You are on page 1of 12

Nervous System: Master controlling and communicating system of the body (uses electrical and

chemical signals)
Serves three broad functions:
1. Sensory Input:
Sensory receptors monitor changes occurring inside and outside the body. The gathered
information is called sensory input
2. Integration:
Nervous system processes and interprets sensory input and decides what should be
done at each moment process called Integration
3. Motor Output:
Nervous system causes a response, called motor output, by activating effector organs
muscles and glands
Central Nervous System:

consists of the brain and spinal cord, which occupy the dorsal body cavity
integrating and command center of the Nervous System
interprets sensory input and dictates motor responses based on reflexes, current conditions
and past experiences

Peripheral Nervous System:

part of the nervous system outside the CNS


Consists mainly of nerves (bundles of axons) that extend from the brain and spinal cord
Spinal Nerves (31 pairs): carry impulses to and from the spinal cord (mixed nerves)
Cranial nerves (12 pairs): carry impulses to and from the brain
These peripheral nerves serve as communication lines that link all parts of the body to CNS

Divided into (sensory) afferent and (motor) efferent


Afferent Division:

Consists of nerve fibers (axons) that convey impulses to the central nervous system from
sensory receptors located throughout the body
Somatic Afferent: sensory fibers conveying impulses from the skin, skeletal muscles, and joints
Visceral Afferent: sensory fibers conveying impulses from visceral organs (within ventral cavity)

Efferent Division:

Transmit impulses from the CNS to effector organs (muscles and glands)
Impulses activate muscles to contract and glands to secret
Bring about a motor response

Somatic Nervous System (voluntary)

Conduct impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscles

Automatic Nervous System (involuntary)

Visceral motor nerve fibers that regulate activity of smooth muscles, cardiac muscles and glands
Sympathetic Division
Stimulate organ activity
Parasympathetic Division
Decreases organ activity

Histology of Nervous Tissue:

Nervous system consists mostly of nervous tissue closely packed together (only 20% matrix)
Made up of neurons (conduct electrical signals)
Supporting cells aka neuroglia (smaller cells that surround and wrap more delicate neurons)
ten times more numerous than neurons

Neuroglia or glial cells (nerve glue) that are found in the CNS

Consists of six types of neuroglia- 4 in CNS and 2 in PNS


Form supportive network by wrapping or lining structures in brain and spinal cord
Protect, give structure, secrete, bind and some phagocytize
Produce chemicals that guide young neurons to proper connections
Promote neuron health and growth
Wrap around and insulate neuronal processes to speed up action potential conduction
4 types: astrocytes, microglia, ependymal, oligodendroctyes

Astrocytes (most abundant)

Cover nearby capillaries, supporting and bracing the neurons and anchoring them to their
nutrient supply lines, the blood capillaries (link neurons and capillaries by wrapping themselves
around them)
Play a role in making exchanges between capillaries and neurons
in helping to determine capillary permeability
in guiding the migration of young neurons
and in synapse formation
control chemical environment around neurons, where their most important job is mopping
up leaked K+ ions and recapturing (and recycling) released neurotransmitters
helps-form blood-brain barriers (chemically and structurally)
may function as antigen-presenting cells (macrophage-like, immune response)

Microglia:

monitor health of neurons (defensive cells)


protect CNS neurons rom disease and remove dead cells and cellular debris (monocyte or
phagocytes)

Ependymal Cells:

Epithelial cells (squamous to columnar in shape), most are ciliated


Line central cavities of the brain and spinal cord, where they form permeable barrier between
cerebrospinal fluid and tissue fluid bathing the cells of the CNS
Function in production of cerebral spinal fluid (CSF)

Oligodendrocytes:

Line up along thicker neuron fibers in the CNS and wrap their processes tightly around the
fibers, producing insulating coverings called myelin sheaths (protein lipoid)
Myelin sheath insulates and protects the neuron and increases synapses speed
(also contains nodes but in a different arrangement)

Neuroglia or glial cells (nerve glue) that are found in the PNS: Schwan cells and satellite cells: special
supporting and protecting cells, and also function as phagocytes

Satellite cells: surround the cell bodies of neurons within ganglia


Schwan cells (neurolemmocytes)
Surround and form myelin sheaths (protein lipoid substance) around the larger nerve
fibers in the peripheral nervous system
Vital to regeneration of damaged peripheral nerve fibers
Myelin Sheath: Helps maintain, protect, insulate, and increase speed of conduction

Neurons: Basic Characteristics:


1. Extreme longevity:
Given good nutrition, neurons can function optimally for a lifetime
2. Amitotic:
Do not reproduce (can repair processes depending on the extent of injury)
3. High metabolic rate:
Require large amounts of oxygen and glucose for ATP
Neuron Cell Body: (aka perikaryon or soma)
Consists of spherical nucleus with a conspicuous nucleolus surrounded by cytoplasm

Contains well defined nucleus and nucleolus, granular cytoplasm and most all organelles
(contains no centrioles; these are primarily used in cell division)
Major biosynthetic center of a neuron
Nissl bodies: (chromatophilic substance)

Granular endoplasmic reticulum orderly arrangement for protein synthesis, for growth of
neurons, and regeneration of nerve fibers

Neurofibrils:

Bundles of intermediate filaments (neurofilaments)


Important in maintaining cells shape and integrity
Form a network throughout the cell body
For intracellular transport of nutrients and neurotransmitters (from soma to axon terminals)

Clusters of neuron cell bodies:


In CNS-> nuclei
In PNS-> ganglia
Bundles of neuron processes (axon and dendrite nerve fibers) extend from cell body
In CNS-> tracts
In PNS-> nerves
Dendrites: (afferent process from R/C to cell body)

Conduct impulses toward the cell body (main receptive or input region)
Thick, highly branched tapered extension of cell cytoplasm part of the cell body
Produce graded potentials (short distance signals)
Provide an enormous surface area for receiving signals from other neurons

Axons: (efferent processes from cell body [axon hillock] to effectors)

Conduct impulses away from cell body


Axon Hillock: cone-shaped region of the cell body where the axon begins (trigger zone). It is the
conducting component; it generates and transmits impulses
Axon Terminals: (synaptic knobs or boutons) bulbous distal endings of telodendria, the stores
and releases neurotransmitters

Myelinated fibers: (Axons bearing a myelin sheath)

Usually found in the larger peripheral motor axons

Myelin protects and electrically insulates fibers, and it increases the speed of transmission of
nerve fibers
Myelin sheath is only associated with Axons (dendrites are always unmyelinated)
Cytoplasm, organelles, and nucleus (functional parts of the cell) are pushed to the outermost
layer and form the nuerilemma (neural husk) ONLY IN PNS. Nuerilemma is absent in CNS
Channel and carrier proteins are absent in myelinating cells that make myelin sheaths good
electric insulators
Myelin gives the neuron process their white -> color white matter

Nodes of Ranvier (neuralfibral nodes)

Unmyelinated gaps between Schwann cells, along nerve fibers (at regular intervals)
These gaps are where the axons contain most of their membrane (ion) channels
Nodes work with the myelin sheath to increase the speed of conduction (saltatory conduction)

Unmyelinated:

Nerve processes without myelin are called gray matter


Schwann cells still hold axons but do not coil around them (not individually wrapped) sometimes
covering up to 15 fibers per cell, collectively
Oligodendrocytes can coil around as many as 60 axons at the same time

Structural Classification:
Multipolar neurons: (multiple processes)

Have three or more processes


One Axon and several dendrites
Most abundant in the body
Major neuron type in the CNS

Bipolar Neurons: (two processes)

One axon, one dendrite (extend from opposite sides of the cell body)
Rare: found only in the retina of the eye, in olfactory areas, and inner ear (special senses)

Unipolar neurons: (single short process) (pseudounipolar)

emerge from cell body and divide into T-like proximal and distal branches
one central branch
dendrite and axon fuse into one process
chiefly found in dorsal root ganglia in the PNS, as sensory neurons
least common type in the body

Functional Classification:
Sensory/afferent neuron -> CNS

cell bodies are located in dorsal root ganglia just outside CNS
carry sensory input from viscera, muscles, skin, etcto CNS
virtually all are unipolar neurons

Motor/efferent neuron-> From CNS

cell bodies are located in CNS


convey impulses from CNS to muscles or glands
form junctions at effectors (e.g. neuromuscular junction)
Most are multipolar neurons

Interneurons (association neurons)

Carry impulses from sensory/afferent to motor/efferent neurons


Most are found in the CNS (brain and spinal cord), and are mostly multipolar neurons

Coverings:
Endoneurium:

Loose CT sheath that surrounds individual nerve fibers (axons)

Perineurium: the CT that surrounds bundles of nerve fibers (fascicles)


Epineurium: tough fibrous CT sheath that surrounds the fascicles and blood vessels to form a nerve
Mixed nerves: In PNS; carries impulses to and from CNS (afferent and efferent)
Somatic afferent fibers: conduct from skin, skeletal muscles, and joints, to CNS
Somatic efferent fibers: from CNS to skeletal muscles
Visceral afferent fibers: from viscera and BV to CNS
Visceral efferent fibers: automatic fibers, from CNS to smooth and cardiac muscles, and secretion of
glands
Neurophysiology:
1. Human body is electrically neutral-has the same number of positive and negative charges (there
are areas where one charge predominates-> making that region more positive or negative)
2. Voltage: the measure of potential energy generated by separated charge

3. Potential difference: voltage is always measured between two points- this different called
potential difference. This is due to the positive and negative ions held part on either side of
the plasma membrane (net charge)
4. Current: flow of electric charge from one point to another
5. Resistance: the hindrance to charge flow provided by substances through which the current
must pass (high resistance=insulators), (low resistance=conductors)
6. Ohms Law: I=V/R The greater the voltage (V) the greater the current (I), the greater the
resistance (R), the less the current (I) flows
2 major types of membrane channels:

Passive or leakage (nongated channels):


There channels are always open; DO NOT require energy
Active or Gated channels:
Require energy (ATP) to be opened
Ion channels form molecular gate that changes shape to open and close the channel in
response to specific signals
3 sub-types of gated channels (need to opened by something)
Chemical/ligand gated channel:
o Open when appropriate chemical (neurotransmitter, hormone) binds to it
o Concentration gradient: ions diffuse passively from area of higher concentration
to area of lower concentration
o Electrical gradient: when ions move toward an area of opposite electrical charge
Voltage-gated channels:
o Open and close in response to changes in the membrane potential (change in
the environment)
Mechanically gated channels:
o Open in response to physical deformation of the receptor (e.g. sensory
receptors for touch and pressure, vibration, stretch, sound waves)

Resting Membrane Potential: polarized state

1.

2.
3.
4.

Occurs across plasma membrane, negative inside ( cytoplasmic side inside the neuron-(-70mV)
and positive outside (extracellular fluid)
All gated NA+ and K+ channels are closed, only the leakage channels are open, maintaining
resting membrane potential
All cells of the body are in polarized state:
Cytoplasm contains a lower concentration of NA+ , and a higher concentration of K+,
than the extracellular fluid, contributing to + charge outside, and charge inside
Plasma membrane is more permeable (passively) to K+ ions out of the cell, and Na ions in to
the cell
K+ flowing out of the cell causes the cell to become more negative inside
Na+/K+ pump (requires ATP)

Maintains concentration gradient across the membrane


By ejecting three NA+ from the cell and transporting two K+ into the cell
5. Anions (A-) are too large and impermeable to leave the cell therefore maintaining a more
negative charge on the inside of the cell
negatively charged, help to balance the positive charges of intracellular cations
(primarily K+)
Membrane Potentials that act as signals
1. Excitability/Irritability: nerve cells respond to stimuli and convert them into an impulse
Graded Potential:
From stimuli up to threshold
Their magnitude varies directly with stimulus strength, the stronger the stimulus, the
more voltage changes and the farther the current flows
Depolarizes for a distance from -70mV to., but not threshold (then shuts down)
Graded potentials are produced when ligand or mechanically gated membrane (ion)
channels are activated
Decrease in strength over distance
Action Potential:
From threshold to axon terminal
All-or-none phenomenon. It either happens completely or it doesnt happen at all
(with the same intensity from beginning to end). Needs to depolarize to -50, -55mV to
produce action potential, if not then it only produces graded potential
Self-propagating : maintains the same intensity from beginning to end
Action potentials are produced when electrically gated channels are activated
Depolarization (of a neuron):

reduction of membrane potential, decrease negativity inside the cell (uses both graded and
action potentials)
Na+ channels open , leading to influx of Na+ (positive charged ions) into the cell. With increase
of Na+ ions entering the cell, the inside of the cell becomes less negative/more positive.
Electrical potential of membrane changes
Charges move from -70 mV (value inside the cell) towards O mV and beyond
At approximately -50 to -55 mV, it reaches threshold (now electrically gated channels
open and start a positive feedback: Hodgkin cycle) As a result, the influx of Na+ ions
continues (all or none) until the inside is positive (+30 mV) and the outside is negative
This will produce an action potential (called a nerve impulse when transmitted)
Lasts about 1 msec
Continuous conduction: a self-propagating (at a constant velocity) wave of negativity
along the outside of the cell membrane of unmyelinated fibers
Gates are self-limiting; they will close on their own

Repolarization

The resting membrane potential (inside -70mV) is restored by membrane becoming:


More permeable to K+ going out of the cell (K+ voltage-regulated gates open)
Impermeable to Na+ into the cell (all Na+ gates close)
These two will restore the electrical gradient charges (inside negative and outside
positive), not ionic gradient (Na+ and K+ are not where they belong)
Na+/Ka+ pump:
o This now restores (and maintains) the ionic gradient, outside the membrane
becomes positive again, and the negative value inside moves from +30 mV, to 0
mV, to -70mV (
Hyperpolarization: (undershoot)
o The inside of the cell typically goes as low as -90 to -100 mV in order to restore
the resting state (result of excessive K+ efflux)

Refractory period: 2 types:


Absolute refractory period:

The time at which the membrane is becoming depolarized (Na+ gates are open until they began
to reset) and cannot be depolarized again no matter how strong the stimulus
Ensures that each action potential is a separate, all-or-none event

Relative Refractory Period:

After absolute refractory (Na+ gates are closed & outgoing K+ gates are still open)
Threshold is harder to reach than normal, due to the undershoot (now at -90 or -100 further
away from -55 mV [threshold], and so a substantial summation of graded potentials is needed to
reach threshold and produce an action potential

Conduction Velocities of axon:

Velocity: (speed of nerve impulse) is not dependent on strength of stimuli, but on structural and
physiological condition of fibers
Velocity is influenced by diameter and degree of myelination:
Diameter:
The larger the diameter, the faster the impulse
Larger axons offer less resistance to the flow of local currents
Degree of myelination:
Myelin acts as an insulator and thus increasing the rate of stimulus

Nodes of Ranvier:

Interruptions of the myelin sheath (between Schwann cells (PNS) and oligodendrocytes (CNS)
where membrane channels are found) along the axons
site where membrane depolarization occurs
Saltatory Conduction: impulse appears to jump from node to node this configuration greatly
increases speed of impulses (allow for greater efficiency) (about 30 times faster than continuous
conduction)

Groups of Fibers: A, B, C fibers


A Fibers:

Mostly somatic sensory and motor fibers serving the skin, skeletal muscles and joints
Have the largest diameter and thick myelin sheaths
Conduct speeds ranging up to 150 m/s (over 300 miles per hour)

B and C Fibers:

Autonomic nervous system motor fibers serving the visceral organs; visceral sensory fibers; and
smaller somatic sensory fibers transmitting afferent impulses from the skin (such as pain and
small touch fibers)

B Fibers:

Lightly myelinated fibers of intermediate diameter, transmit impulses at an average rate of 15


m/s

C Fibers:

Smallest diameter and are unmyelinated


Incapable of saltatory induction
Conduct impulses 1 m/s

Synaptic delay: lasts 0.3-5.0 msec (greater delay with multi-synaptic pathways)
Diameter of axon: larger-> faster; smaller->slower
Myelination: presence of->faster; absence of->slower
Temperature: warmer-> faster; colder-> slower
Synaptic delay: less synapse-> faster; more synapse-> slower

The Synapse:
1. A junction that mediates information transfer from one neuron to the next or from a neuron to
an effector cell-its where the action is
2. Presynaptic neuron: neuron conducting impulses toward the synapse (info sender)
3. Postsynaptic neuron: neuron transmitting electrical signal away from the synapse (info receiver)
4. Synaptic cleft: a fluid filled space approximately 30-50 nm wide separating two neurons (space
between presynaptic and post synaptic membranes)
5. Before the cleft, presynaptic; after the clef, postsynaptic
Neurotransmitter (chemical synapse)
1. Acetylcholine:
1st neurotransmitter identified
Used as a means of communication by neurons
Released at neuromuscular junctions
Released at the synapse by the presynaptic neurons and binds to a receptor on
postsynaptic structures such as neurons, muscles, glands (chemical gated channels)
2. Acetylcholinesterase :
Found in the synaptic cleft of adjacent neurons
Inactivates acetylcholine (within 1/500 sec) , which causes membrane channels to close
and postsynaptic cells to repolarize
Summation: local depolarization of postsynaptic membrane that brings neuron closer to AP threshold.
Either through temporal or spatial summation
Temporal Summation (over time)

Occurs when one or more presynaptic neurons transmit impulses in rapid-fire order and bursts
of neurotransmitter are released in quick succession
First impulse produces a small EPSP, and before it dissipates, successive impulses trigger more
EPSPs.
Produce a much greater depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane than would result from a
single EPSP
Single presynaptic neuron firing numerous times in close succession

Spatial Summation:

Occurs when the postsynaptic neuron is stimulated at the same time by a large number of
terminals from the same or, more commonly, different neurons
Several presynaptic neurons at the same time

You might also like