResidualStressesDuetoCuringg

Step2:Calculate[A],[B]and[D],matricesforthelaminate.Forsucha
laminatewithtwolayers,overallthicknessis5mmwiththetoplayeris0
a
ate t t o aye s, o e a t c ess s 5
t t e top aye s 0
degreeply.Also,
z0 =0.004m
z1 =0.004+0.003=0.001m
z2 =0.001+0.005=0.004m
WeusethisinformationandfollowingrelationstocalculatedABD
matrices.

Residual Stresses Due to Curing


ResidualStressesDuetoCuring

Thus,[A],[B],and[D]matricesare:
, [ ], [ ],
[ ]
A11 =119.7
A22 =29.7
A12 =18.95
A16 =13.50
A26 =13.50
A66 =18.95

MN/m

B11 =100.9
B16 =33.75
= 33 75

B22 =34.1
B26 =33.75
= 33 75

B12 =33.4
B66 =33.4
= 33 4

kN

D11 =571
D16 =94.5

D22 =181
D26 =94.5

D12 =123
D66 =123

Nm

Residual Stresses Due to Curing


ResidualStressesDuetoCuring

Step3:CalculateCTEvalueswithrespecttoxycoordinateaxes.Thus:
p
p
y

and CTE values for 45 degree ply is:


and,CTEvaluesfor45degreeplyis:

ResidualStressesDuetoCuring

Step4:Calculatevaluesofthermalforceandmomentresultants
correspondingtocoolingof150Cusingfollowingrelations.

Thus,

Residual Stresses Due to Curing


ResidualStressesDuetoCuring

Step4:Calculatemidplanestrainsandmidplanecurvaturesdueto
p
p
p
thermalforceandmomentresultantsascalculatedearlierusingfollowing
relations.

Herewecancalculatedregularmidplanestrainsandcurvatures(whichdo
notrequirethermalinformation)fromEqs.definedinLectures2127.
i h
li f
i )f
E d fi d i L
21 27

Oncethesevaluesarecalculated,thenthermalstrainsandcurvaturesfor
Once
these values are calculated, then thermal strains and curvatures for
eachlayermaybecalculatedusingaboveexpressions.

Finally,foreachlayer,thermalstressesmaybecalculatedaswell.

MechanicsofLaminated
Mechanics
of Laminated
CompositeStructures
p
NachiketaTiwari
Nachiketa
Tiwari
IndianInstituteofTechnologyKanpur

Lecture40
Closure

Summary

Thislectureseriescanbecategorizedintoeightdifferentmodules.

The1st moduleisintroductoryinnature.Here,thebasicnatureof
composites has been described This module addresses:
compositeshasbeendescribed.Thismoduleaddresses:

Advantagesofmoderncompositesvisvistraditionalengineeringmaterials.
Applicationareasofmoderncomposites
Qualitativeintroductiontowhycompositesbehavethewaytheydo.
Keymechanicalpropertiesofdifferenttypesofmatrices,fibers,andwhiskers.
Classification of different composite materials
Classificationofdifferentcompositematerials.
Importantterminologyrelatingtocompositematerials.
Introductiontotermslikeistotropy,orthotropy,andanisotropy.

Summary

Thesecondmoduleprovidesdetailsaboutdifferentconstituentmaterialsof
composites.

Specifically this module addresses:


Specifically,thismoduleaddresses:
Differenttypesoffibersandtheirproperties:Theseinclude:

Glassfibers
C b fib
Carbonfibers
Kevlar
Othertypesoffibersincludingceramicfibers

Differenttypesofmatrixmaterialsandtheirproperties.Theseinclude:
Thermoset polymers
Thermoplasticpolymers
Thermoplastic polymers
Metals

Differenttypesofmetalsandfillermaterialsusedincomposites.
Different types of metals and filler materials used in composites

Summary
Thethirdmoduleprovidesdetailsonhowcompositesare
p
p
fabricated.Specifically,thismoduleaddresses:
Fabricationmethodsforthermoset composites.Theseincludevariousmethods
such as:
suchas:

Bagmolding
Resintransfermolding
Fil
Filamentwinding
t i di
Pultrusion
Usageofpreformedmoldingcompounds.

Fabricationmethodsforthermoplasticcomposites.
Fabricationmethodsformetalmatrixcomposites.
Fabricationmethodsforceramicmatrixcomposites.
Fabrication methods for ceramic matrix composites

Summary

Thefourthmoduleaddressesbehaviorofunidirectionalcontinuousfiber
compositesindetail.Thismoduleaddresses:

Materialaxesforaunidirectionallaminate
Difference in failure mechanisms in composites visvis
Differenceinfailuremechanismsincompositesvis
visisotropicmaterials
isotropic materials
Keystrengthparametersofaunidirectionalcomposite
Conceptsofvolumeandmassfractionforfibersandmatrixmaterials
Predictivemodelsforlongitudinalstiffness,lateralstiffness,longitudinaltensile
d
d l f l
d l ff
l
l ff
l
d l
l
andcompressivestrengths,etc.
PredictivemodelsforPoissonsratio,coefficientofthermalexpansioninprincipal
materialdirections.
HookesLawforanorthotropiclamina
Modelsforcalculatingengineeringconstantsforanorthotropiclaminain
g g
g
p
arbitrarydirections.
Transformationofstress,strain,stiffnessandcompliancematrices

Summary

Thefourthmodulealsoaddressesbehaviorofshortfibercomposites.They
havebeendealtwithinthismodule,becausetheyareusedinaverylarge
numberofapplications.Themodulecovers:
Backgroundinformationaboutshortfibercomposites
ac g ou d o at o about s o t be co pos tes
Loadtransfermechanisminshortfibercomposites
Longitudinalandtransversemoduliforshortfibercompositeswithunidirectional
alignment
Modulusofrandomlyorientedshortfibercomposites
Loadtransfermechanisminshortfibercompositesafterincorporatingplasticity
ofmatrixmaterial
f
l
Improvedmodelsforpredictinglongitudinalandtransversemoduliforshortfiber
composites
Behaviorofribbonreinforcedcomposites.

Summary

Thefifthandsixthmodulesaddressbehaviorofaorthotropiccompositeas
wellasregularcompositeplates.Thesemodulescover:
Kirchhoffsassumptionsforplates.
Variation of strain field in a plate over its thickness
Variationofstrainfieldinaplateoveritsthickness
Throughthicknessvariationofstressfieldinaplate
Definitionofmidplanestrainsandcurvatures
Definitionofforceandmomentresultantsandtheirvariationacrossplates
f
ff
d
l
d h
l
thickness
Definitionof[A],[B],and[D]matrices
Roleofdifferentstiffnessmatrixcomponentsininfluencingmechanicalbehavior
oflaminates
Equilibriumequationsforcompositeplatesinformofpartialdifferential
q
q
p
p
p
equations.

Summary

Theseventhmoduleaddressesbehaviorofaorthotropiccompositesaswell
asgeneralcompositelaminatedplates.Thismodulecovers:
Rationaleforneedforalternativefailuretheoriesvisvisisotropicmaterials.
Signconventionfornormalandshearstresses
Sign convention for normal and shear stresses
Differentfailurestrengthsfortwodimensionalandthreedimensionalstress
states.
Variousfailuretheoriesforcomposites.
Various failure theories for composites

Specifically,followingfailuretheoriesforcompositeshavebeendiscussed.
p
y,
g
p
Maximumstresstheory
Maximumstraintheory
TsaiHilltheory
Tsai Hilltheory

Summary

Thefinalmoduleaddressesbehaviorofacompositelaminatewhen
subjectedtohygrothermalvariations.Inthismodule,followingtopicshave
beencovered:

Sourcesofhygrothermalstresses
yg
Effectsoftemperatureonmaterialproperties
Natureofhygrothermalstresses
MechanicalandthermalStrains
Stiffnessmatrixforalaminaunderthermalstresses
Thermalforcesandmoments
Hygric (moisture)strains
(moisture) strains
Stiffnessmatrixforalaminaunderhygric effects
Hygric forcesandmoments
Hygrothermal strains
Hygrothermalstrains
Stiffnessmatrixforalaminaunderhygrothermalstresses
Hygrothermalforcesandmoments

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