Power Systems - AK Sinha

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
Introduction to
Power Systems
Avinash K. Sinha
Department of Electrical Engineering
I. I. T. Kharagpur
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Power Systems
EE33001
Prerequsites: EE14001
3 - 0 - 3 : 5 Credits
Introduction to electric power generation,

transmission
and
distribution.
Load
characteristics. Element of interconnected
power system analysis, operation and control
in both normal steady and abnormal
transient state.
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Modeling of Transmission Line
Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance
calculation, Distributed parameter model,
Lumped parameter model, ABCD parameters,
Power Flow on line.
Power Flow studies Power flow equations,
G-S, N-R and FDLF algorithms.
Power System Operation Voltage and
Frequency control, Economic Dispatch, LFC
and AGC for interconnected area operation,
Operation in restructured scenario.
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Short Circuit studies Symmetrical and
asymmetrical faults, Symmetrical components,
Sequence Networks, ZBUS algorithm for large
systems
Power System Protection Concept of
protective zones, Types of relays and their
characteristics and application, protection
schemes for transmission lines, generators,
transformers and motors
Power System Stability Steady state, dynamic
and transient stability, swing equation, Equal
area criterion and numerical integration methods.
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Lesson 1: Introduction
Lesson Summary:
Introduction to the course and subject
Role of Power System in society
Components of a Power System
Operation and Control
Organizational Structure
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What is a PS?
functions
Components
How PS are operated / controlled ?
How PS are organized?
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What Is a Power System?

A system that deals with the business
of:
Generation
Transmission
Distribution
of Electrical Energy
Largest and most complex man made
system.
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Power System provides a vital service to

the society.
Electrical power is somewhat like the air
we breathe: We think about it only when
it is missing.
It should be operated with the goal of
achieving:
Highest reliability standards
Lowest operation cost
Minimum environmental impacts

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PS Functions
SMES
Storage Flywheel
Compressed Air
Source of
Fuel
Energy
conversion
Transmission
&
Distribution
Energy
Conversion
(utilization)
Consumption devices are part of the PS & need

to be modeled in PS analysis. Although they are
not owned or controlled by the power utility.
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Inverter
UPS
Source of
Fuel
Energy
conversion
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Storage
Transmission
&
Distribution
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Energy
Conversion
(utilization)
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Power
Generation
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Power Generation
Takes place in power plants which may be
geographically dispersed
A Power plant may house more than one
generating units
Types of Generating units :
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Energy Sources
Hydrocarbons (oil, coal, natural gas, etc.)
Water
Nuclear
Solar
Chemical
Wind
Tidal
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Energy Conversion
Conversion processes in a thermal power plant:
Chemical energy Burners Thermal energy
Thermal energy Boilers Mechanical energy
Mechanical energy Turbines Kinetic energy
KE Rotating machines Electrical energy
Overall conversion efficiency of a thermal power
plant 40%
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Installed Generating Capacity in India
Type of
Installed
Generation
Capacity (MW)
THERMAL
80201.45 (70.4%)
NUCLEAR
2720.00 (2.47%)
HYDRO
30135.23 (27.1%)
WIND
2488.13 (2.47%)
TOTAL
115544.81
Peak Demand
87906 MW
Deficit
10625 MW (12.1%)
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Power
Transmission
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Transmission networks :
High Voltage AC Transmission
HVDC Transmission
Connect generating plants to consumption
points Use Remote Energy Sources
interconnect power pools Reduce
Generation reserve & Cost, increase
reliability
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High voltage transmission offers:
Lower transmission losses / MW transfer
Lower line-voltage drop / Km
Higher transmission capacity / Km
Reduced right-of-way requirement / MW

transfer
Lower capital and operating costs / MW
transfer
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Power Transmission Equipment

Transformers
Step-up transformers
Step-down Transformers
Voltage Regulators
Phase Shifters
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Power Transmission Equipment

Transmission Lines & Cables
Circuit Breakers & Isolators
Shunt & Series Reactors & Capacitors
Lightning Arrestors
Protective Relays
FACTS Devices (SVC, Statcom, TCSC, UPFC,
etc.)
Converter / Inverter
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Standard Transmission Voltages in

India
AC Transmission:
765 kV
400 kV
220 kV
132 kV
HVDC Transmission:
500 kV
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Power
Distribution
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Receives electrical energy from the HV/MV
levels
Supplies energy to customers:
At MV / LV levels
Single phase and/or three-phase
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Main equipment in distribution system:
Distribution transformers (DXFR)
Feeders (O/H or underground cables)
Switches, fuses, etc.
Protective Relays
Lightning Arrestors
CT / PT
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Power Distribution
Transmission
Network Large
Industrial
Consumers
Industrial
Consumers
11/.4
DXFR
33/11
DXFR
Substation
33KV
Commercial
& Large
Consumers
11 KV
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Residential
Consumers
.4/0.23
DXFR
400V
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230 V
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Power System
Operation/Control
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Key Operational Goals

Power Balance: Generation must remain
balanced with demand
Total Generation (t) = Total Demand (t) + Losses (t)
System Security: Equipment power flows

must not exceed equipment ratings, under
normal or a single outage condition:
|pij(t)| < pij max

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Power Quality Considerations

Frequency Regulation: System frequency,
must remain within its operational range
f min < f(t) < f max
49.5 Hz < f(t) < 50.5 Hz
Voltage Regulation: Bus voltages must
remain within their operational limits
Vmin < V(t) < Vmax
0.95 pu < V(t) < 1.05 pu
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PS Operation/Control
Types of Operation/Control:
Centralized (based on system-wide data)
- Slow events are often handled by
centralized controls
Decentralized (based on local data)
- Fast events are tackled by decentralized
controls
PS control has a Hierarchical Structure:
Uses both centralized & decentralized
control strategies
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Centralized (slow) controls:
Dispatchers/Operators
SCADA (Supervisory Control And Data
Acquisition)
EMS (Energy Management System)
Decentralized (fast) controls are driven by

local measurements
- Protection systems are mostly
decentralized
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Typical control hierarchy in PS:
Device
Remote Terminal Unit (RTU)
Master station (MS)
Utility control center
Regional control centers
National control center
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Centralized Controls
Examples of centralized controls:
Frequency control (regulation)
Interchange control
Generation dispatch (control of
generating units)
System security assessment &
enhancement (both static and dynamic)
Unit Commitment (units on/off status)
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Decentralized Controls
Examples of decentralized controls:
Equipment protection against over-voltage
and over-current
Generator speed control (governor action)
Generator terminal voltage control
(excitation system)
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Power System
Organization
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Power Utility Structure

Traditional
Restructured (Deregulated)
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Traditional utilities:
Operate as Monopolies (have captive
customers)
Government regulated
Have to get regulators approval for rate
increases
No incentive to increase generation efficiency

Vertically Integrated (VI) business structures
for improved profitability
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Regulated Power Utility
Production
Inputs
Production
Vertically Integrated (VI) Business Structure
Transportation
Distribution
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Deregulated PS Structure
Has been legislated by governments, hoping

that it results in:
Increased competition (reduced rates)
New technology utilization in generation,
Transmission & Distribution
Increased outside investment in PS
infrastructure
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Power Industry Deregulation
Has necessitated break-up of traditional

utility VI structures into independent
business units:
Gencos (Generating Companies)
Power Marketers
Transco (Transmission Company Owner)
Independent System Operator (operating
the transmission network)
Retail Service Providers
Discos (Distribution Companies)
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Transmission Line
Parameters
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Conductors
Copper
ACSR (Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced)
AAC (Aluminum-Alloy Conductor)
ACAR (Aluminum-Clad Steel Conductor)
Expanded ACSR
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Stranded Conductor:
Total # of strands 1, 7, 19, 37, 61, 91
Steel strands
Aluminium strands

Stranded Conductor:
Total # of strands 1, 7, 19, 37, 61, 91
Steel strands
Aluminum strands
Insulator
Pin Insulator
Shackle Insulator
String Insulator
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Support Structure
Transmission Towers
Poles
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Shield Wires (Ground Wires))

Protects Phase Conductors from
Direct Lightning Strikes
Mechanical Considerations:
Sag
Tension
Vibration
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Electrical Parameters
Resistance
Inductance
Capacitance
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Resistance
The dc resistance of a conductor at a specified
temperature T is:
T
R d c ,T
l
=
Where = conductor resistivity at temperature T

T
l = conductor length (m)

A = conductor cross-sectional area
( m2)
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Conductor resistance depends on the

following factors:
temperature
Spiraling
Frequency ( skin effect )
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Resistivity of conductor metals varies linearly
over normal operating temperatures according to
T1
T2 + M
T1 + M
The ac resistance or effective resistance of a

conductor is
R ac
Ploss
= 2
I
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20C
Resistivity at 20C Temperature constant

Material
% Conductivity
m x 10-8
Copper:
Annealed
100%
1.72
234.5
Hard-drawn
97.3%
1.77
241.5
61%
2.83
228.1
Iron
17.2%
10
180
Silver
108%
1.59
243
Aluminum:
Hard-drawn
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Inductance
1. Magnetic field intensity H
Amperes law
2. Magnetic flux density B ( B = H )

3. Flux linkages
4. Inductance from flux linkages per ampere
(L = /I)
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Solid Cylindrical Conductor

I
Hx
x
r
1m
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Internal Flux Linkage
tan
dl = Ienclosed
Hx ( 2x ) = Ix
for x < r
Ix
Hx =
A/m
2x
2
x
Ix = I
r
for x < r
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Hx =
xI
2 r
A/ m
0 xI
0 xI
2
d
dx
Bx = 0 H x =
Wb
m
/
;
=
2
2
2 r
2 r
x2
0 I 3
d = 2 d =
x dx Wb t / m
4
r
2 r
r
r
0I
3
in t = d =
x dx
4
0
0
2 r
0I
1
W b -t/m
=
=
107 I
2
8

External Flux linkage
D1
D2
Hx ( 2x ) = I
r
I
Hx =
A/m
2x
x >r
HX
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Hx =
I
2 x
x>r
A/ m
B x = 0 H x = 4 10
d = B x dx = 2 10
) 2 x = 2 10
I
dx
x
Wb / m
I
x
Wb / m
d = d = 2 10
I
dx
x
Wb t / m
Integrating between two points at distances
D1 and D2 from the conductor center will give

the external flux linkage 12 between D1
and
D2:
12 =
D2
D
1
d = 2 10 I
D2
= 2 10 I In
D1
7
D2
D
1
dx
x
Wb-t/m
P = int + 12
1
D
-7
-7
p = 10 I + 2 10 I In
2
r
1/4
p = 2 10 I In e + In
r
D
-7
= 2 10 I In -1/4
e r
-7
D
= 2 10 I In
Wb - t/m
r'
r' = e-1/4r = 0.7788r
-7
where
p
-7 D
LP =
= 2 10 In H/m
I
r'

Composite Conductor
p
DPM
Dpj
Dpi
Dp2
Dij
i
Dp1
2
1

M
I1 + I2 + .... + IM =
Im
=0
m =1
iPi
D Pi
= 2 10 Ii In
rk '
-7
-7
iPj = 2 10 I j In
DPj
Dij
iP = iP1 + iP2 +.....+ iPM

= 2 10
-7
Ij
j=1
iP
In
DPj
Dij
M
1
= 2 10 I j In
+ 2 10-7 I j In DPj
Dij
j=1
j=1
-7

M-1
M
1
iP = 210-7 Ij In + Ij In DPj +IM In DPM
Dij j=1
j=1
M-1
M-1
M
1
-7
iP = 210 Ij In + Ij In DPj - Ij In DPM
j=1 Dij j=1
j=1
M
M-1
DPm
1
-7
= 2 10 Im In
+ Im In
Dkm m=1
DPM
m=1
1
i = 2 10 I j In
Wb - t/m
D ij
j=1
-7

Single-phase two-wire line
rx
ry
1
1
x =210 Ix In
+Iy In
D
D
xx
xy
-7
= 2 10
-7
= 2 10
-7
1
1
- I In
I In
r' x
D
D
I In
r' x
W b - t/m
r'x = e
-1 /4
r x = 0 .7 7 8 8 r x
x
x
D
-7
Lx =
=
= 2 1 0 In
Ix
I
r' x
H /m
1
1
y = 2 1 0 Ix In
+ Iy In
D yx
D yy
1
1
-7
= 2 1 0 I In
- I In
D
r'y
D
-7
= -2 1 0 I In
r'y
-7
D
Ly =
=
= 2 10 In
H/m per conductor
Iy
-I
r'y
-7
The total inductance of the single-phase

circuit, also called loop inductance, is
L = Lx +Ly
D
D
= 2 1 0 In
+ In
r'x
r'y
2
D
= 2 1 0 -7 I n
r'xr'y
-7
= 4 10
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In
D
r 'xr 'y
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r ' x = r ' y = r ',
Also, if
D
L = 4 1 0 In
r'
-7
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Composite Conductor line
N
rx
3
2 g
g
2
ry
Conductor y
Conductor x
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N
M
I
1
I
1
-7
k = 2 10
In
In
N m=1 Dkm M m=1' Dkm

N
M
k
1
1
1
1
-7
k =
210 I 2 In
In
N
N m=1 Dkm NM m=1' Dkm
N
M
k
1
1
1
1
-7
k =
210 I 2 In
In
N
N m=1 Dkm NM m=1' Dkm
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m= 1 ' D k m
x = 2 10
-7
I In
k =1
Lx = 2 10
D
xy
MN
-7
In
xy
xx
km
k = 1m = 1 '
xx
N2
1 /N 2
D
N
m= 1 D k m
1 /N M
(GMD)
km
k = 1m = 1
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(GMR)
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H/m per conductor
(GMR)
H/m per circuit

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Indian Institute
Institute of
of Technology,
Technology, Kharagpur
Kharagpur
Indian
Inductance Calculations
Three Phase Line
1. Inductance Calculation for three phase
transmission line with:
a) Equilateral spacing
b) Transposition
c) Bundled conductor
d) Ground return
Indian Institute
Institute of
of Technology,
Kharagpur
Indian
Three Phase Line with Equilateral Spacing

a
c
1
1
1
a = 210 Ia In +Ib In +Ic In

r'
D
D
1
1
-7
= 210 Ia In + ( Ib +Ic ) In
r'
D
-7
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Indian Institute
Institute of
of Technology,
Kharagpur
Indian
1
1
a = 2 10 Ia In - Ia In
r'
D
D
-7
= 2 10 Ia In
Wb - t/m
r'
-7
a
D
-7
La =
= 2 10 In
Ia
r'
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Three phase transposed Line

1
Position 1
Position 2
Position 3
Ia
Ib
Ic
l
3
l
3
l
3
-7
1
1
1
a1 =210 Ia In +Ib In
+Ic In
DS
D12
D31
Wb-t/m
-7
1
1
1
+Ic In
Wb-t/m
DS
D23
D12
-7
1
1
1
+Ic In
DS
D31
D23
Wb-t/m
l
l
l
a1 + a2 + a3
3
3
3 a1 + a2 + a3
a =
=
l
3
210-7
1
1
1
=
+Ib In
+Ic In
3Ia In
3
DS
D12D23D31
D12D23D31
2 10 -7
a =
3
1
1
- Ia In
3Ia In
D
D
D
D
S
12 23 31
= 2 10-7 Ia In
3D D D
12 23 31
DS
Wb-t/m

3D D D
a
12 23 31
-7
La =
= 2 10 In
Ia
DS
Deq = 3 D12D23D31
-7
La = 2 10 In
Deq
DS
H/m
H/m per
phase
Bundled Conductor Line

d
d
d
d
d
d
Bundling Reduces Electric Field Strength on

conductor surface Reduces Corona
Bundling Increases Effective Radius (GMR)
Reduces Inductance
DS =
(r' d)
= r'd
3
DS = 9 (r' d d) = r'd
3
DS
= 16
r' d d d 2
-7
La = 2 10 In
Deq
DS
H/m
= 1.091 r'd3
d
d
d
d

3- line with earth return
Earth Conductors are connected in parallel

and grounded at regular intervals along the
line.
If Phase currents are not balanced return

currents will flow in earth conductors and
ground
J. R. Carson (1923) ground currents
earth return conductors having same GMR and
located directly under the overhead
conductors at a distance De (as shown in
figure).

n1(4)
n2(5)
b(2)
a(1)
c(3)
Earth surface
De De
De
n1
N2
b
De De
De / f; Where
= Earths resistivity
f = Frequency
Dkk ' = De
Dk'k' = Dkk (m);
D e = 658.5 /f m
( = 100 m)
-7
Rk' = 9.869 10 f (/m)

2 ( 3+2 )
Ik = 0
k=1
k = 2 10
-7
( 3+2 )
Dkm'
Im In D
km
m=1
Wb-t/m
= LI
Where,
is a ( 3 + 2 ) vector
I is a ( 3 + 2 ) v e c to r
L is a ( 3 + 2 ) ( 3 + 2 ) matrix whose elements are :
Dkm'
Lkm = 2 10 In
Dkm
-7
E Aa
E
Bb
E C c
0
0
Ia
b
= ( R + j L ) I c
In 1
n2
(R a +Rk' ) Rk' ...

Rk'
Rk' (Rb +Rk' ) Rk' ...
R=
(Rc +Rk' ) Rk' ...
Rn1 +Rk' ) Rk' ...

(
Rk' . . .
R
+R
(
)
n2
k'

ZA
ZB
Z12
Z13
Z14
... Z1( 3+N)
Z11
EAa
Ia
Z21
Z22
Z23
Z24
... Z2( 3+N) I
EBb
b
Z32
Z33
Z34
... Z3( 3+N) Ic
ECc Z31

Z42
Z43
Z44
... Z4( 3+N) In1
0 Z41
...
I

n2
0 Z
.
Z
Z
Z
...
Z
( 3+N)( 3+N)
( 3+N)1 ( 3+N)2 ( 3+N)3 ( 3+N)4
ZC
ZD
Indian Institute
Institute of
of Technology,
Kharagpur
Indian
Diagonal elements (k = m)
Zkk
Dkk'
= Rk +Rk' + j2 10 In
/m
Dkk
Off - Diagonal elements (k m)

Dkm'
/m
Zkm = Rk +Rk' + j2 10 In
Dkm
Indian Institute
Institute of
of Technology,
Kharagpur
Indian
EP
E Aa
ZA
Z C ZD
IP =
EP = E
Bb
ECc
ZB
IP
In
Ia
Ib
Ic
In =
In1
In 2
E P = Z A IP + Z B In
0 = Z C IP + Z D I n
In = Z
-1
D Z C IP
-1
EP = Z A - Z B Z D Z C IP
EP = ZPIP
ZP = Z A -
-1
ZBZD ZC
Z aaeq Z abeq Z aceq
Z P = Z abeq Z bbeq Z bceq
Z aceq Z bceq Z cceq
Z aaeq Z abeq Z abeq
ZP = Z abeq Z aaeq Z abeq m
Z
Z
Z
abeq
abeq
aaeq
1
Z aaeq = Z aaeq + Zbbeq + Zcceq
3
1
Z abeq = Z abeq + Z aceq + Zbceq
3
IIT Kharagpur
Indian Institute
of Technology, Kharagpur
Example: The conductor configuration of a
completely transposed three-phase overhead
transmission line with bundled conductors is
shown in the next slide. All the conductors
have a radius of 0.74cm with a 30cm bundle
spacing.
(a) Determine the inductance per phase in
mH/km and in mH/m.
(b) Find the inductive line reactance per phase in
ohms/m at 60Hz.
IIT Kharagpur
Indian Institute
IIT Kharagpur
Indian Institute
Solution: For the given configuration as shown
in the figure on the last slide, we have the
mutual GMD between the different phases
given by Dab = (r13.r14.r23.r24)1/4
= (6 X 6.3 X 5.7 X 6)1/4
= 5.9962 m
Similarly,
Dbc = 5.9962 m
IIT Kharagpur
Indian Institute
Dca = (r15.r16.r25.r26)1/4
= (12 X 12.3 X 11.7 X 12)1/4
= 11.9981 m
The equivalent equilateral spacing between the
phases is given by Deq defined as
Deq = (Dab X Dbc X Dca)1/3
= (5.9962 X 5.9962 X 11.9981)1/3
= 7.5559 m
IIT Kharagpur
Indian Institute
Self GMD of all the three phases, owing to
symmetry, are equal and hence the equivalent self
GMD for the system can be given by
Ds = (.7788 X r X 30)1/2
= 4.1580 cm.
Inductance per phase for the given system is
L = 2 X 10-7 X ln( Deq/ Ds) H/m/phase
= 1.04049 X 10-6 H/m/phase.
= 1.04049 X 10-3 mH/m/phase.
= 1.04049 mH/km/phase.
IIT Kharagpur
Indian Institute
The inductive line reactance per phase at 60Hz
is given by
X = 2 X 60 X 1.04049 X 10-6 ohms/m/phase.
= 3.922 X 10-4 ohms/m/phase
TRANSMISSION LINE CAPACITANCE

CALCULATIONS
Gausss Law Electric Field Strength (E)
Voltage between conductors
Capacitance (C = q / V)
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
7/32
Electric Field and Voltage Calculation

Gausss Law
Dds =
Eds = Qenclosed
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
8/32

P1
+ V12
D1
_ P
2
D2
+
++ +
r +
+
+ + +
Ex
Ex ( 2x )(1)
= q (1)
1m
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
9/32
q
Ex =
2x
V12 =
D2
D1
V12 =
D2
D1
= r 0
V/m
Ex dx
D2
q
q
volts
dx =
In
2x
2 D1
0 = 8 . 854 x 10
NPTEL
12
F/m
A.K. Sinha
10/32

n
Multi-conductor system
rk
k
Dkm
Dim
conductor k has radius rk and

charge qk
2
i
D jk
qk
Vki Vijk =
In
volts
2 Dik
+
n
Djk
qk
Vij =
In
volts
Dik
k=1 2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
11/32

rx
q C/m
Single phase Line
ry
-q C/m Vxy
D
Dyx
Dyy
1
=
q In
-q In
Dxx
Dxy
2
DyxDxy
q
=
In
2 DxxDyy
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
12/32
Vxy
Cxy
q
D
=
In
rxry
q
=
=
Vxy
D
In r r
x y
NPTEL
volts
F/m line-to-line
A.K. Sinha
13/32
Cxy =
F/m line-to-line
In (D/r )
Vxn = Vyn = Vxy / 2
q
Cn = Cxn = Cyn =
= 2Cxy
Vxn
2
=
F/m line-to-neutral
In (D/r )
n
x
Cxy
Cxn = 2Cxy
NPTEL
Cyn = 2Cxy
A.K. Sinha
14/32
Three Phase Line with Equilateral Spacing

a
c
qa + qb + qc = 0
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
15/32
Dba
Dbb
Dbc
1
Vab =
qa In
+ qb In
+ qc In
D
D
D
2
aa
ab
ac
Vab
1
D
r
D
=
qa In + qb In + qc In
r
D
D
2
1
D
r
=
qa In + qb In
r
D
2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
volts
16/32
Dca
Dcb
Dcc
1
Vac =
qa In
+ qb In
+ qc In
D
D
D
2
aa
ac
ab
1
D
D
r
=
qa In + qb In + qc In
r
D
D
2
1
D
r
=
qa In + qc In
r
D
2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
17/32
Vab = 3Van +30 = 3Van 3 + j 1

2 2
o
Vac = -Vca = 3Van -30 = 3Van 3 - j 1

2 2
o
a
b
3an
n
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
18/32
Vab + Vac = 3Van volts
( )
1
1
D
r
Van =
2q a In + qb +qc In
r
D
3 2
1
D
Van =
qa In
2
r
qa
2
F/m line-to-neutral
Can =
=
Van In (D/r )
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
19/32
Can =
In Deq /r
F/m
Deq = 3 DabDbcDac
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
20/32

3-phase bundled conductor line with
unequal spacing
d
d
c
Dab
Dbc
Dac
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
21/32
qa
2
1
Vab =
2 q
b
2
In
In
Dba
Daa
Dbb'
Dab'
+
+
qa
2
qc
NPTEL
In
In
Dba'
Daa'
Dbc
Dac
+
In
+
2
Dab
qc
Dbc'
+
In
2
Dac'
qb
A.K. Sinha
Dbb
22/32

d
r
In
+ In
Dab
Dab
) (
Dab
Dbc
1
rd
=
qa In
+ qb In
+ qc In
D
D
2
rd
ab
ac
qb
Dab
qa Dab
+
In
+
In
2
r
d
1 2
=
2 q
D
D
c
bc
bc
+
In
+
In
2 D
Dac
ac
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
23/32
Can =
In Deq /DS
DS = rd
3
F/m
for a two-conductor bundle
DS = rd
for a three-conductor bundle
DS = 1.091 rd
NPTEL
for a four-conductor
bundle
A.K. Sinha
24/32

Line Charging Current and Reactive var
Generation
Ichg = Yxy Vxy = jC xy Vxy

QC =
2
Vxy
Xc
2
= Yxy Vxy
2 var
= Cxy Vxy
Ichg = YVan = jCan VLN

NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
25/32
2
Q C1 = YVan
2
= Can VLN var
2
2
QC3 = 3QC1 = 3CanVLN = CanVLL var
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
26/32
Example:
A three phase, 400kV, 50Hz, 350km
overhead transmission line has flat
horizontal spacing with three identical
conductors. The conductors have an
outside diameter of 3.28 cm with 12 m
between adjacent conductors.
Determine the capacitive reactance-toneutral in ohms/m/phase and the capacitive
reactance for the line in ohms/phase.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
27/32
Solution: For a fully transposed three phase

line, we have the line voltage given by
Vab = 1/(2k){ qa X ln(Deq/r) + qb X ln(r/Deq)}
Where Deq = (D12.D23.D31)1/3
= (12 X 12 X 24)1/3
= 15.119 m.
Similarly,
Vac = 1/(2k){ qa X ln(Deq/r) + qc X ln(r/Deq)}
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
28/32

12 m
1(a)
12 m
3(c)
2(b)
Three phase wires in horizontal configuration
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
29/32

Also, we have
Vab + Vac = 3Van
And qb + qc = -qa
Hence, adding the values of Vab and Vac we get
Van = qa/(2) ln(Deq/r)
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
30/32

Hence, Cn = qa/Van
= 2 / ln(Deq/r)
= 8.163 X 10-6 F/m
Yn = (2 X 50 X Cn)
= 2.565 X 10-9 S/m per phase
Given length of the line = 350 km.
Hence, Yn = 8.978 X10-4 S per phase
Xn = 1/Yn = 1.1138 X 103 per phase
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
31/32
Effect of Earth on Transmission Line

Capacitance
Earth surface is considered as an equi potential Surface
Method of Images
Image conductors below the ground
depth equal to the height of the O/H
conductor above the ground opposite
charge.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
4/32
+
+ +
++ +
H
Earth plane
(a) Single conductor and
earth plane
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
5/32

+++
+ ++
(b) Earth plane replaced
by image conductor
H11 =2H
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/32
Capacitance of Single Phase Line

Considering Effect of Earth
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
7/32
x
+q
-q
H
Earth plane
Hxx
Hxy
-q
x
y
NPTEL
+q
A.K. Sinha
8/32
Vxy
Dyy
Hyx
Hyy
q Dyx
=
In
- In
- In
+ In
Dxx
Dxy
Hxx
Hxy
2
HyxHxy
q DyxDxy
=
In
- In
DxxDyy
HxxHyy
2
Hxy
q D
=
In
- In
Hxx

r
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
9/32

The line-to-line capacitance is
Cxy
q
=
=
Vxy
Cn = 2Cxy =
Hxy
D
In - In
r
Hxx
2
Hxy
D
In - In
r
Hxx
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
F/m
F/m
10/32
Capacitance of Three Phase Line

Considering Effect of Earth
qa
h11
-qa
D12 qb
D23
D31
h22
h31
h21
h12
-qb
qc
h33
Earth
h32
h13
-qc
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
11/32
D12
h12
- ln
qa ln
+
r
h
11
1
r
h22
Vab =
qb ln
- ln
+
2 D12
h12
h23
D23
q
ln
ln
D
h
31
31
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
12/32
Cn =
In
Deq
r
- In
3h h h
12 23 31
F/m
3h h h
11 22 33
Three Phase Line with Earth Return
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
13/32

n1
Dan1
a
nN
n2
b
Dab
Dac
Earth plane
Haa
Hab
Han1
n1
c
b
n2
NPTEL
nN
A.K. Sinha
14/332
Vkk'
1
=
2
qm In D - qm In H
km m=a
km
m=a
nN
Hkm
nN
Dkm
Hkm
2 nN
=
qm In
2 m=a
Dkm
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
15/32
nN
Hkm
1
1
Vkn = Vkk' =
qm In
2
2 m=a
Dkm
Vkn = 0
for k = n1,n2,....,nN
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
16/32

PA
Van Paa
P
Vbn
ba
Vcn Pca
=
0 Pn1a
: :

0 PnNn
PB
Pab
Pac
Pan1
...
Pbb
Pbc
Pbn1
...
Pcb
Pcc
Pcn1
...
Pn1n1
...
Pn1b Pn1c
PnNb PnNc
PC
NPTEL
PnNn1
...
qa

PbnN
qb
PcnN q c

Pn1nN qn1
: :
PnNnN
qnN
PanN
PD
A.K. Sinha
17/32
Pk m
V
P
Hkm
1
=
In
2
Dkm
m /F
q
P
P
A B p
=
PC
PD
q
Vp = PA qp +PBqn
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
18/32
-1
0 = PCqp +PDqn qn = PD PCqp
Vp =
-1
PA - PBPD PC
)q
qp = CP Vp
Cp =
-1
PA - PBPD PC
NPTEL
-1
F/m
A.K. Sinha
19/32
Caa
Cp = C
ab
Cac
C ab C ac
Cbb
Cbc
NPTEL
Cbc
C cc
A.K. Sinha
F/m
20/32
C aa C ab C ab
Cp =
C ab
C ab
C aa
C ab
NPTEL
C ab

C aa
F/m
A.K. Sinha
21/32
1
C aa = ( C aa + C bb + C cc ) F/m
3
1
Cab = ( Cab + Cbc + Cac ) F/m
3
Yp = jCp = j ( 2f ) Cp
S/m
Yp = j Cp = j ( 2f ) Cp S/m
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
22/32
Double Circuit Three Phase Line
(Ip1 + Ip2 )
Ep
Ip1
Ip2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
23/32
Series Impedance
Ep
Ip 1
= Zp
E p
Ip 2
Ip1 -1 Ep YA
= Zp = Y
Ip2 Ep C
( YA +YB )
=
Ep
YD
Ep ( YC +YD )
YB Ep
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
24/32
(Ip1 + Ip2 ) = ( YA + YB + YC + YD ) Ep
EP = Zp' Ip1 + Ip2
Where,
'
Zp
= ( YA + YB + YC + YD )
NPTEL
-1
A.K. Sinha
25/32
Shunt Admittance
Vp CA
qP1
= Cp = CC
Vp
qP2
( C A +CB )
=
Vp
CD
Vp ( CC +CD )
CB Vp
( qP1 + qP2 ) = CPeq VP

CPeq = ( CA + CB + CC + CD )
'
Yp
= jCPeq
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
26/32
Example: A three phase, 400kV, 50Hz, 350km

O/H transmission line has flat horizontal
spacing with three identical conductors. The
conductors have an outside diameter of 3.28 cm
with 12 m between adjacent conductors. The
conductors are placed 20 m above ground.
Consider the earth plane to be a perfect
conductor.
Determine the capacitive admittance-to-neutral
in S/m/phase and the capacitive var generated
by the line.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
27/32

a
20m
h11
12m
12m
h13
h12
h22
h23
h33
earth
Effect of earth on capacitance of a three phase

system
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
28/32

Solution: Let h11, h22, h33 be the distances
between the conductors and their mirror
images. And also, h12, h23, h31 be the distances
as shown in the figure on the previous slide.
We have for such systems, following the same
procedure,
Cn = 2/{ ln(Deq/r) ln((h12h23h31)/(h11h22h33))1/3}
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
29/32

We have,
Deq = 15.119m
r = 1.64 cm
From the diagram,
h11 = h22 = h33 = 40m
h12 = h23 = (402+122)1/2 = 41.761 m
h31 = (402+242)1/2 = 46.648 m
Putting these values in the equation
(1) we get Cn = 8.2595 X 10-6 F/m.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
30/32

Hence, Yn = 2 x50 x 8.2595 X 10-12 S/m per
phase
= 2.595 x 10-9 S per phase
Length of the line = 350 km.
Therefore, Total Yn = 908 S per phase.
Now var generated by line QC = Yn x VLL2
Or QC = 908 x 10-6 x 400 x 103 x 400 x 103
= 145.358 Mvar
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
31/32
Lesson 7
Transmission Line Modeling
Lesson Summary:
1. Distributed Vs. Lumped Parameter Models
2. Short Line model
3. Medium Line model
4. Long Line Model
5. Voltage regulation
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
2/30
Transmission Line Model

I(x +x)
+
V(x + x)
zx
I(x)
+
V(x)
yx
(x + x)
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
3/30
Lumped Parameter Models

For Sinusoidal waves on O/H lines:
C
8
= ;C = 3x10 m/s
f
for f = 50 Hz; = 6000 km

If the line length is <250 km long, then
one can neglect the distributed effect of
the line parameters and it is sufficient to
consider lumped parameter model for
transmission lines
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
4/30
VS
IS
IR
Two-port
network
VR
VS = AVR +BIR
volts
IS = CVR + DIR
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
5/30
VS A
=
C
I
S
VR
B
D
I
R
AD - BC = 1
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/30

Short Line Model
Line Length < 80 kM

Generally MV / LV Lines
Capacitance can be neglected
IS
+
Z = zl = (R + jL ) l
IR
+
VS
VR
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
7/30
V S = V R + Z IR
IS = IR
VR
VS
= 1 Z
0 1
IR
IS
A = D = 1 per unit
B=Z
C=0 S
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
8/30
Phasor Diagram for Short Line

VS = VRnl
VS = VRnl
VRfl
IRfl
RIRfl
IRfl
jXIRfl
(a) Lagging p.f. load

NPTEL
jXIRfl
VRfl
RIRfl
(b) Leading p.f. load

A.K. Sinha
9/30
Medium Length Line

80 kM < Length < 250 kM
Z = zl
IS
IR
+
VS
Y
2
Y Y'
=
2 2
VR
Nominal Circuit
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
10/30
VS = VR + Z
(I
VR Y
R+ 2
YZ
= 1+
VR + ZIR
2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
11/30
VR Y VS Y
IS = IR +
+
2
2
VR Y
Y
YZ
IS = IR +
+ 1+
VR +ZIR
2
2
2
) (
= Y 1+ YZ VR + 1+ YZ IR
4
2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
12/30
(
(
YZ
VS 1+ 2
=
Y 1+ YZ
I
S
4
) Z V
YZ
) (1+ 2 ) I
R
YZ
A = D = 1+
per unit
2
B=Z
YZ
C = Y 1+
S
4
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
13/30
Voltage Regulation
percent VR =
VRnl - VRfl
VRfl
100
VRnl = AVR
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
14/30

ABCD Matrix
+
IS
VS
+
VS
IR
VR
Series impedance
1
0
IS
IR
VR
Shunt admittance
1
Y
NPTEL
0
1
A.K. Sinha
15/30
ABCD Matrix
IS
+
IR
VS
+
VR
T circuit
(1+YZ1) ( Z1+Z2 +YZ1Z2 )
Y
1+YZ2 )
(
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
16/30
ABCD Matrix
IR
IS
+
VS
Y1
Y2
VR
circuit
Z
(1+Y2Z )
( Y1+Y2 +Y1Y2 Z ) (1+Y1Z )
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
17/30
ABCD Matrix
IS
IR
VS+
A 1B 1C 1D 1
A 2B2C2D2
VR
Cascaded networks
A1A2 +B1C2 ) ( A1B2 +B1D2 )

(
=
C1 D1
C2 D2 ( C1A2 +D1C2 ) ( C1B2 +D1D2 )
A
B
A
B
1
1
2
2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
18/30
Long Line Model

I(x +x)
+
V(x + x)
zx
I(x)
+
V(x)
yx
(x + x)
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
19/30
z = R + jL
/m
y = G + jC S/m
V ( x + x ) = V ( x ) + ( zx ) I ( x ) volts
V ( x + x ) - V ( x )
x
dV ( x )
dx
= zI ( x )
= zI ( x )
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
20/30
I ( x + x ) = I ( x ) + ( yx ) V ( x + x )
I ( x+x ) -I ( x )
x
dI ( x )
dx
=yV ( x+x ) ;lim x 0
= yV ( x )
d V (x)
2
dx 2
=z
dI ( x )
dx
= zyV ( x )
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
21/30
d 2 V (x)
dx 2
- zyV (x) = 0
V(x) = A1e
= zy
+ A2 e
- x
volts
m-1
dV(x)
yx
-yx
= A1e - A2 e = zI(x)
dx
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
22/30
A1e
yx
-yx
- A2e
I(x) =
z/
yx
-yx
A1e - A2 e
I(x) =
Zc
z
z
Zc =Z/ =
=
y
zy
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
23/30
VR = V(0)
IR = I ( 0 )
VR = A1 + A2
IR
A1 - A2
=
Zc
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
24/30
VR + Z c IR
A1 =
A2 =
V(x) =
VR - Z c IR
2
VR +ZcIR
2
) (
e
NPTEL
VR -ZcIR
2
A.K. Sinha
- x
25/30
I(x) =
VR +ZcIR
2Zc
) (
e
VR -ZcIR
(
) (
2Zc
- x
)
)
x
- x
x - x
e
+e
e
-e
V(x) =
VR + Zc
IR
2
2
1
I(x) =
Zc
e x - e- x VR + e x +e- x IR
2
2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
26/30
V(x) = cosh( x)VR + Zc sinh( x)IR

1
I(x) =
sinh( x)VR + cosh( x)IR
Zc
V(x) A(x)
=
I(x) C(x)

B(x) VR
D(x)
IR
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
27/30
A(x) = D(x) = cosh( x) per unit
B(x) = Zc sinh( x)
1
C(x) =
sinh( x) S
Zc
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
28/30

At the sending end X = l
VS A
=
C
IS
VR
B
D
IR
A = D = cosh( l) per unit
B = Zc sinh( l)
1
C=
sinh( l) S
Zc
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
4/41
l+jl )
(
l jl
l
e =e
= e e = e l
l
- l
1 l
-l
= e l + e -l
2
- l
1 l
-l
= e l - e -l
2
e +e
cosh ( l ) =
2
e -e
sinh ( l ) =
2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
5/41

cosh ( l + jl ) = cosh ( l ) cos(l) + jsinh ( l ) sin ( l )
sinh ( l + jl ) = sinh ( l ) cos(l) + jcosh ( l ) sin ( l )
Y'Z'
A = D = 1+
2
B = Z'
Y'Z'
C = Y' 1+
4
per unit
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/41
IS
+
VS
Z'
IR
Y'
2
Y'
2
VR
Z' = ZC sinh ( l ) = ZF1 = Z
sinh ( l )
l
Y' tan ( l /2 ) Y
Y tanh ( l /2 )
=
= F2 =
2
Zc
2
2 ( l /2 )
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
7/41
Z' = Z c sinh ( l ) =
Z' = zl
z
sinh ( l )
y
sinh( l )
z sinh( l )
zl
=
y
zl
zyl
= ZF1
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
8/41
F1 =
sinh ( l )
l
per unit
Y'Z'
1+
= cosh ( l )
2
Y'Z'
1+
= cosh ( l )
2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
9/41
Y' cosh ( l ) - 1 tanh ( l/2 ) tanh ( l/2 )

=
=
=
2 Zc sinh ( l )
Zc
z
y
tanh( l/2 )
Y' yl
yl tanh( l/2 )
=
=
2
2
2
z yl
zyl/2
y 2
Y
= F2
2
S
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
10/41
F2 =
tanh ( l/2 )
l/2
per unit
z = jL /m
y = jC S/m
z
Zc =
=
y
jL
L
=
jC
C
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
11/41
y = zy =
-1
jL
jC
=
j
LC
=
j
m
( )(
)
-1
= LC m
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
12/41
LOSS LESS LINE

A(x) = D(x) = cosh(x) = cosh(jx)
jx
+e
2
-jx
= cos(x) per unit
e jx - e-jx
sinh ( x ) = sinh ( jx ) =
= jsin ( x ) per unit
2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
13/41
L
B(x) = Zc sinh ( x ) = jZc sin ( x ) = j
sin ( x )
C
C(x) =
sinh ( x )
Zc
jsin ( x )
L
C
Z' = jZc sin ( l ) = jX'

NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
14/41
sinh ( jl/2 )
Y' Y tanh ( jl/2 ) Y
=
=
2 2
jl/2
2 ( jl/2 ) cosh ( jl/2 )
=
( )(
( )
jCl
2
jC'l
2
jsin ( l/2 )
jl/2 ) cos ( l/2 )
( )
jCl tan ( l/2 )

2
l/2
S
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
15/41
-Equivalent Circuit (Loss less Line)

IS
VS = VS
Y'
2
jCl
2
sinl
l
NPTEL
VR = VR 0
= jX'
tan l /2
l /2
IR
Y'
2
( )
( )
( )( )
Z' = ( jLl )
Y'
=
2
Z'
jC't
=
S
2
A.K. Sinha
16/41
Wave Length (Loss less line)
2
2
1
=
=
=
LC f LC
= 6000 kM for 50 Hz
f =
1
LC
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
17/41
Surge Impedance Loading
V(x) = A(x)VR +B(x)IR
= cos ( x ) VR + jZ c sin ( x ) IR
I(x) = C(x)VR +D(x)IR

=
jsin ( x )
Zc
VR + cos ( x ) IR
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
18/41
IS
IR
+
VS
VR
L
Zc =
x =0
x=l
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
19/41
V(x) = cos ( x ) VR + jZc sin ( x ) IR
= cos ( x ) VR + jZc sin ( x )

Zc

VR
= ( cosx + jsinx ) VR
=e
jx
VR
V(x) = VR
volts
volts
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
20/41
VR
jsin(x)
I(x) =
VR + ( cosx )
Zc
Zc
VR
= ( cosx + jsinx )
Zc
= e
jx
VR
Zc
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
21/41

*
S(x) = P(x) + jQ(x) = V(x)I (x)
e VR
jx
= ( e VR )
Zc
2
jx
VR
Zc
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
22/41

Vrated
(Kv)
230
345
500
765
2
SIL = Vrated
/Zc
Z c = L/C
(MW)
380
285
250
257
140
420
1000
2280
VNL (x) = ( cosx ) VRNL
VSC (x) = ( Zc sinx ) IRSC

NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
23/41
V(x)
o
N
d
a
lo
SIL
Vs
VRNL = Vs /cos(l)
VRSIL = Vs
Full l
Sho oad
rt ci
rcui V
t RFL
x =0
x=l
VRSC = 0
Receiving end
Sending end
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
24/41
Steady State Stability Limit
IR
V S - VR
Y'
=
VR
Z'
2
j
VS e - VR jC'l
=
VR
jX'
2
*
SR = VRIR = VR
VS e j -VR
jX'
NPTEL
jC'l 2
+
VR
2
A.K. Sinha
25/41
= VR
VS e -j - VR
-jX'
j Cl 2
+ 2 VR
jVR VScos + VR VS sin - jVR2

X'
P = PS = PR = Re(SR ) =
Pmax =
VS VR
X'
VR VS
X'
jCl 2
+
VR
2
sin W
W
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
26/41

Real power P
Pmax =
VS VR
X'
90
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
27/41
( )
sin 2l
P=
Zc sinl
sin
c
2
V
V
V
sin
S
rated
R
P =
Vrated Vrated Zc
2l
sin
VS VR sin
VS VR
= VS.p.u. VR.p.u. (SIL)

NPTEL
sin
( )
2l
sin
A.K. Sinha
( )
28/41
Pmax =
VS.p.u. VR.p.u. (SIL)
( )
sin 2l
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
29/41
Loadability in per-unit of SIL

4.0 SIL
3.0 SIL
Thermal
limit
Th
eo
re
tic
al
ste
a
dy
sta
te
s
tab
ilit
Pra
yl
ctic
im
al li
it
ne l
oad
abil
ity
2.0 SIL
1.0 SIL
100
300
500
700
Line length (km)
NPTEL
900
A.K. Sinha
1100
30/41
Voltage (kV) SIL (MW)
Typical Thermal
Rating (MW)
230
150
400
345
400
1200
500
900
2600
765
2200
5400
1100
5200
24000
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
31/41
Maximum Power Flow (Lossy Line)

IR =
VS - AVR
B
VSe j - AVR e jA
Z'e jZ
V e j( - Z ) -AV e j( A - Z )
S
R
*
SR = PR + jQR = VRIR = VR
Z'
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
32/41
VR VS
Z'
PR = Re(SR ) =
2
j( Z - )- AVR
Z'
j( Z - A )
AVR2
cos ( Z - ) cos ( Z - A )
Z'
Z'
VR VS
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
33/41
Example 1: A 60Hz, 138 kV, 3-phase

transmission line is 200 km long. The distributed
line parameters are
R = 0.1 /km
L = 1.3 mH/km
C = 0.01 F/km
G=0
The transmission line delivers 40 MW at 132kV
with 95% power factor lagging. Find the sending
end voltage and current, and also the
transmission line efficiency.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
34/41
Solution: For the given values of R, L and C,

we have for = 2. 60,
z = 0.1 + j0.49 = 0.50078.46 /km
y = j3.77 X 10-6 = 3.77 X 10-6 90 mho/km
From the above values,
Zc = (z/y) = 364.18 -5.77
l = 200(zy) = 0.274684.23 = 0.0276 + j0.273
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
35/41

Continuing the calculations, we now find out the
values of sinh l and cosh l.
sinh l = (el e-l)/2
= 0.54384.4
cosh l = (el + e-l)/2
= 0.9640.44
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
36/41

The values of power and voltage specified in
the problem refers to 3-phase line-to-line
quantities.
| V2 | = 132 /3 = 76.2 kV
Also, picking up the value of V2 = 0, we get
V2 = 76.2 0 kV
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
37/41

We need the value of per phase power supplied
to the load.
Pload = 40/3 = 13.33 MW.
Given the value of power factor = 0.95, we can
find I2.
Pload = 0.95 |V2|.|I2|
Thus, |I2| = 184.1
Also, since I2 lags V2 by cos-10.95 = 18.195,
I2 = 184.1 -18.195
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
38/41

Finally, we have
V1 = V2 cosh l + ZcI2 sinh l
Putting the values, we get,
V1 = 94.69 18.23 kV
Similarly,
I1 = I2 cosh l + V2/Zc sinh l
= 178.86 19.42
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
39/41
We now calculate the efficiency of

transmission.
Per phase input power, Pin = Re (V1I1*)
= 16.93 MW
Hence, = 13.33/16.93 = 0.79
That is, the efficiency of transmission is
79%.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
40/41
Example 1:
A 3 phase 132 kV overhead line delivers 50
MVA at 132 kV and power factor 0.8 lagging at
its receiving end. The constants of the line are A
= 0.983 and B = 11075 ohms per phase.
Find
(a) sending in voltage and power angle
(b) sending end active and reactive power
(c) line losses and vars absorbed by the line
(d) capacity of static compensation equipment
at
the receiving end to reduce the sending
end voltage to 140 kV for the same load
conditions
(e) The unity power load which can be

supplied at the receiving end with 132 kV as
the line voltage at both the ends.
Solution:
(a) Vr = 132000 / 30.5 = 76210 0
Ir = (50 x 106) / (30.5 x 132000)
= 218.7 (-cos-10.8)
= 218.7 (-36.87) A
Vs = A . Vr + B . Ir
= (0.983)(76210) + (11075)(218.736.87)
= 74685.8 3 + 24057 38.13
= 74583.4 + j 3908.86 + 18923.5 + j14853.9
= 93506.9 + j 18762.76
= 95370.62 11.35 V
Sending in line voltage = (30.5 x 95370.62)/1000
= 165.2 kV
Power angle = 11.35
(b) We have 3 phase power in MW given as

Ss = |A||Vs|2|B|-1 ( ) - |Vr||Vs||B|-1
( + )
= 0.98 x (165.2)2 / (110) (75 - 3)
(132 x 165.2) / (110) (75 + 11.35)
= 243.14 72 - 198.2486.35
Sending end active power
Ps = 243.14 cos72 - 198.24 cos86.35
= 75.13 12.62 = 62.51 MW
Sending end reactive power

Qs = 243.14 sin72 - 198.24 sin 86.35
= 231.24 197.84
= 33.40 MVar lagging
(c) Line losses = Ps Pr = 62.51 50 x 0.8
= 22.51 MW
MVar absorbed by line = Qs Qr
= 33.40 50 x 0.6
= 3.4 MVar
(d)
Pr = 50 x 0.8 = 40
|Vs| = 140
|Vr| = 132
Pr = (|Vs||Vr|/|B|)cos( ) (|A||Vr|2/|B|)cos()
or 40 = (140 x 132) / (110) x cos( )
0.98 x (132)2 / (110) cos(75 - 3)
or 40 = 168 cos( ) 155.23 cos72
or cos( ) = 0.524 or ( ) = 58.4
Qr = (|Vs||Vr|/|B|) sin( ) (|A||Vr|2/|B|)sin()

= (140 x 132) / (110) sin58.4 0.98 x (132)2 / (110) sin 72
= 143.1 147.6 = - 4.5 MVar
Thus for Vs = 140 kV, Vr = 132 kV and Pr =
40 MW, a leading MVar of 4.5 must be drawn from
the line along with the real power of 40 MW. Also,
since the load requires 30 MVar lagging, the
static compensation equipment must
Deliver 30 + 4.5, i.e., 34.5 MVar lagging (or must

absorb 34.5 MVar leading). The capacity of static
capacitors is, therefore, 34.5 MVar.
(e) |Vs| = |Vr| = 132 kV, Qr = 0
Qr = (|Vs||Vr|/|B|) sin( ) (|A||Vr|2/|B|) sin( )
or 0 = (132 x 132) / (110) sin( )
0.98 x (132)2 / (110) sin(75 - 3)
or ( ) = 68.75
Hence,
Pr = (|Vs||Vr|/|B|)cos( ) (|A||Vr|2/|B|)cos( )
= 1322/110 cos68.75 - (0.98x1322)/110 cos72
= 57.41 47.97 = 9.44 MW

POWER FLOW ON TRANSMISSION LINES
VS A
=
C
I
S
VR
B
D
I
R
1
A
Ir =
Vs Vr
B
B
D
1
A
1
Is =
Vs Vr =
Vs Vr
B
B
B
B
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
2/39

SS = PS + jQS
G
IS
VS
Transmission line
Generating
station
Vr
Load
Sr = Pr + jQr
A two bus power system
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
3/39

Let
Vr =
Vr
D = A =
Then
Ir =
Vs
B
0 , Vs =
A
, B = B
( - ) -
NPTEL
Vs
Vr
B
A.K. Sinha
( - )
4/39
Is =
Vs
B
( + - ) -
Vr
B
The conjugates of Ir and Is are
I =
I =
Vs
( - ) -
A Vs
B
Vr
B
( - - ) NPTEL
( - )
Vr
B
A.K. Sinha
5/39
Sr = Pr + j Q r = Vr I
= Vr
=
Vs
Vr
B
Vs
B
( - ) -
( - ) -
NPTEL
A Vr
B
( - )
A Vr
B
2
( - )
A.K. Sinha
6/39
Ss = Ps + j Qs = Vs I s
A Vs
= Vs
=
Vs
B
( - - ) -
( - ) -
NPTEL
Vr
Vs
B
A.K. Sinha
Vr
B
( + )
7/39
Pr =
Qr =
Ps =
VS Vr
cos ( - ) -
B
VS Vr
sin ( - ) -
B
A Vs
B
cos ( - ) NPTEL
A Vr
cos ( - )
B
A Vr
sin ( - )
B
Vr
Vs
B
cos ( + )
A.K. Sinha
8/39
Qs =
A Vs
Prmax =
Qr = -
sin ( - ) -
B
Vs
Vr
B
Vr
B
Vr
Vr
Vs
B
sin ( + )
cos ( - )
sin ( - )
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
9/39

o
o
0
For Short Line A=D=1

; B=Z
Pr =
Qr =
Ps =
Vs
Vr
Z
Vs
Vr
Z
Vs
Z
cos( - ) sin ( - ) -
cos -
Vs
NPTEL
Vr
Z
Vr
cos
Z
Vr
Z
sin
cos ( + )
A.K. Sinha
10/39
Qs =
Vs
Z
sin -
Vs
Vr
Z
sin ( + )
As R<X; |Z| X and ; 90. Substituting these

values in the above equations
Pr =
Vs
Vr
X
sin
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
11/39
Qr =
Vs
Vr
X
cos -
Vr
As is normally small; cos ;
Qr =
=
Vs
Vr
X
Vr
X
( Vs
NPTEL
Vr
X
- Vr
A.K. Sinha
12/39
1. For fixed values of Vs , Vr and X the real

power depends on angle the phase
angle by which Vs leads Vr . This angle
is called power angle. When = 90 P
is maximum. For system stability
considerations has to be kept well
below 90.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
13/39
2. Power can be transferred over line even

when | Vs |
| Vr |. The phase difference
between Vr and Vs causes the flow of

power in the line. Power systems are
operated with almost the same voltage

magnitudes (i.e., 1 p u) at important busses
by using methods of Voltage control.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
14/39
3. The maximum real power transferred over

a line increases with increase in Vs and Vr.
An Increase of 100% in Vr and Vs increases
the power transfer by 400%. This is the
reason for adopting high and extra high
transmission voltages.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
15/39
4. The maximum real power depends on the

reactance X which is directly proportional
to line inductance. A decrease in inductance
increases the line capacity. The line inductance
can be decreased by using bundled conductors.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
16/39
Another method of reducing line inductance

is by inserting capacitance in series with the
line. This method is known as series
compensation. The series capacitors are
usually installed at the middle of the line.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
17/39

5. The reactive power transferred over a line is
directly proportional to ( | Vs | - | Vr | ) i.e.,
voltage drop along the line and is
independent of power angle. This means
the voltage drop on the line is due to the
transfer of reactive power over the line.
To maintain a good voltage profile,
reactive power control is necessary.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
18/39

VOLTAGE CONTROL
Reactive Power compensation equipment
has the following effects:
1. Reduction in current.
2. Maintenance of voltage profile within
limits.
3. Reduction of losses in the system.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
19/39
4. Reduction in investment in the system

per kW of load supplied.
5. Decrease in kVA loading of generators
and lines. This decrease in kVA loading
relieves overload condition or releases
capacity for additional load growth.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
20/39
6. Improvement in power factor of generators.

7. Reduction in kVA demand charges for large
consumers.
Static Compensation
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
21/39
Ic =
Qc =
QL =
Vs
3 Xc
3 V
kA
3 Xc
- V
XL
Xc
Mvar
Mvar
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
22/39

400 kV
220 kV
11 kV
Static Compensation
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
23/39

Rotating Compensators
1. A synchronous compensator can supply
lagging vars up to its rating and can absorb
lagging vars up to 50% of its rating. Thus a
synchronous compensator of a certain rating
is equvalent to a static capacitor of that rating
and a shunt reactor of half its rating.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
24/39
2. The control of synchronous compensator

is fast and continuous.
3. A synchronous compensator can be over
loaded for short periods but a static
capacitors do not have overload capacity.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
25/39
4. A drop in voltage causes the synchronous

compensator to supply greater vars
(because difference between generated
emf and terminal voltage increase) which
helps in arresting the voltage dip. In the
case of static capacitor a drop in voltage
causes a reduction in vars delivered to the
system.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
26/39

5. The inertia of synchronous compensator
improves system stability and reduces
the effect of sudden changes in load.
6. Static capacitor installations can be
distributed in the system. However small
size synchronous compensators are very
uneconomical. Thus static capacitors can
be located near the loads and are more
effective.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
27/39

7. Synchronous compensators add to short
circuit currents in the system and increase
the circuit ratings.
8. A failure of one unit of a static capacitor
bank affects that unit only and the remaining
units continue to operate. However the
failure of a synchronous compensator
means loss of complete unit.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
28/39

Voltage control of a line using tap changing
transformer
jx
Line
V1
I
V2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
Load
29/39
t s V1 = tr V2 + IZ ; tr V2 + IR cos + I X sin
P
Q
since I cos =
and I sin =
, we get
tr V2
tr V2
RP XQ
t s V1 = tr V2 +
+
tr V2 tr V2
Normally ts tr = 1.0
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
30/39
ts =
or
or
1
V1
V2
ts
(RP + XQ)
2
2
t
V2
2
s (RP + XQ)
ts =
+
V1
V2
t s 1 2
RP + XQ
2
NPTEL
V2
V1
A.K. Sinha
31/39
For complete compensation V1 = V2 and ts

can be found and as tr = 1 / ts ; tr can also be
found
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
32/39

Combined use of Tap changing Transformer
and Reactive Power Injection.
V1
P S
V2
Static var
system
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
33/39

V1
X1
X2
V2
T12
P + jQ
X3
T23
Static var
system
NPTEL
V3
Qs
A.K. Sinha
34/39

REGULATING TRANSFORMER
Voltage magnitude control

Voltage phase angle control
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
35/39

a
van
van
van + van
c
n
Regulating
transformer
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
36/39

van + van
van
van
vbn
vbn
vcn + vcn
vcn
vcn
vbn + vbn
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
37/39

van
van + van
van
n
c
vcn
NPTEL
vbn
b
A.K. Sinha
38/39

POWER FLOW ON TRANSMISSION LINES
VS A
=
C
I
S
VR
B
D
I
R
1
A
Ir =
Vs Vr
B
B
D
1
A
1
Is =
Vs Vr =
Vs Vr
B
B
B
B
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
2/39

SS = PS + jQS
G
IS
VS
Transmission line
Generating
station
Vr
Load
Sr = Pr + jQr
A two bus power system
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
3/39

Let
Vr =
Vr
D = A =
Then
Ir =
Vs
B
0 , Vs =
A
, B = B
( - ) -
NPTEL
Vs
Vr
B
A.K. Sinha
( - )
4/39
Is =
Vs
B
( + - ) -
Vr
B
The conjugates of Ir and Is are
I =
I =
Vs
( - ) -
A Vs
B
Vr
B
( - - ) NPTEL
( - )
Vr
B
A.K. Sinha
5/39
Sr = Pr + j Q r = Vr I
= Vr
=
Vs
Vr
B
Vs
B
( - ) -
( - ) -
NPTEL
A Vr
B
( - )
A Vr
B
2
( - )
A.K. Sinha
6/39
Ss = Ps + j Qs = Vs I s
A Vs
= Vs
=
Vs
B
( - - ) -
( - ) -
NPTEL
Vr
Vs
B
A.K. Sinha
Vr
B
( + )
7/39
Pr =
Qr =
Ps =
VS Vr
cos ( - ) -
B
VS Vr
sin ( - ) -
B
A Vs
B
cos ( - ) NPTEL
A Vr
cos ( - )
B
A Vr
sin ( - )
B
Vr
Vs
B
cos ( + )
A.K. Sinha
8/39
Qs =
A Vs
Prmax =
Qr = -
sin ( - ) -
B
Vs
Vr
B
Vr
B
Vr
Vr
Vs
B
sin ( + )
cos ( - )
sin ( - )
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
9/39

o
o
0
For Short Line A=D=1

; B=Z
Pr =
Qr =
Ps =
Vs
Vr
Z
Vs
Vr
Z
Vs
Z
cos( - ) sin ( - ) -
cos -
Vs
NPTEL
Vr
Z
Vr
cos
Z
Vr
Z
sin
cos ( + )
A.K. Sinha
10/39
Qs =
Vs
Z
sin -
Vs
Vr
Z
sin ( + )
As R<X; |Z| X and ; 90. Substituting these

values in the above equations
Pr =
Vs
Vr
X
sin
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
11/39
Qr =
Vs
Vr
X
cos -
Vr
As is normally small; cos ;
Qr =
=
Vs
Vr
X
Vr
X
( Vs
NPTEL
Vr
X
- Vr
A.K. Sinha
12/39
1. For fixed values of Vs , Vr and X the real

power depends on angle the phase
angle by which Vs leads Vr . This angle
is called power angle. When = 90 P
is maximum. For system stability
considerations has to be kept well
below 90.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
13/39
2. Power can be transferred over line even

when | Vs |
| Vr |. The phase difference
between Vr and Vs causes the flow of

power in the line. Power systems are
operated with almost the same voltage

magnitudes (i.e., 1 p u) at important busses
by using methods of Voltage control.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
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3. The maximum real power transferred over

a line increases with increase in Vs and Vr.
An Increase of 100% in Vr and Vs increases
the power transfer by 400%. This is the
reason for adopting high and extra high
transmission voltages.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
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4. The maximum real power depends on the

reactance X which is directly proportional
to line inductance. A decrease in inductance
increases the line capacity. The line inductance
can be decreased by using bundled conductors.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
16/39
Another method of reducing line inductance

is by inserting capacitance in series with the
line. This method is known as series
compensation. The series capacitors are
usually installed at the middle of the line.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
17/39

5. The reactive power transferred over a line is
directly proportional to ( | Vs | - | Vr | ) i.e.,
voltage drop along the line and is
independent of power angle. This means
the voltage drop on the line is due to the
transfer of reactive power over the line.
To maintain a good voltage profile,
reactive power control is necessary.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
18/39

VOLTAGE CONTROL
Reactive Power compensation equipment
has the following effects:
1. Reduction in current.
2. Maintenance of voltage profile within
limits.
3. Reduction of losses in the system.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
19/39
4. Reduction in investment in the system

per kW of load supplied.
5. Decrease in kVA loading of generators
and lines. This decrease in kVA loading
relieves overload condition or releases
capacity for additional load growth.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
20/39
6. Improvement in power factor of generators.

7. Reduction in kVA demand charges for large
consumers.
Static Compensation
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
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Ic =
Qc =
QL =
Vs
3 Xc
3 V
kA
3 Xc
- V
XL
Xc
Mvar
Mvar
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
22/39

400 kV
220 kV
11 kV
Static Compensation
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
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Rotating Compensators
1. A synchronous compensator can supply
lagging vars up to its rating and can absorb
lagging vars up to 50% of its rating. Thus a
synchronous compensator of a certain rating
is equivalent to a static capacitor of that rating
and a shunt reactor of half its rating.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
24/39
2. The control of synchronous compensator

is fast and continuous.
3. A synchronous compensator can be over
loaded for short periods but a static
capacitors do not have overload capacity.
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A.K. Sinha
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4. A drop in voltage causes the synchronous

compensator to supply greater vars
(because difference between generated
emf and terminal voltage increase) which
helps in arresting the voltage dip. In the
case of static capacitor a drop in voltage
causes a reduction in vars delivered to the
system.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
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5. The inertia of synchronous compensator
improves system stability and reduces
the effect of sudden changes in load.
6. Static capacitor installations can be
distributed in the system. However small
size synchronous compensators are very
uneconomical. Thus static capacitors can
be located near the loads and are more
effective.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
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7. Synchronous compensators add to short
circuit currents in the system and increase
the circuit ratings.
8. A failure of one unit of a static capacitor
bank affects that unit only and the remaining
units continue to operate. However the
failure of a synchronous compensator
means loss of complete unit.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
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Voltage control of a line using tap changing
transformer
jx
Line
V1
I
V2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
Load
29/39
t s V1 = tr V2 + IZ ; tr V2 + IR cos + I X sin
P
Q
since I cos =
and I sin =
, we get
tr V2
tr V2
RP XQ
t s V1 = tr V2 +
+
tr V2 tr V2
Normally ts tr = 1.0
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
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ts =
or
or
1
V1
V2
ts
(RP + XQ)
2
2
t
V2
2
s (RP + XQ)
ts =
+
V1
V2
t s 1 2
RP + XQ
2
NPTEL
V2
V1
A.K. Sinha
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For complete compensation V1 = V2 and ts

can be found and as tr = 1 / ts ; tr can also be
found
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
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Combined use of Tap changing Transformer
and Reactive Power Injection.
V1
P S
V2
Static var
system
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A.K. Sinha
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V1
X1
X2
V2
T12
P + jQ
X3
T23
Static var
system
NPTEL
V3
Qs
A.K. Sinha
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REGULATING TRANSFORMER
Voltage magnitude control

Voltage phase angle control
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A.K. Sinha
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a
van
van
van + van
c
n
Regulating
transformer
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A.K. Sinha
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van + van
van
van
vbn
vbn
vcn + vcn
vcn
vcn
vbn + vbn
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A.K. Sinha
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van
van + van
van
n
c
vcn
NPTEL
vbn
b
A.K. Sinha
38/39
Example 1: A 50Hz, 138 kV, 3-phase

transmission line is 200 km long. The distributed
line parameters are
R = 0.1 /km
L = 1.2 mH/km
C = 0.01 F/km
G=0
The transmission line delivers 40 MW at 132kV
with 0.95 power factor lagging. Find the sending
end voltage and current, and also the
transmission line efficiency.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
12/38
Solution: For the given values of R, L and C,

we have for = 2. 50,
z = 0.1 + j0.377 = 0.39 75.14 /km
y = j3.14 X 10-6 = 3.14 X 10-6 90 mho/km
From the above values,
Zc = (z/y) = 352.42 -7.43
l = 200 (zy) = 0.2213 82.57 = 0.0286 +
j0.2194
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
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we now find out the values of sinh l and cosh l

sinh l = (el e-l)/2
= 0.2195 82.67
cosh l = (el + e-l)/2
= 0.975 0.37
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
14/38

The values of power and voltage specified in
the problem refers to 3-phase and line-to-line
quantities.
| V2 | = 132 / 3 = 76.2 kV
Also, using V2 as reference;
V2 = 76.2
V2 = 0, we get
0 kV
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
15/38

Now, per phase power supplied to the load.
Pload = 40/3 = 13.33 MW.
Given the value of power factor = 0.95, we can
find I2.
Pload = 0.95 |V2|.|I2|
Thus, |I2| = 184.1
Also, since I2 lags V2 by cos-10.95 = 18.195,
I2 = 184.1 -18.195
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
16/38

Finally, we have
V1 = V2 cosh l + ZcI2 sinh l
Putting the values, we get,
V1 = 82.96 8.6 kV
Similarly,
I1 = I2 cosh l + (V2/Zc) sinh l
= 179.46 17.79
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
17/38
We now calculate the efficiency of

transmission.
Per phase input power, Pin = Re (V1I1*)
= 14.69 MW
Hence, = 13.33/14.69 = 0.907
That is, the efficiency of transmission is
90.7%.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
18/38
Example 2:
A 3 phase 132 kV overhead line delivers 60
MVA at 132 kV and power factor 0.8 lagging at
its receiving end. The constants of the line are
A = 0.98 3 and B = 100 75 ohms per
phase. Find
(a) sending end voltage and power angle
(b) sending end active and reactive power
(c) line losses and vars absorbed by the line
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
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(d) capacity of static compensation equipment at

the receiving end to reduce the sending end
voltage to 145 kV for the same load
conditions
(e) The unity power factor load which can be
supplied at the receiving end with 132 kV as
the line voltage at both the ends.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
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Solution:
(a)
Vr= 132000 / 30.5 = 76210
Ir =(60 x 106) /{ (30.5 x 132000) (-cos-10.8)}

= 262.43 ( -36.87) A
Vs = A . Vr + B . Ir
= (0.98 3)(76210) + (100 75)(262.43 -36.87)
= 74685.8 3 + 26243 38.13
= {74.59+ j 3.909 + 20.64 + j16.20} x103
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
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= {95.23 + j20.11}x103
= 97.33x103 11.92 V
Sending end line voltage = (30.5 x97.33)kV
= 168.58 kV
Power angle() = 11.92
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
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(b) We have 3 phase power in MW given as
Ss = |A||Vs|2|B|-1 ( ) - |Vr||Vs||B|-1 ( + )
= 0.98 x (168.58)2 / (100) (75 - 3)
(132 x 168.58) / (100) (75 + 11.92)
= 278.49
72 - 222.53
86.92
Sending end active power

Ps = 278.49 cos72 - 222.53 cos86.92
= 86.06 11.96 = 74.10 MW
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
23/38

Sending end reactive power
Qs = 278.49 sin72 - 222.53 sin 86.92
= 264.89 222.21
= 42.65 MVar lagging
(c) Line losses = Ps Pr = 74.10 60 x 0.8
= 26.10 MW
MVar absorbed by line = Qs Qr
= 42.65 60 x 0.6
= 6.65 MVar
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
24/38

(d)
Pr = 60 x 0.8 = 48
|Vs| = 145
|Vr| = 132
Pr = |Vs||Vr||B|-1 cos( ) - |A||Vr|2 |B|-1 cos( )

or 48 = (145 x 132) / (100) x cos( )
0.98 x (132)2 / (100) cos(75 - 3)
or 48 = 191.4cos( ) 170.75cos72
or cos( ) = 0.5275 or
NPTEL
( ) = 58.16
A.K. Sinha
25/38

Qr = |Vs||Vr||B|-1 sin( ) - |A||Vr|2 |B|-1 sin( )
= (145 x 132) / (100) sin58.16 0.98 x (132)2 / (100) sin 72
= 162.60 162.40 = 0.20MVar
Thus for Vs = 145 kV, Vr = 132 kV and Pr = 48
MW, a lagging MVar of 0.2 will be supplied
from the line along with the real power of 48
MW. Since the load requires 36 MVar lagging,
the static compensation equipment must
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
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Deliver 36 0.2, i.e., 35.8 MVar lagging (or
must absorb 35.8 MVar leading). The capacity
of static capacitors is, therefore, 35.8 MVar.
(e) |Vs| = |Vr| = 132 kV, Qr = 0
Qr = |Vs||Vr||B|-1 sin( ) - |A||Vr|2 |B|-1 sin( )
or 0 = (132 x 132) / (100) sin( )
0.98 x (132)2 / (100) sin(75 - 3)
or
( ) = 68.75
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
27/38
Hence,
Pr = |Vs||Vr||B|-1 cos( ) - |A||Vr|2 |B|-1 cos( )
= {1322/100} cos68.75 - {(0.98x1322)/100}cos72
= 63.13 52.77 = 10.36 MW
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
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Example 3:
A 220 kV line has tap changing transformers at
both ends. The transformers at the sending end
has a nominal ratio 11/220 kV and at the
receiving end 220/11 kV. The line impedance is
10 + j40 ohms and the load at the receiving end
is 100 MW at 0.9 pf lagging. Assuming that the
product of off-nominal tap settings is 1, find the
tap settings to give 11 kV at load bus.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
29/38
Solution: We have,
S = (100 x 106) / (3 x 0.9)
= 37.03 x 106 VA per phase
And,
P
= (100 x 106) / 3
= 33.33 x 106 W per phase
Hence, we can calculate Q as

Q = (S2 P2)0.5
= 16.15 x 106 Var per phase
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A.K. Sinha
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Also, we have,
V1 = V2 = (220 x 103) / 30.5 V
= 127.02 x 103 V
R = 10
X = 40
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
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The tap setting is given as
1/ts2 = [1 (R.P + X.Q) / (V1.V2) ]
= [ 1 (10x33.33 + 40x16.15) / (127.02)2 ]
Hence, ts = 1.0317
tr = 1/ts = 0.9692
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
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Example 4:
A 3 phase overhead line has A = D = 0.98 3
and B = 100 84 ohm. It is operating with Vs
= 240 kV and Vr = 220 kV (line to line). Find
(a) maximum power which can be received at the
receiving end
(b) rating of synchronous phase modifier at the
receiving end if load at the receiving end is 80
MW at 0.8 p.f. lagging
(c) angle under above conditions
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
33/38
Solution:
We have,
Pr = |Vs|.|Vr|.|B|-1 cos( - )
|A|.|Vr|2.|B|-1 cos( )
(a) For maximum Pr, dPr/d = 0
dPr/d = |Vs|.|Vr|.|B|-1 sin( - ) = 0
or sin( - ) = 0 or =
Hence, = 84
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
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Hence,
Pr = (240x220)/100 0.98(220)2/100 cos(84- 3)
= 528 74.2 = 453.8 MW
(b) Pr = 80 MW, Sr = 100 MVA
80 = (240 x 220) / (100) cos( )
0.98 x (220)2 / (100) cos(84 - 3)
or 80 = 528 cos( ) 74.2
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A.K. Sinha
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or cos( - ) = 0.292 and
( - ) = 73.02
Qr = |Vs|.|Vr|.|B|-1 sin( - )
|A|.|Vr|2.|B|-1 sin( - )
= (240 x 220) / (100) sin(73.02)
0.98 x (220)2 / (100) sin(84 - 3)
= 504.98 468.48 = 36.5 MVar
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
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Now, since the load requires (1002- 802)0.5 i.e.

60 MVar lagging, the difference i.e. 60 36.5
= 23.5 MVar must be supplied by the phase
modifier. Thus its capacity is 23.5 MVar.
(c)
( - ) = 73.02
= 84 - 73.02 = 10.98
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
37/38
Power System
Representation
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
2/35
Lesson 2
Lesson Summary:
Introduction to Single Line Diagram
Symbols used for PS components
Introduction to Per Unit Representation
Selection of Base Quantities
Advantages of PU system
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A.K. Sinha
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Instructional Objective
On completion of this lesson a student should be
able to:
A. Explain the concept of SLD and its advantages
B. Build SLD for a Power System
C. Explain the concept of Per Unit system of
normalisation
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D. Select the base values for per unit system
E. Compute per unit impedance values for power
system components having different base values
F. Explain the advantages of per unit system
representation
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Single Line Diagram

Per Unit Normalization
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A.K. Sinha
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Single Line Diagram
Power systems are extremely complicated

electrical networks
Three phase networks all devices are

installed in all three phases and each power
circuit consists of three conductors.
A complete conventional diagram showing

all the connections is very complicated and
impractical.
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A.K. Sinha
7/35
Single Line Diagram

Three phase systems are designed as
balanced system and are generally operated
as a balanced 3 system.
Single Line Diagrams (SLD) are concise
way of communicating the basic
arrangement of power system components.
SLDs use a single line to represent all three
phases.
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A.K. Sinha
8/35
Single Line Diagram

SLDs are also called One Line Diagrams.
They show the relative electrical interconnections of generators, transformers,
transmission and distribution lines, loads,
circuit breakers, etc., used in assembling the
power system.
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A.K. Sinha
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Single Line Diagram

There is no universally accepted set of symbols
used for single line diagrams. Some of the
symbols used are shown below:
Generator or Motor
Transformer
3-winding Transformer
Auto-transformer
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A.K. Sinha
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Single Line Diagram (Symbols)

Current Transformer (CT)
Potential Transformer (PT)
Disconnect (Isolator) Switch
Circuit Breaker
Fuse
Reactor
NPTEL
Lightning
Arrestor
A.K. Sinha
11/35
Single Line Diagram (Bus-bars)

Busbar (bus) Node in electrical circuit
(one bus for each phase)
Buses -
aluminum or copper bars or pipes

and can be several meters long
Buses in SLDs - short straight lines

perpendicular to transmission
lines and to lines connecting
equipment to the buses.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
12/35
Single Line Diagram
Line
Generator
Bus bars
Load
Line
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
13/35

Single Line Diagram (Sub-Station)
Bus # 1
NPTEL
Bus # 2
A.K. Sinha
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Per Unit Normalization

In Power Systems electrical quantities
such as POWER, VOLTAGE, CURRENT,
IMPEDANCE etc. are very often expressed
as per unit of a base or reference value.
Per Unit value is expressed by equation:
actual quantity
Per - unit quantity =
base value of quantity
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
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Choice of Base Quantity

Two Independent Base Values are selected
Vbase Voltage Base Value
Sbase Complex Power Base Value
Single Phase System
Pb1 = Q b1 = Sb1
NPTEL
Ib =
A.K. Sinha
b1
VbLN
16/35

2
bLN
VbLN V
Zb = R b = Xb =
=
Ib
S b1
1
Yb = Gb = Bb =
Zb
Convention for per unit system:

1. Value of Sb is same for the entire system
2. Ratio of Vb on either side of a transformer is
selected to be same as the ratio of
transformer voltage ratings
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
17/35

I1pu
Rpu + j Xpu
Ideal
V1pu
V1pu
I2pu
Trans
V2pu
V1
N1
V2
=
=
V 1b
N2
V 1b
U s in g
V 1b /V 2 b = V ra te d 1 /V ra te d 2 = N 1 /N 2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
18/35
V1pu
I1 p u =
N1 V2
V2
=
=
= V2p.u.
N1
N2 ( N2 )V2b V2b
I1
I1 b
N
=
N
2
1
I2
I1 b
U s in g
I1b = S b/V 1b = S b/{ (N 1/N 2)V
= (N 2/N 1)I2b
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
2b
19/35
I1pu
I1pu
N2 I2
I2
=
=
= I2pu
N2
N1 ( N1 )I2b I2b
Rpu + j Xpu
I2pu
V2pu
V1pu
Transformer impedance referred to primary side
I1b
Z1pu = Z1
V1b
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A.K. Sinha
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Transformer impedance referred to secondary side
Z2
N2
= Z 1
N1
Z 2pu
N 2 I2b
= Z1
V 2b
1
N
= Z1
= Z1
N2
N1
.I1b
/V
N1
N2
I1b
= Z 1pu
V 1b
NPTEL
1b
A.K. Sinha
N2
N1
21/35
Change of Base
Zp.u.new
Z actual Zp.u.old Zbold

=
=
Zbnew
Zbnew
2
Z p.u.new
Sbnew
Vbold
= Z p.u.old (
(
)
)
Vbnew
Sbold
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A.K. Sinha
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Three Phase System
S b 3 = Pb 3 = Q b 3
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Ib =
b1
VbLN
b3
3 VbLL
2
bLN
2
bLL
Vb L N
V
V
Zb =
=
=
Ib
S b1
S b3
1
Rb = Xb = Zb =
Yb
NPTEL
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Example: Prepare a per phase schematic of the
system shown in the figure on the next slide and
show all impedances in per unit on a 100 MVA,
132 KV base in the transmission-line circuit.
G1: 100 MVA, 11 KV, X = 0.15 p.u.
G2: 200 MVA, 13.8 KV, X = 0.20 p.u.
T1: 120 MVA, 11.0/132 KV, X = 0.10 p.u.
T2: 250 MVA, 13.8/132 KV, X = 0.10 p.u.
Load: 250 MVA, 0.80 PF lagging, operating at
132 KV.
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50+j100
G1
T1
G2
25+j100 25+j100
T2
Load
Example 2: System representation in P.U.
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A.K. Sinha
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Determine the per unit impedance of the load
for the following cases:
i. Load modeled as a series combination of
resistance and inductance.
ii. Load modeled as a parallel combination of
resistance and inductance.
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A.K. Sinha
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Solution: All the data presented are in per unit
on a base specified for each component. In our
analysis, we will convert all these quantities to a
common system base specified in the problem.
Base KV in the transmission line = 132 KV
Base KV in the generator circuit G1
= 132 X 11/132 = 11 KV
Base KV in the generator circuit G2
= 132 X 13.8/161 = 11.31 KV
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A.K. Sinha
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We now convert all the parameter values to per unit
on the common base specified.
G1: X = 0.15 X 100/100 X (11/11)2 = 0.15 p.u.
G2: X = 0.20 X 100/200 X (13.8/11.31)2 = 0.1489 p.u.
T1: X = 0.1 X 100/120 X (11/11)2 = 0.0833 p.u.
T2: X = 0.1 X 100/250 X (13.8/11.31)2 = 0.05955 p.u.
The base impedance in the transmission-line
circuit is
(132)2/100 = 174.24 ohms
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Z trans-line
= (50 + j200) / 174.24

= 0.2870 + j 1.1478 p.u.
The per unit impedance of the transmission lines

connecting the load bus to the high voltage buses
is given as
Z = (25 + j 100) / 174.24 p.u.
= 0.1435 + j 0.5739 p.u.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
30/35

The base impedance in the load circuit is same
as the base impedance in the transmission line
circuit.
Also, the load is specified as
250 x (0.8 + j 0.6) = 200 + j 150
We now look for the two different types of
combination for the load resistance and
reactance.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
31/35

i. Series connection:
Z load*
=
=
(132)2/ (200 + j 150)

55.7568 j 41.8176
Z load
55.7568 + j 41.8176 ohms
Z load,pu =
=
(55.7568 + j 41.8176)/174.24
0.32 + j 0.24 p.u.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
32/35

ii. Parallel connection:
R load = (132)2/200 = 87.12 ohms
= 87.12/174.24 = 0.5 p.u.
X load = (132)2/ 150 = 116.16 ohms
= 116.16/174.24 = 0.66 p.u.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
33/35

0.287
j 0.0833
J1.1478
j0.05955
j.1489
j 0.15
.1435
j .5739
j .5739 .1435
G2
G1
Load
0.5
j 0.66
Example: Impedance diagram with per unit representation

where load is represented as parallel combination of
resistance and reactance.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
34/35
Advantages of PU System
Manufacturers specify the impedance of
equipment in percent or PU on the base of
nameplate rating.
PU impedance of same type of equipment
with widely different rating lie in a narrow
range.
PU impedance expressed with proper
base is same referred to either side of a
transformer.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
35/35
Power Flow
Lesson Summary
1. Introduction
2. Power Flow Equations
3. Formulation of YBUS Matrix
4. Classification of Busbars
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
2/26
On completion of this lesson a student should
be able to:
A. Explain the significance of power flow
problem
B. Develop YBUS Matrix for any power network
C. Develop Power Flow Equations for a Power
System
D. Classify Different Types Network busbars.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
3/26

100
80
60
System Load
40
20
0
12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
3/26
Power System Network

PG1, QG1
PL3, QL3
L1
L2
PG3, QG3
3
L6
L3
L4
L5
PG2, QG2
PL2, QL2
PL4, QL4
NPTEL
PL5, QL5
A.K. Sinha
3/26

The Power Flow
To bus j
To bus m
To bus i
Vk
= Vk k
B us k
PGk QGk PLk QLk

Gen
-
Load
Pk = PGK PLK
Qk = Q GK QLK

The Power Flow
Pkj ,Qkj
To bus m
Pkm ,Qkm
Pki ,Qki
B us k
Pk = PGK PLK
To bus j
Pk Qk
Pk = PKi + PKj + PKm
To bus i
Vk = Vk k
Qk = Q GK QLK
Qk = QKi + QKj + QKm
Power Flow Study

Power System Operation as Quasi-static
Static Analysis of Power Network
Real power balance ( Pgi - PDi - PLoss)
Reactive power balance ( Q gi - QDi - QLoss)

Transmission Flow Limit
Bus Voltage Limits
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
3/26
Static Analysis of Power Network

Mathematical Model of the Network
Transmission line - nominal
model
Bus power injections -
SK = VKIK* = PK + jQK
Pk = PGK PLK
Qk = Q GK QLK
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
3/26
Formation of Bus Admittance Matrix

P1 Q1
P3 Q3
L2
1
L1
P2 Q2
L3
P1 Q1
Y120
Y13
Y23
Y12
Y210
Y130
Y230
P2 Q2
Y310
P3 Q3
3
Y320
I1 =y120V1 +y12(V1 -V2)+y130V1 +y13(V1 -V3)

I2 =y210V2 +y12(V2 -V)+y
1
230V2 +y23(V2 -V3)
I3 =y310V3 +y13(V3 -V)+y
1
320V3 +y23(V3 -V2)
I1 (y120 +y12 +y130 +y13) y12 y13 V1

I =y (y +y +y +y ) y V
2 21 210 12 230 23 23 2
I3 y31 y32 (y310 +y13 +y320 +y23) V3
I1 Y11
I =Y
2 21
I3 Y31
Y12
Y22
Y32
Y13 V1
Y23 V2
Y33 V3
Y11 = y120 + y12 + y130 + y13

Y22 = y210 + y12 + y230 + y23
Y33 = y310 + y13 + y320 + y23
Y12 = Y21 = y12

Y13 = Y31 = y13
Y23 = Y32 = y23
Yii is called Self-Admittance (Driving Point
Admittance)
Yij is called Transfer-Admittance (Mutual
Admittance)
IB U S = Y B u s V B U S ; V B U S = Z B u s IB U S
Characteristics of YBUS Matrix

Dimension of YBUS is (n x n) n = Number of Bus
YBUS is Symmetric Matrix
YBUS is a Sparse Matrix (up to 90 to 95 % sparse)
Diagonal Elements Yii are Obtained as Algebraic
Sum of All Elements Incident to Bus i
Off-diagonal Elements Yij = Yji are Obtained as
negative of Admittance Connecting Bus i and j
Power Flow Equations
IB U S = Y B u s V B U S
Ik =
Ykn V n
n=1
S k = P k + jQ
Pk + jQ k
= V k I k*
*
= V k Yk n V n k = 1 , 2 , , N
n =1

j k n
Vn = Vn e
j
Ykn = Ykne
k, n, = 1, 2, ,N
kn
Pk + jQ k = V k
Pk = Vk
Qk = Vk
Yk n V n e
j( k - n - k n )
n =1
Vncos(k - n - n )
Vnsin(k - n - kn )
kn
n=1
N
kn
n= 1
Characteristics of Power Flow Equations

Power Flow Equations are Algebraic
Static System
Power Flow Equations are Nonlinear
Iterative Solution
Relate P,Q in terms of V, and YBUS Elements
P,Q f (V, )
Power Flow Problem

Characterization of Variables
Loads (PL,QL) Uncontrolled (Disturbance)
Variable
Generation (PG,QG) control Variable
Voltage (V,) State Variable
For a Given Operating Condition Loads and
Generations at all buses are known (Specified)
Find the Voltage Magnitude and Angle (V,) at
each bus
Problem in Power Flow Solution

All generation Variables (PG,QG) can not
be specified as Losses are not known
a priori.
Solution
Choose one bus as reference where
Voltage Magnitude and angle are
specified. The losses are assigned to
this bus. This bus is called Slack Bus.
Classification of Busbars
Each bus 'k' is Classified into one of the
following three bus types :
1. Swing bus - There is only one swing bus,
which for convenience is numbered bus 1
The swing bus is a reference
bus for w hich V1 1 , typically 1.0 0 o per
unit, is Specified (input data). The power - flow
program computes computes P1 and Q 1 .
2. Load bus - Pk and Q k are specified

(input data).
The pow er - flow program com putes
Vk and k .

3. Voltage controlled bus - Pk and Vk are input data
The power - flow program computes Qk and k .
Examples are buses which generators,switched
shunt capacitors, or static var systems are
connected. Maximum and minimum var limits
QG k m a x and QG k m i n that this equipment can supply
are also input data. Another example is a bus to
which a tap changing transformer is connected;
the power - flow program then computes the tap
setting
Power Flow
Lesson Summary
1. Power Flow Problem
2. Computational Aspects
3. Gauss Seidel (G-S) Method
4. Example
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
2/26
be able to:
A. Explain the significance of power flow
problem for large system
B. Develop G S iterative technique for Power
Flow solution
C. Solve Power Flow problem using G S
Method.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
3/26
Power Flow Equations
Ik =
Ykn V n
n=1
S k = P k + jQ
Pk + jQ k
= V k I k*
*
= V k Yk n V n k = 1 , 2 , , N
n =1

j k n
Vn = Vn e
j
Ykn = Ykne
k, n, = 1, 2, ,N
kn
Pk + jQ k = V k
Pk = Vk
Qk = Vk
Yk n V n e
j( k - n - k n )
n =1
Vncos(k - n - n )
Vnsin(k - n - kn )
kn
n=1
N
kn
n= 1
Characteristics of Power Flow Equations

Power Flow Equations are Algebraic
Static System
Power Flow Equations are Nonlinear
Iterative Solution
Relate P,Q in terms of V, and YBUS Elements
P,Q f (V, )
Power Flow Problem

Characterization of Variables
Loads (PL,QL) Uncontrolled (Disturbance)
Variable
Generation (PG,QG) control Variable
Voltage (V,) State Variable
For a Given Operating Condition Loads and
Generations at all buses are known (Specified)
Find the Voltage Magnitude and Angle (V,) at
each bus
Problem in Power Flow Solution

All generation Variables (PG,QG) can not
be specified as Losses are not known
a priori.
Solution
Choose one bus as reference where
Voltage Magnitude and angle are
specified. The losses are assigned to
this bus. This bus is called Slack Bus.
Classification of Busbars
1. Swing Bus
2. PV Bus (Voltage Control Bus)
3. PQ Bus (Load Bus)
With each bus i, 4 variables (Pi, Qi, Vi and i)
are associated. Depending on the type of bus
two variables are specified (known) and two
unknown variables are obtained from power
flow solution.
5 Bus Power System

PG1, QG1
PL3, QL3
L1
L2
PG3, QG3
3
L6
L3
L4
L5
PG2, QG2
PL2, QL2
PL4, QL4
NPTEL
PL5, QL5
A.K. Sinha
3/26
Bus Data
Bus Type
V
Per
unit
PG QG PL QL QGmax Q Gmin
per per per per per per

deg unit unit unit unit unit unit
1
2
3
4
5
1.03
1.05
-
0
-
Swing
PQ
PV
PQ
PQ
0
0
1.4 0.8 3.0 1.2 2.2 0.8 0.4 3.0
0
0
0.6 0.3 0
0
0.5 0.2 -
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
-1.8
-
3/26
Line Data
Bus-to-bus
R
per
unit
X
per
unit
G
per
unit
B
per
unit
Maximum
MVA
per unit
24
0.0090
0.100
1.72
12.0
25
0.0045
0.050
0.88
12.0
45
0.00225
0.025
0.44
12.0
15
0.00150
0.02
6.0
34
0.00075
0.01
10.0
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
3/26
Bus Type
No. of Specified No. of

Buses quantites equations
1 Swing
2 PQ
3 PV
1
3
1
V,
P, Q
P, V
Total
10
0
2x3 = 6
1
7
No. of (V,)
State Variables
0
2x3 = 6
1
7

Power Flow Solution by Gauss Seidel Method
Ik =
Ykn V n
n=1
*
k k
S k = P k + jQ k = V I
*
N
Pk + jQ k = V k Yk n V n k = 1 , 2 , , N
n =1
Pk - jQ k
Ik =
, Also
*
Vk
N
Ik = Ykn Vn ,or
n=1
Ik = Yk1V1 + Yk2 V2 + + Ykk Vk + YkN VN

k-1
N
1 Pk - jQ k
Vk =
( Ykn Vn + Ykn Vn )
*
Ykk Vk
n=1
n=k +1
k = 1,2,......,N
Iterative Procedure
1. Make an initial guess |Vi|(0) and i(0)
-- Flat Start |Vi|(0) = 1.0 and i(0) =0.0
2. Use this solution in PFE to obtain a
better first solution
3. First solution is used to obtain a
better second solution and so on
k-1
N
P
jQ
1
i+1
i+1
i
k
k
Vk =
( Ykn Vn + Ykn Vn )
*
Ykk Vk
n=1
n=k+1
k = 1,2,......,N;i is iteration count
Continue iteration till
| Vki+1 Vki |
Algorithm Steps:
1. With Pgi, Qgi , Pdi and Qdi known
bus injections Pi, Qi
Calculate
2. Form YBUS Matrix

(0)
i
3. Set initial voltage V
(0)
i
4. Iteratively solve equation
k-1
N
P
jQ
1
i+1
i+1
i
k
k
Vk =
( Ykn Vn + Ykn Vn )
*
Ykk Vk
n=1
n=k+1
to obtain new values of bus voltages
IIT Kharagpur
Example: For the system shown, ZL = j0.5, V1
= 10, SG2 = j1.0 and SD2 = 0.5 + j1.0. Find V2
using Gauss - Seidel iteration technique.
IIT Kharagpur
IIT Kharagpur
Solution: Firstly, we calculate the elements of
the YBUS. For ZL = j0.5, we have
Y11 = -j2
Y12 = j2
Y21 = j2
Y22 = -j2
We iterate on V2 using the equation given
below:
V2n+1 = 1/Y22 [S2*/(V2n)* - Y21.V1]
(1)
IIT Kharagpur
Given,
V1 = 10
S2 = SG2 SD2 = -0.5
Putting the values of V1, S2, Y22 and Y21 in
equation (1), we get
V2n+1 = -j [ 0.25 / (V2n)* ] +1.0 .(2)
We start with a guess, taking V20 = 10 and
iterate using equation (2).
IIT Kharagpur
He have,
V20 = 1 + j0
Putting in equation (2), and iterating for V2, we

get
V21 = -j [ 0.25 / (1+j0)* ] +1.0
= 1.0 j0.25
= 1.030776 -14.036243o
V22 = -j [ 0.25 / (1.0 j0.25)* ] + 1.0
= 1.0 j0.25/(1.0 + j0.25)
= 1.0 / (1.0 + j0.25)
= 0.970143 -14.036249o
IIT Kharagpur
Similarly, we can iterate it further. The results
of the iteration, are tabulated below.
Iteration number
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
V2
1 0
1.030776 -14.036243
0.970143 -14.036249
0.970261 -14.931409
0.966235 -14.931416
0.966236 -14.995078
0.965948 -14.995072
IIT Kharagpur
Since, the difference in the values for the
voltage doesnt change much between the 5th
and the 6th iteration, we can stop after the 6th.
Hence, we can see that starting with the value
V20 = 10 , convergence is reached in six
steps.
Power Flow
Lesson Summary
1. Computational Aspectsof Gauss
Seidel (G-S) Method
2. Power Flow Solution by N-R Method
3. Direct Solution of Linear Algeraic
Equations
4. Example
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
2/24
be able to:
A. Explain the Characteristics of G-S Method
B. Develop N-R iterative technique for Power
Flow solution
C. Solve a Set of Linear Algebraic Equations
D. Solve Power Flow problem using N-R
Method.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
3/24
Algorithm Steps for G-S Method:

1. With Pgi, Qgi , Pdi and Qdi known
bus injections Pi, Qi
Calculate
2. Form YBUS Matrix

3. Set initial voltage V (0) , (0)
i
i
4. Iteratively solve equation
k-1
N
P
jQ
1
i+1
i+1
i
k
k
Vk =
( Ykn Vn + Ykn Vn )
*
Ykk Vk
n=1
n=k+1
to obtain new values of bus voltages

NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
4/24
Computational Characteristics of G-S Method

G-S Algorithm has slow convergence
Convegence rate can be accelerated using
acceleration factor.
(i+1)
= X + X
(i+1)
= X + X
(i)
(i)
(i)
(i)
is the accelerating factor

in the range of 1.5 - 1.7
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
5/24
Power Flow Solution

Using Newton-Raphson Method
Pk = Vk
kn
Vncos(k - n - kn )
n=1
Qk = Vk
kn
Vnsin(k - n - kn )
n= 1
f1 ( x )
f (x )
2
y = f(x ) =
M
f N ( x )
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/24

Where
P2
2
M
M

P PN
n
y= =
; x = =
Q Q 2
V V2
M
M

Q N
Vn
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
7/24
P2 (x )
PN (x )
P (x )
f(x ) =
=
Q (x )
Q 2 (x )
Q N ( x )
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
8/24
y k = Pk = Pk (x)
N
= Vk Ykn Vn cos( k - n - kn )
n=1
y k +N = Q
= Q
(x )
= Vk Ykn Vn sin(k - n - kn )
n=1
k = 2, 3, , N
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
9/24

Making an initial guess X=X0 and using
Taylor series expansion for f(X) about X0
df
y = f(x 0 ) +
dx
x =x 0
(x - x 0 ) + L
Neglecting higher order terms and solving

for X
df
x = x0 +
dx
NPTEL
-1
x =x 0 [y - f(x 0 )]
A.K. Sinha
10/24
(i+1)
where
(i)
df
=
dx x =x (i)
=x
(i)
+J
f1
x
1
f2
= x 1
M
fN
x 1
NPTEL
-1(i)
f1
x 2
f2
x 2
M
fN
x 2
(i)
{y - f[x ]}
f1
L
x N
f2
L
x N
M
M
fN
L
x N x = x (i)
A.K. Sinha
11/24
(i+1)
=x
(i)
+J
-1(i)
(i)
{y - f[x ]}
-1
contains the matrix inverse J .

Instead of computing J-1 one can
rewrite the above equation as follows :
(i)
J X
(i)
where X
and
(i)
(i)
(i)
(i+1)
(i)
Y - f[x (i) ]
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
12/24
J X
(i)
(i)
= Y
(i)
is o f th e fo rm
A 11
A
21
M
A N 1
A 12
A 22
M
A N2
A 1N x 1 y 1
A 2N x 2 y 2
=
M
M M M

L
A N N x N y N
L
L
or A x = y ;
a s e t o f lin e a r a lg e b r a ic e q u a tio n s
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
13/24

Direct Solution of Linear Algebraic Equations
Gauss Elimination Method
A11
0
0
0
A12L
A22L
L
L
M
0L
M
AN-1,N-1
0L 0
L
NPTEL
A1N x1 y1
A2N x 2
y
2
M = M
M
AN-1,N xN-1 yN-1

ANN xN yN
A.K. Sinha
14/24

Back Substitution
yN
xN =
A NN
x N -1 =
yk xk =
y N - 1 - A N - 1 ,N x N
A N - 1 ,N - 1
kn n
n=k+1
k = N,N- 1,,1
Akk
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
15/24
A12
A11
0 A - A 21 A
22
12
A11
A 31
A12
0 A 32 A11
M
M
AN1
A12
0 AN2 A11
A 21
L A 2N A1N x
1

11
x
2
A 31
L A 3N A1N x 3
A11
M
M
xN
AN1
A1N
L ANN A11
NPTEL
A1N
A.K. Sinha
16/24
y 1
A 21
y
A 11
A
A
M
A
A
NPTEL
3 1
1 1
N 1
1 1
A.K. Sinha
17/24
A 1(11)
0
M
(1 )
A 12
(1 )
A
A
22
(1 )
32
M
A N( 2)
1
NPTEL
(1 )
A 1N
(1 )
A 2N
(1 )
A 3N
M
1
A N( N)
(1 )
y1
x1
(1 )
x
y
2
2
x 3 = y (1 )
3
M
M
x N
y N(1 )
A.K. Sinha
18/24
(2 )
A 11
0
M
(2 )
A 11
(2 )
A 13
(2 )
(2 )
A 23
(2 )
A 33
(2 )
A 43
M
(2 )
A 22
0
0
M
0
A N3
NPTEL
(2 )
y
A 1N x
1
1
(2 )
(2 )
A 2N x 2 y 2

(2 )
(2 ) x
y3
A 3N 3
(2 )
(2 ) x
4
A 4N y 4
M
M
M
x
2
( )
(2 )
N
A NN
y
N
(2 )
A.K. Sinha
19/24

During step k, we start with A(k-1) x = y(k-1). The
first k of these equations, already
triangularized, are left unchanged. Also,
(k-1)
(k-1)
/Akk
equation k is multiplied by Ank
and then
subtracted from equation n, for n = k+1, k+2,
., N.
After (N-1) steps, we arrive at the equivalent
equation A(N-1) x = y(N-1), where A(N-1) is upper
triangular.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
20/24
2 3 -1 x1 5
-4 6 8 x 2 = 7
10 12 14 x 3 9
3
-1
5
2
x1
0 6 - (-2)(3) 8 - (-2)(-1) x = 7 - (-2)(5)
0 12 - (5)(3) 14 - (5)(-1) x 3 9 - (5)(5)
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
21/24
2 3 -1 x1 5
0 12 6 x 2 = 17
0 -3 19 x -16
-1
5
2 3
x1
0 12
x =
6
17
0 0 19 - (-.25)(6) x 3 -16 - (-.25)(17)
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
22/24
-1 x1 5
2 3
0 12
6 x 2 = 17
0 0 20.5 x -11.75
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
23/24
Power Flow
Lesson Summary
1. Computation of Jacobian Matrix for N-R
Method
2. Computational Algorithm for N-R
Power Flow
3. Example
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
2/40
be able to:
A. Compute elements of Jacobian Matrix
B. Develop N-R Power Flow Algorithm
C. Solve Power Flow problem using N-R
Method
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
3/40
Power Flow Solution

Pk = Vk
kn
Vncos(k - n - kn )
n=1
Qk = Vk
kn
Vnsin(k - n - kn )
n= 1
f1 ( x )
f (x )
2
y = f(x ) =
M
f N ( x )
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
4/40

Where
P2
2
M
M

P PN
n
y= =
; x = =
Q Q 2
V V2
M
M

Q N
Vn
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
5/40
P2 (x )
PN (x )
P (x )
f(x ) =
=
Q (x )
Q 2 (x )
Q N ( x )
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/40
y k = Pk = Pk (x)
N
n=1
y k +N = Q
= Q
(x )
n=1
k = 2, 3, , N
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A.K. Sinha
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df
y = f(x 0 ) +
dx
x =x 0
(x - x 0 ) + L

for X
-1
df
x = x0 +
dx
NPTEL
x =x 0 [y - f(x 0 )]
A.K. Sinha
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(i+1)
where
(i)
df
=
dx x = x (i)
=x
(i)
+J
f1
x
1
f2
= x 1
M
fN
x
1
NPTEL
-1(i)
f1
x 2
f2
x 2
M
fN
x 2
(i)
{y - f[x ]}
f1
L
x N
f2
L
x N
M
M
fN
L
x N x =x (i)
A.K. Sinha
9/40

(i)
PP X

(i)
y =
=
Q (i) Q Q X (i)

J1(i) J2 (i) (i) P (i)
J3 (i) J4 (i) V (i) Q (i)

(i)
(i + 1)
(i + 1) (i) (i)
=
=
+
V (i + 1) V (i) V (i)
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A.K. Sinha
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(i)
P2

2
M
PN
2
=
Q 2

2
M
Q N
2
J1
P2
L
N
V2
P2
PN
V2
Q 2
Q 2
V2
Q N
Q N
V2
L
J3
NPTEL
P2
J2
L
L
L
L
J4
P2
VN
M
PN
VN
Q 2
VN
Q N
VN
A.K. Sinha
X = X(i)
11/40
nk
J1kn =
Pk
n
J2kn =
J3kn =
J4kn
= Vk Ykn Vn sin ( k - n - kn )
Pk
Vn
Q k
= Vk Ykncos ( k - n - kn )
= -Vk Ykn Vncos ( k - n - kn )
n
Qk
=
= Vk Ykn sin ( k - n - kn )
Vn
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A.K. Sinha
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n=k
J1kk =
J2kk =
J3kk =
J4kk =
Pk
Vk
Q k
Vk
= -Vk Ykn Vn sin ( k - n - kn )

n=1
nk
= Vk Ykk coskk + Ykn Vncos ( k - n - kn )
Qk
k
Pk
n=1
= Vk Ykn Vn cos ( k - n - kn )
n=1
nk
= -Vk Ykk sinkk + Ykn Vn sin ( k - n - kn )

n=1
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Accounting for PV Buses

For each Voltage Control Bus k
Vk (Voltage magnitude) is known
Qk (Reactive power injection) is not
specified
Therefore, we omit
Vk from vector X, and
Qk from vector Y
Qk
Row
from Jacobian Martix
Vk
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
14/40

That is the equation for reactive power
injection Q at PV bus is eliminated from the
N-R equation set.
For a power system with n buses out of
which m buses are PV buses - Number of
equation to be solved for N-R Power Flow is
(n-1) P equations + (n-1-m) Q equation or
{2(n-1) m} equations and the size of
Jacobian Matrix will also be
{2(n-1) - m} x {2(n-1) m}
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A.K. Sinha
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Algorithm for N-R Power Flow

1. Make an initial guess for state vector X(0)
2. Compute the bus power mismatches Y(0)
3. Compute the Jacobian Matrix J(0)

4. Solve for voltage error vector X(0) =
5. Update state vector X(1) = X(0) + X(0)
(0 )
6. Increase Iteration count and Go to step 2.
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Example: For the 3-bus system shown find

2, |V3|, 3, SG1, and QG2. The transmission
line is represented as nominal equivalent
network with series impedance of zl = (0.0 +
j0.10) and half line charging admittance yc =
j0.01.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
17/40

PG2=0.6661
SG1
V1=1.0+j0
|V2|=1.04
V3
SD3=2.5+j1.0
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
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Solution: The YBUS for the system is given by

j10
j10
- j19.98
YBUS = j10
j19.98
j10
j10
j10
-j19.98
For this system: Bus 1 is the slack bus, bus 2 is
a PV bus and bus 3 is a PQ bus.
The unknown (state) variables are 2, 3 and |V3|.
Thus the Jacobian will be a 3 X 3 matrix.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
19/40

Also, we have functions defined for active
and reactive power injections as
n
Pi(x) = | Vi | . | Vk | [ Gik cos(i - k) + Bik sin(i - k)]

k=1
Qi(x) = | Vi | . | Vk | [ Gik sin(i - k) - Bik cos(i - k)]

k=1
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Real Power equations for bus 2 and 3:
P2(x) = |V2|.|V1|.B21.sin(2-1) + |V2|.|V3|.B23.
sin(2-3)
= 10.4 sin2 + 10.4|V3| sin(2-3)
(1)
P3(x) = |V3|.|V1|.B31.sin(3-1) + |V3|.|V2|.B32.

sin(3-2)
= 10 |V3| sin3 + 10.4 |V3| sin(3-2)
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(2)
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Reactive power equation for bus 3:
Q3(x) = - [ |V3|.|V1|.B31cos(3-1) + |V3|.|V2|.
B32cos(3-2) + |V3|2 B33]
= - [ 10 |V3|.cos3 + 10.4 |V3|.cos(3-2)
- 19.98 |V3|2 ]
(3)
We also define the unknown vector and the

Jacobian for the system as
2
3
X=
| V 3 |
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and
P2
2
P3
J(x) =
2
Q3
P2
3
P3
3
Q3
3
NPTEL
P2
| V3 |
P3
| V3 |
Q3
| V3 |
A.K. Sinha
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We can find the terms of the Jacobian matrix by
partial derivation of equations (1), (2) and (3).
dP2
= |V2||V1| B21 cos(2-1) + |V2||V3| B23
d2
cos(2-3)
= 10.4 cos2 + 10.4 |V3| cos(2-3)

Similarly we have,
dP 2
= -10.4 |V3| cos(2-3)
d 3
dP2
= 10.4 sin(2-3)
d | V3 |
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dP 3
= -10.4 |V3| cos(3-2)
d 2
dP3
= 10.0 |V3| cos3 + 10.4 |V3| cos(3-2)
d3
dP3
= 10 sin + 10.4 sin( - )
3
3 2
d | V3 |
dQ3
= -10.4 |V3| sin(3-2)
d2
dQ3
= 10 |V3| sin3 + 10.4 |V3| sin(3-2)
d3
dQ3
= - [10 cos3 + 10.4 cos(3-2) -39.96 |V3| ]
d| V3 |
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A.K. Sinha
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We now start the iteration using the equation
P 2 (x )
J(x) . X = P 3 (x )
Q 3 (x )
We have, P2 = PG2 = 0.6661,
P3 = -PD3 = -2.5,
and Q3 = -QD3 = -1.0;
We start with an initial guess
20 = 30 = 0, |V30| = 1.0
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A.K. Sinha
26/40

P 2 (x )
P 3 (x )
Q 3 (x )
P
2
P
(x
)
2

P 3
0
P 3 (x )
-
Q 3 (x 0 )
Q 3
The values of the P2(x0), P3(x0) and Q2(x0)

can be calculated from equations (1), (2) &
(3). Putting the values, we get
P 2 (x )
0.6661 0 0.6661
P 3 (x ) = -2.5 - 0 = -2.5
-1.0 -0.42 -0.58

Q 3 (x )
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A.K. Sinha
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Next, we find the jacobian matrix J0 as
0
20.8 -10.4
J(0) =
-10.4
20.4
0
0
0
19.56
To find the changes in our unknown quantities,
we need the value of the inverse of the
Jacobian.
0.0329 0
0.0645
0.0329
(0)-1
0.0658 0
J
=
0
0
0.0511
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We have,
P2(x)
2
(0)
(0)-1
. P3(x)
= J
X = 3
Q3(x)
| V3 |
o
-0.0392
2
.
2
4
6
0
-0.1426
o
8
.
1
7
0
4
=
=
-0 .0 2 9 6
0.0296
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A.K. Sinha
29/40

Next, we find the value of the unknown vector
for the next iteration
X (1) = X (0) + X (0)
2.2460
0
o
= 0 + - 8.1704
1 - 0.0296
- 2.2460 o
o
= - 8.1704
0.9704
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We proceed to the next iteration using the new
values 21 = -2.9395o, 31 = -9.5111o, and |V31| =
0.9638.
Using the equation (1), (2) and (3), we get
P2 (X)
P (X)
3
Q 3 (X)
(1)
0.6341
= - 2.4208
- 0.8291
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A.K. Sinha
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Hence, we get an updated mismatch vector
as
P2
P
3
Q 3
(1)
0.0320
= - 0.0792
- 0.1709
Next, we calculate the Jacobian matrix for

the new values.
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We get,
20.4303
(1)
J = -10.0382
1.0417
-10.0382
19.6438
- 2.4218
1.0734
- 2.4946
18.5342
Similarly, the updated inverse matrix is
0.0654
(1)-1
J = 0.0335
0.0007
0.0335
0.0689
0.0071
NPTEL
0.0007
0.0073
0.0549
A.K. Sinha
33/40

We have,
1
X = 3
| V 3 |
(1)
P2(x)
= J0-1 . P 3(x)
Q3(x)
- 0.0390
- 0.00068
- 0.00564
o
- 0.3231
=
=
- 0.0099
- 0.00992
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Again, calculating the value of X(2)
(2 )
= X
(1 )
+ X
(1 )
- 2.2460 - 0.039 - 2.2850

- 8.1704 - 0.3231 = - 8.4935
0.9704 - 0.0099 0.9605

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values 2(2) = -2.285o, 3(2) = -8.4935o, and |V3(2)|
= 0.9605.
P2 (X)
P (X)
3
Q 3 (X)
(2)
0.66565
= - 2.49890
- 0.99752
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A.K. Sinha
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Hence, we get an updated mismatch vector as
P2
P
3
Q 3
(2)
0.0004
= - 0.0011
- 0.0025
We see that the mismatch in the values is

small enough. Hence, we stop here.
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For the given problem, we have,
PG1 = P1 = |V1|.|V2|.B12 sin(1-2)
+ |V1|.|V3|.B13 sin(1-3)
= 1.8333
QG1 = Q1 = - [ |V1|.|V2|.B12 cos(1-2)
+ |V1|.|V3|.B13 cos(1-3) + |V1|2 B11]
= 0.0886
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A.K. Sinha
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QG2 = Q2 = - [ |V2|.|V1|.B21 cos(2-1)

+ |V2|.|V3|.B23 cos(2-3) + |V2|2 B22]
= 1.288
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A.K. Sinha
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Power Flow
Lesson Summary
1. Computation of Jacobian Matrix for N-R
Method
2. Computational Algorithm for N-R
Power Flow
3. Example
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A.K. Sinha
2/40
be able to:
A. Compute elements of Jacobian Matrix
B. Develop N-R Power Flow Algorithm
C. Solve Power Flow problem using N-R
Method
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A.K. Sinha
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Power Flow Solution

Pk = Vk
kn
Vncos(k - n - kn )
n=1
Qk = Vk
kn
Vnsin(k - n - kn )
n= 1
f1 ( x )
f (x )
2
y = f(x ) =
M
f N ( x )
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A.K. Sinha
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Where
P2
2
M
M

P PN
n
y= =
; x = =
Q Q 2
V V2
M
M

Q N
Vn
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P2 (x )
PN (x )
P (x )
f(x ) =
=
Q (x )
Q 2 (x )
Q N ( x )
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/40
y k = Pk = Pk (x)
N
n=1
y k +N = Q
= Q
(x )
n=1
k = 2, 3, , N
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A.K. Sinha
7/40

df
y = f(x 0 ) +
dx
x =x 0
(x - x 0 ) + L

for X
-1
df
x = x0 +
dx
NPTEL
x =x 0 [y - f(x 0 )]
A.K. Sinha
8/40
(i+1)
where
(i)
df
=
dx x = x (i)
=x
(i)
+J
f1
x
1
f2
= x 1
M
fN
x
1
NPTEL
-1(i)
f1
x 2
f2
x 2
M
fN
x 2
(i)
{y - f[x ]}
f1
L
x N
f2
L
x N
M
M
fN
L
x N x =x (i)
A.K. Sinha
9/40

(i)
PP X

(i)
y =
=
Q (i) Q Q X (i)

J1(i) J2 (i) (i) P (i)
J3 (i) J4 (i) V (i) Q (i)

(i)
(i + 1)
(i + 1) (i) (i)
=
=
+
V (i + 1) V (i) V (i)
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
10/40
(i)
P2

2
M
PN
2
=
Q 2

2
M
Q N
2
J1
P2
L
N
V2
P2
PN
V2
Q 2
Q 2
V2
Q N
Q N
V2
L
J3
NPTEL
P2
J2
L
L
L
L
J4
P2
VN
M
PN
VN
Q 2
VN
Q N
VN
A.K. Sinha
X = X(i)
11/40
nk
J1kn =
Pk
n
J2kn =
J3kn =
J4kn
Pk
Vn
Q k
n
Qk
=
Vn
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
12/40
n=k
J1kk =
J2kk =
J3kk =
J4kk =
Pk
Vk
Q k
Vk
= -Vk Ykn Vn sin ( k - n - kn )

n=1
nk
Qk
k
Pk
n=1
n=1
nk
= -Vk Ykk sinkk + Ykn Vn sin ( k - n - kn )

n=1
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
13/24
Accounting for PV Buses

For each Voltage Control Bus k
Vk (Voltage magnitude) is known
Qk (Reactive power injection) is not
specified
Therefore, we omit
Vk from vector X, and
Qk from vector Y
Qk
Row
from Jacobian Martix
Vk
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
14/40

That is the equation for reactive power
injection Q at PV bus is eliminated from the
N-R equation set.
For a power system with n buses out of
which m buses are PV buses - Number of
equation to be solved for N-R Power Flow is
(n-1) P equations + (n-1-m) Q equation or
{2(n-1) m} equations and the size of
Jacobian Matrix will also be
{2(n-1) - m} x {2(n-1) m}
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
15/40
Algorithm for N-R Power Flow

1. Make an initial guess for state vector X(0)
2. Compute the bus power mismatches Y(0)
3. Compute the Jacobian Matrix J(0)

4. Solve for voltage error vector X(0) =
5. Update state vector X(1) = X(0) + X(0)
(0 )
6. Increase Iteration count and Go to step 2.
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A.K. Sinha
16/40
Example: For the 3-bus system shown find

2, |V3|, 3, SG1, and QG2. The transmission
line is represented as nominal equivalent
network with series impedance of zl = (0.0 +
j0.10) and half line charging admittance yc =
j0.01.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
17/40

PG2=0.6661
SG1
V1=1.0+j0
|V2|=1.04
V3
SD3=2.5+j1.0
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
18/40
Solution: The YBUS for the system is given by

j10
j10
- j19.98
YBUS = j10
j19.98
j10
j10
j10
-j19.98
For this system: Bus 1 is the slack bus, bus 2 is
a PV bus and bus 3 is a PQ bus.
The unknown (state) variables are 2, 3 and |V3|.
Thus the Jacobian will be a 3 X 3 matrix.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
19/40

Also, we have functions defined for active
and reactive power injections as
n
Pi(x) = | Vi | . | Vk | [ Gik cos(i - k) + Bik sin(i - k)]

k=1
Qi(x) = | Vi | . | Vk | [ Gik sin(i - k) - Bik cos(i - k)]

k=1
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
20/40

Real Power equations for bus 2 and 3:
P2(x) = |V2|.|V1|.B21.sin(2-1) + |V2|.|V3|.B23.
sin(2-3)
= 10.4 sin2 + 10.4|V3| sin(2-3)
(1)
P3(x) = |V3|.|V1|.B31.sin(3-1) + |V3|.|V2|.B32.

sin(3-2)
= 10 |V3| sin3 + 10.4 |V3| sin(3-2)
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
(2)
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Reactive power equation for bus 3:
Q3(x) = - [ |V3|.|V1|.B31cos(3-1) + |V3|.|V2|.
B32cos(3-2) + |V3|2 B33]
= - [ 10 |V3|.cos3 + 10.4 |V3|.cos(3-2)
- 19.98 |V3|2 ]
(3)
We also define the unknown vector and the

Jacobian for the system as
2
3
X=
| V 3 |
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A.K. Sinha
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and
P2
2
P3
J(x) =
2
Q3
P2
3
P3
3
Q3
3
NPTEL
P2
| V3 |
P3
| V3 |
Q3
| V3 |
A.K. Sinha
23/40

We can find the terms of the Jacobian matrix by
partial derivation of equations (1), (2) and (3).
dP2
= |V2||V1| B21 cos(2-1) + |V2||V3| B23
d2
cos(2-3)
= 10.4 cos2 + 10.4 |V3| cos(2-3)

Similarly we have,
dP 2
= -10.4 |V3| cos(2-3)
d 3
dP2
= 10.4 sin(2-3)
d | V3 |
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dP 3
= -10.4 |V3| cos(3-2)
d 2
dP3
= 10.0 |V3| cos3 + 10.4 |V3| cos(3-2)
d3
dP3
= 10 sin + 10.4 sin( - )
3
3 2
d | V3 |
dQ3
= -10.4 |V3| sin(3-2)
d2
dQ3
= 10 |V3| sin3 + 10.4 |V3| sin(3-2)
d3
dQ3
= - [10 cos3 + 10.4 cos(3-2) -39.96 |V3| ]
d| V3 |
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We now start the iteration using the equation
P 2 (x )
J(x) . X = P 3 (x )
Q 3 (x )
We have, P2 = PG2 = 0.6661,
P3 = -PD3 = -2.5,
and Q3 = -QD3 = -1.0;
We start with an initial guess
20 = 30 = 0, |V30| = 1.0
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P 2 (x )
P 3 (x )
Q 3 (x )
P
2
P
(x
)
2

P 3
0
P 3 (x )
-
Q 3 (x 0 )
Q 3
The values of the P2(x0), P3(x0) and Q2(x0)

can be calculated from equations (1), (2) &
(3). Putting the values, we get
P 2 (x )
0.6661 0 0.6661
P 3 (x ) = -2.5 - 0 = -2.5
-1.0 -0.42 -0.58

Q 3 (x )
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Next, we find the jacobian matrix J0 as
0
20.8 -10.4
J(0) =
-10.4
20.4
0
0
0
19.56
To find the changes in our unknown quantities,
we need the value of the inverse of the
Jacobian.
0.0329 0
0.0645
0.0329
(0)-1
0.0658 0
J
=
0
0
0.0511
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A.K. Sinha
28/40

We have,
P2(x)
2
(0)
(0)-1
. P3(x)
= J
X = 3
Q3(x)
| V3 |
o
-0.0392
2
.
2
4
6
0
-0.1426
o
8
.
1
7
0
4
=
=
-0 .0 2 9 6
0.0296
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A.K. Sinha
29/40

Next, we find the value of the unknown vector
for the next iteration
X (1) = X (0) + X (0)
2.2460
0
o
= 0 + - 8.1704
1 - 0.0296
- 2.2460 o
o
= - 8.1704
0.9704
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A.K. Sinha
30/40

values 21 = -2.9395o, 31 = -9.5111o, and |V31| =
0.9638.
P2 (X)
P (X)
3
Q 3 (X)
(1)
0.6341
= - 2.4208
- 0.8291
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A.K. Sinha
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Hence, we get an updated mismatch vector
as
P2
P
3
Q 3
(1)
0.0320
= - 0.0792
- 0.1709
Next, we calculate the Jacobian matrix for

the new values.
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We get,
20.4303
(1)
J = -10.0382
1.0417
-10.0382
19.6438
- 2.4218
1.0734
- 2.4946
18.5342
Similarly, the updated inverse matrix is
0.0654
(1)-1
J = 0.0335
0.0007
0.0335
0.0689
0.0071
NPTEL
0.0007
0.0073
0.0549
A.K. Sinha
33/40

We have,
1
X = 3
| V 3 |
(1)
P2(x)
= J0-1 . P 3(x)
Q3(x)
- 0.0390
- 0.00068
- 0.00564
o
- 0.3231
=
=
- 0.0099
- 0.00992
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
34/40
Again, calculating the value of X(2)
(2 )
= X
(1 )
+ X
(1 )
- 2.2460 - 0.039 - 2.2850

- 8.1704 - 0.3231 = - 8.4935
0.9704 - 0.0099 0.9605

NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
35/40

values 2(2) = -2.285o, 3(2) = -8.4935o, and |V3(2)|
= 0.9605.
P2 (X)
P (X)
3
Q 3 (X)
(2)
0.66565
= - 2.49890
- 0.99752
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
36/40

Hence, we get an updated mismatch vector as
P2
P
3
Q 3
(2)
0.0004
= - 0.0011
- 0.0025
We see that the mismatch in the values is

small enough. Hence, we stop here.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
37/40

For the given problem, we have,
PG1 = P1 = |V1|.|V2|.B12 sin(1-2)
+ |V1|.|V3|.B13 sin(1-3)
= 1.8333
QG1 = Q1 = - [ |V1|.|V2|.B12 cos(1-2)
+ |V1|.|V3|.B13 cos(1-3) + |V1|2 B11]
= 0.0886
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
38/40
QG2 = Q2 = - [ |V2|.|V1|.B21 cos(2-1)

+ |V2|.|V3|.B23 cos(2-3) + |V2|2 B22]
= 1.288
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
39/40
Power Flow Solution

Pk = Vk
kn
Vncos(k - n - kn )
n=1
Qk = Vk
kn
Vnsin(k - n - kn )
n= 1
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
4/42

sp
cal (i)
P - P X
P
=
Q (i) Q sp - Q cal X (i)
(i)
J1(i)
(i)
J3
(i+1)
J2 (i) (i) P (i)
(i)
(i)
(i)
J4 V Q
(i+1) (i) (i)

=
=
+
(i+1)
(i)
(i)
V
V V
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
5/42
(i)
P2

2
M
PN
2
=
Q 2

2
M
Q N
2
J1
P2
L
N
V2
P2
PN
V2
Q 2
Q 2
V2
Q N
Q N
V2
L
J3
NPTEL
P2
J2
L
L
L
L
J4
P2
VN
M
PN
VN
Q 2
VN
Q N
VN
A.K. Sinha
X = X(i)
6/42
n=k
J1kk =
= -Vk YknVnsin(
J2kk =
J3kk =
J4kk =
Pk
Pk
Vk
n=1
nk
Qk
Vk
Qk
k
2
k - n - kn = - Qk - Vk Bkk
n=1
n=1
nk
=-VkYkksinkk + YknVnsin( k -n -kn ) = Qk - Vk2Bkk

n=1
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
7/42
nk
J1kn =
Pk
n
J2kn =
J3kn =
J4kn
Pk
Vn
Q k
n
Qk
=
Vn
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
8/42

Comparing J 1k n and J 4 k n, the main difference
is the absence of the factor | Vn | in J 4 k n ;
Similarly for J 2 k n and J 3 k n the factor | Vn | in
J 3 k n this time there is also a sign difference.
Because of the partial derivatives with
respect to the voltage magnitude variables,
all the elements of the matrices J2 and J4
are missing the factors |Vn|. Suppose we
replace Pk Vn by Vn Pk Vn in J 2
Similarly with terms for J 4 . Since these
terms on LHS of equation is multiplied by
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
9/42

|Vi|s corresponding terms in the update
vectors should be divided by the appropriate
|Vi|s in order to maintain the specified
relationship.
Q k
Vn
Vn
Modified
Jacobian
element
Vn
=
Vn
Modified
update
term
NPTEL
Q k
Vn
Original
Jacobian
element
A.K. Sinha
Vn
Original
update
term
10/42
P(x )
m
Q(x )
m
m
V
m
V
Here H = J1, M = J3, N = J2 [ V ], L = J4 [ V ],

and we define
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
11/42
V2
M
[V] @
M
0
0 L
0
M M
V3
,
M M M
L L
Vn
NPTEL
V
V
V2
V2
@
A.K. Sinha
M
Vn
Vn
12/42
m+1
i
Vi
Vm
and
m
V
m
i
= +
m+1
= Vi
NPTEL
m
i
1+
Vi
Vi
A.K. Sinha
13/42
Decoupled Power Flow

Change in the voltage angle at a bus
primarily affects the flow of real power P in
the transmission lines and the flow
of reactive power Q remains relatively
unchanged.
Change in the voltage magnitude |V| at a
bus primarily affects the flow of reactive
power Q in the transmission lines and
the flow of real power P remains relatively
unchanged.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
14/42

m
J(x ) =
J(x ) =
m
J2
J4
J1
J3
J1
0
J4
J1 = P(x )
m
J4 | V | = Q(x )
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
15/42
P2

P2 2
M= M

PN PN
2
P2
L
N 2
J1
M M
PN N
L
N
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
16/42
V2
V
2
Q 2
V2
M
Q N
V2
L
J4
L
Q 2 V2
VN
VN V2 Q 2
M
M = M
QN VN QN
VN
VN VN
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
17/42
Fast Decoupled Power Flow

In a well-designed and properly operated
power transmission system:
The angular differences (i j) between
typical buses of the system are usually so
small that
cos i - j = 1;
NPTEL
) (
sin i - j i - j
A.K. Sinha
)
18/42

The line susceptances Bij are many times
larger than the line conductances Gij so that
Gij sin i - j = Bijcos i - j
The reactive power Qi injected into any bus

i of the system during normal operation
is much less than the reactive power which
would flow if all lines from that bus were
short-circuited to reference. That is,
2
Qi = Vi Bii
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
19/42
These approximations can be used to

simplify the elements of the jacobian. In
equation the off-diagonal elements of J11
and J22 are given by
Pi
j
= Vj
Q i
Vj
= - Vi Vj Yij sin ij + j - i
NPTEL
20/42
A.K. Sinha

Using the identity sin( +) = sin cos +
U
cos sin in equation gives us
(
(
)
)
Bijcos j - i +
Pi
Q i
= Vj
= - Vi Vj
j
Vj
Gij sin j - i
Where Bij = Yij sinij and Gij = Yij cosij

The approximations listed above then yield
the off-diagonal elements
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
21/42
Pi
j
= Vj
Q i
Vj
- Vi V j B ij
The diagonal elements of J1 and J4 are:

Qi
2
= Qi - | Vi2 |Bii
J1ii = - Q i - | Vi | Bii ; J4ii =| Vi |
| Vi |
Applying the inequality Qi = Vi
those expressions yields
Pi
Vi
Q i
Vi
NPTEL
Vi
Bii to
B ii
A.K. Sinha
22/42
For a 4-bus system with bus 1 as a slack bus:

- V2 V2 B22
- V2 V3 B32
- V2 V4 B42
- V2 V3 B23
- V3 V3 B33
- V3 V4 B43
- V2 V4 B24 2 P2
- V3 V4 B34 3 = P3
- V4 V4 B44 4 P4
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
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- V2 V2 B22
- V2 V3 B32
- V V B
2 4 42
- V2 V3 B23
- V3 V3 B33
- V3 V4 B43
- V2 V4 B24
- V3 V4 B34
- V2 V4 B24
NPTEL
V2
V2
V
3
V3
V4
V4
A.K. Sinha
Q
2

Q
3
=
Q 4

24/42
-B 22 V2 - B 23 V3 - B 24 V4 =
Q 2
V2
- V2 B22 2 - V3 B23 3 - V4 B24 4 =
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
P2
V2
25/42
-B22
-B32
-B 42
-B23
-B33
-B 43
-B24 2
-B34 3
-B 44 4
NPTEL
P2
V2
P
3
=
V3
P4
V4
A.K. Sinha
26/42
-B22
-B32
-B42
-B23
-B33
-B43
Q 2
-B24 V2
V2
-B34 V3 =
V3
Q 4
-B44 V4
V4
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
27/42

Fast Decoupled Power Flow solution strategy:
1. Calculate the initial mismatches P/ V ,
2. Solve equation for ,
3. Update the angles and use them to
calculate mismatches Q / V ,
4. Solve equation for V and update
the magnitudes V , and
5. Return to step 1 and repeat the iteration
until all mismatches are within specified
tolerances. Max | P | and Max | Q |
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
28/42
Example : Consider the circuit shown on the

next slide. The transmission line is represented
as nominal equivalent network with series
impedance of zl = (0.0 + j0.10) and half line
charging admittance yc = j0.01. Use fast
decoupled power flow to find the values of 2,
3, and |V3|.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
29/42
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
30/42
Solution: We have
PG2
|V2|
Bij
Bii
P2
P3
Q3
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
0.6661
1.04
10 , i j
-19.98
0.6661
-2.5
-1.0
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
31/42

We first find B.
B22
B=
B32
B23 - 19.98 10
=
B33 10
- 19.98
For the fast decoupled power flow, we have

n
2 P2 / | V2 |
- B.
=
3 P3 / | V3 |
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
32/42

And,
- B. [ | V3 |] = [ Q 3 / | V3 |]
n
We can take the inverse of the above equations

to get the explicit iteration formulas
n
P2 / | V2 |
2
-1
= - B . P / | V |
3
3
3
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
33/42

Or
n
2
0.0668 0.0334 P2 /1.04
= 0.0334 0.0668 . P / | V | ..(1)
3
3
3
Similarly
[ | V3 |]
= - B . [ Q 3 / | V3 |]
-1
= 0.0501[ Q 3 / | V3 |]
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
..(2)
34/42

We write the equations for the given system.
P2(x) = |V2|.|V1|.B21.sin(2-1) + |V2|.|V3|.B23.
sin(2-3)
= 10.4 sin2 + 10.4|V3| sin(2-3)
(3)
P3(x) = |V3|.|V1|.B31.sin(3-1) + |V3|.|V2|.B32.

sin(3-2)
= 10 |V3| sin3 + 10.4 |V3| sin(3-2)
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
(4)
35/42
Q3(x) = - [ |V3|.|V1|.B31cos(3-1) + |V3|.|V2|.

B32cos(3-2) + |V3|2 B33]
= - [ 10 |V3|.cos3 + 10.4 |V3|.cos(3-2)
- 19.98 |V3|2 ]
(5)
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
36/42

Assuming a flat start, we have
20 = 30 = 0
|V30| = 1.0
The values of the P2(x0), P3(x0) and Q2(x0) can
be calculated from equations (3), (4) & (5).
Substituting values we get
P20 = P30 = 0
Q30 = -0.42
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
37/42
From these values, we can find the mismatch

matrix as
0.6661 0 0.6661
P 2 (x )
- 2.5 - 0 = - 2.5
P 3 (x )

=
- 1.0 - 0.42 - 0.58
Q 3 (x )
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
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Also
P2
| V2 |
P3
| V3 |
Q
3
| V 3 |
NPTEL
0.6405
- 2.500
- 0.580
A.K. Sinha
39/42
Using the value of the mismatch matrix, we

can calculate new values of 2, 3, and |V3| and
continue the iteration process till we get
sufficient accuracy. The results are shown
next
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
40/42
Itn. 2
No.
|V3|
P2/|V2| P3/|V3| Q3/|V3|
0.6405
-2.3319 -8.3423 0.9709 0.0308
-0.0351 -0.1857
-2.2815 -8.4179 0.9616 0.0107
-0.0242 -0.0201
-2.2869 -8.4900 0.9606 0.0015
-0.0024 -0.0043
NPTEL
-2.5
A.K. Sinha
-0.58
41/42
Power Flow Solution

For Large Power Systems
G-S Algorithm is the simplest and requires
minimum time per iteration.
Number of iterations for G-S algorithm
increases with system size.
G-S algorithm is not suitable for large system
power flow solution.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
4/37

N-R algorithm requires large storage for
Jacobian Matrix.
Computational requirement per iteration is
high (Jacobian elements have to be computed
every iteration).
Number of iteration for N-R algorithm is
independent of system size (4-5 iterations).
N-R algorithm is complex to program.
Reliable and preferred method for large
systems.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
5/37

FDLF algorithm requires less storage than the
N-R method but more than the G-S method.
Relatively simpler to program than N-R method
FDLF requires much less computation as
compared to N-R method (B and B matrices
are constant).
Number of iterations for FDLF does not depend
on system size, but is larger (6-10 iterations) as
compared to N-R method.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/37

FDLF method is the most popular power flow
method for large systems.
Both N-R and FDLF algorithms require the
solution of matrix equation of type Ax=b of
large dimension at each iteration.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
7/37
Sparse Matrix Techniques

In a large power system on an average fewer
than 3 lines are connected to each bus.
On an average less than 4 non-zero elements
in each row of Ybus matrix.
For a 1000 bus system it means less than
4000 non-zero elements in Ybus Matrix instead
of 1000000 elements (996000 zeros) for a 1000
x 1000 matrix.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
8/37

Matrix with very few non-zero (large number of
zeros) elements are called Sparse Matrix.
Instead of storing them as 2-dimensional arrays
they are stored as a linked list of elements to
save computer storage requirement.
Similar is the case for Jacobian matrix,
whereever Yij =0, Hij =Mij=Nij=Lij=0.
Compact storage as a linked list for a 1000 bus
system with 100 PV buses (considering average
of 3 lines connected to each bus) will require
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
9/37
Storage of less than 16000 elements as

compared to about 4000000 elements.
For FDLF algorithm the storage requirement
for B and B matrix will be less than 8000
elements.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
10/37
Linked List Storage

Let us take a 4 x 4 matrix A as
1.0
8.0
A=
10.0
11.0
5.0
2.0
0
6.0
0
3.0
NPTEL
7.0
9.0
.
0
4.0
A.K. Sinha
11/37
CE = [1.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 2.0 9.0 10.0 3.0 11.0 4.0]
NXT = [ 2
ICL = [ 1
3
2
4
3
0
4
6
1
7
2
0
3
9
1
0
3
11
0]
4]
IRW = [ 1 5 8 10 ]
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
12/37
Ordering Schemes
Let us take the same matrix A
1.0
8.0
A=
10.0
11.0
5.0
2.0
6.0
0
3.0
NPTEL
7.0
9.0
.
0
4.0
A.K. Sinha
13/37

After 1st step of Gauss elimination matrix
becomes:
1
0
A=
0
5
- 38
- 50
6
- 48
- 57
- 55
- 66
7
- 47
- 70
- 73
Sparsity of A is lost completely in this case

NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
14/37

To minimize the number of fill-ins during the
reduction steps, the matrix should be reordered
(numbered) according to the number of non-zero
elements (rows valence). Starting with the
minimum valence node. For the given example
the numbering should be as follows: 4, 3, 2, 1.
With this numbering the matrix becomes:
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
15/37
4
0
A(ordered) =
9
7
NPTEL
0
3
0
6
0
0
2
5
11
10
8
A.K. Sinha
16/37

After 1st step the eliminated matrix becomes:
(1)
4
0
=
0
0
3
0
0
0
2
- 18.25
11
10
- 16.75
No Fill-ins in this case.

NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
17/37
The ordering scheme used is called static

ordering or pre-ordering as axes are
ordered as per their valence before
factorization.
A scheme in which axes are ordered at each
step in factorization as per their valence is
called dynamic ordering as is more efficient
than the static ordering scheme.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
18/37
Network solution by LU Factorization

b = Ax = (LU)x
:
b =Lx
:
x = Ux
Triangular Factorization Method

Efficient method to calculate the L and U
factors of a given matrix A .
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
19/37

Triangular Factorization Algorithm
For k = 1, 2,..(n 1)
if Akk = 0
then
quit
else
A ik =
Aij = Aij -
A ik
A kk
Aik Akj
Akk
NPTEL
i = k + 1,.....n
i, j = k + 1,.....n
A.K. Sinha
20/37
A11
A12
A13
A 21
A 31
A 41
A 22
A 32
A 42
A 23
A 33
A 43
A14 x1
b1
A 24 x 2
b2
=
A 34 x 3
b3
A 44 x 4
b4
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
21/37
A
A
(1)
ij
(1)
i1
A11
(1)
A 21
A12
(1)
A 22
A13
(1)
A 23
A14
(1)
A 24
A (1)
31
A (1)
41
A (1)
32
A (1)
42
A (1)
33
A (1)
43
(1)
A 34
A (1)
44
= Aij -
A i1
A 11
for i = 2, 3, 4
Ai1A1j
A11
NPTEL
for i, j = 2, 3, 4
A.K. Sinha
22/37
A11
A (1)
21
A12
A (1)
22
A13
A (1)
23
A14
(1)
A 24
A (1)
31
(1)
A 41
A (2)
32
(2)
A 42
A (2)
33
(2)
A 43
(2)
A 34
(2)
A 44
Ai2(2) =
(2)
ij
=A
(1)
ij
Ai2(1)
A
for i = 3, 4
(1)
22
(1)
i2
A A
A
(1)
22
NPTEL
(1)
2j
for i, j = 3, 4
A.K. Sinha
23/37
A11
(1)
A 21
A12
(1)
A 22
A13
(1)
A 23
A14
(1)
A 24
A (1)
31
A (1)
41
A (2)
32
A (2)
42
A (2)
33
A (3)
43
(2)
A 34
A (3)
44
Ai3(3) =
Aij(3) = Aij(2) -
Ai3(2)
for i = 4
A (2)
33
(2) (2)
Ai3 A 3j
A (2)
33
NPTEL
for i, j = 4
A.K. Sinha
24/37
1
L=
A
A
A
(1)
21
(1)
31
(1)
41
A11
0
U=
0
0
(2)
A 32
A (2)
42
1
A (3)
43
0
1
A13
(1)
A 23
A (2)
33
0
A14
(1)
A 24
A (2)
34
(3)
A 44
A12
A (1)
22
0
0
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
25/37
Use of Rectangular Coordinates

Polar version (V ) of N-R power flow is
computationally more efficient than
Rectangular version (e + j f), as in case of
Polar version no V equations for PV buses is
required whereas in case of Rectangular
version voltage magnitude equation
V2 = (e + j f)2 is required for each PV bus. This
increases the number of equations to be
solved and therefore the size of Jacobian.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
26/37

However in Polar version the calculation of
trigonometric functions in calculation of
Jacobian matrix can be avoided by using
rectangular coordinates as shown below:
m i (off-diagonal elements)
Him = Lim = amfi bmei
Nim = - Jim = amei + bmfi
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
27/37

For m = i (Diagonal elements)
Hii = - Qi Bii|Vi|2
Nii = Pi + Gii|Vi|2
Jii = Pi - Gii|Vi|2
Lii = Qi Bii|Vi|2
Where
Yim = Gim + jBim

Vi = ei + jfi
(am + jbm) = (Gim + jBim) (em + jfm)
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
28/37
Regulating Transformers in power flow

Regulating transformers are used in power
system to control bus voltage magnitude (offnominal tap setting) or to control power flow
by controlling the phase angle (phase shifting
transformers).
They provide small components of voltage
(typically 10%) to the line or phase voltage.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
29/37

Regulating Transformer for voltage control
a
van van + van
van
b
c
Series
transformer
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
30/37

Phase Shifting transformer
van
van + van
van
vb
nvbn
vbn + vbn
vcn
vcn
NPTEL
vcn + vcn
A.K. Sinha
31/37
Van
a
Original Van
Shifted Van
n
c
vcn
NPTEL
vbn
b
A.K. Sinha
32/37
+
Vi
-
Ideal transformer
1: t
tVi
NPTEL
+
Vj
-
A.K. Sinha
33/37
Si = ViIi*
S j = tViI*j
Ii = t I j
The current Ij can be expressed by
I j = (Vj tVi )Y = tYVi + YVj
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
34/37

Multiplying by t* and substituting Ii for
- t*Ij yield
*
Ii = tt YVi t YVj
Setting tt* = | t |2 and rearranging equations
Into Ybus matrix form, we have
i
Yii Yij Vi
=
j Yji Yjj Vj
i t 2 Y t* Y Vi Ii
=
j
Y Vj Ij
tY
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
35/37
tY
+
Vi
t(t-1)Y
(1-t)Y
Vj
-
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
36/37

Example:
1
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
3/37

The line parameters are given in the table below:
Line
no.
From
Bus
To Bus
R(pu)
X(pu)
0.05
0.2
0.1
0.3
0.12
0.48
0.09
0.25
0.05
0.2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
3/37

Ybus matrix for this system:
YBus
Y11 Y12 Y13 Y14
Y
Y
Y
Y
21
22
23
24
=
Y31 Y32 Y33 Y34
Y41 Y42 Y43 Y44

NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
3/37
Where,
1
Y12 = -y12 = = -1.1764 + j4.705
(0.05 + j0.2)
1
Y13 = -y13 = = -1+ j3
(0.1+ j0.3)
Y14 = -y14 = 0.0
Y11 = y12 + y13 + y14 = 2.1764 - j7.705
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
3/37
YBus =
0
2.176- j7.705 -1.176+j4.705 -1+j3
-1.176+j4.705 2.94- j10.206 -0.49+j1.96 -1.274+j3.541

-1+j3
-0.49+j1.96
2.66- j9.665 -1.176+j4.705
-1.274+j3.541 -1.176+j4.705 2.45- j8.246

0
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
3/37

Let us replace Line 1-2 with a regulating
transformer with V / V = 1.05 t = 1 / 1.05
i
ty
t(t - 1)y
(1- t)y
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
3/37

Y V = I relationship for the regulating
transformer is given by
1
2
*
1 t2 y
t y V1 I1
12
2 ty12
12
y12
=
V2 I2
The modification in Ybus elements will be:
(Y11(old)-y12 +t2y12)
(Y21(old)+y12 -ty12)
NPTEL
(Y12(old)+y12 -ty12)
(Y22(old))
A.K. Sinha
3/37
2.067 - j7.267
-1.12 + j4.48
-1.12 + j4.48
2.94 - j10.206
YBus =
2.067-j7.267
-1.12+j4.48
-1+j3
-1.12+j4.48
-1+j3
2.94-j10.206
-0.49+j1.96
-0.49+j1.96
2.66-j9.665
-1.274+j3.541 -1.176+j4.705
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
-1.274+j3.541
-1.176+j4.705
2.45-j8.246
3/37
Let us replace Line 1-2 with a regulating

transformer with
V / V =e
/
j 3o
t=e
- j 3o
The modification in Ybus elements will be:
(Y11(old)-y12 +t2y12)
(Y21(old)+y12 -ty12)
NPTEL
(Y12(old)+y12 -t*y12)
(Y22(old))
A.K. Sinha
3/37
YBus(1-2) =
2.176 - j7.705
-0.845 + j4.775
- 1.501+ j4.611
2.94 - j10.206
The modified Ybus Matrix is:

YBus =
-1+j3
0
2.176-j7.705 -1.501+j4.611
-0.845+j4.775
2.94-j10.206
-0.49+j1.96
-1.274+j3.541
-1+j3
-0.49+j1.96
2.66-j9.665
-1.176+j4.705
-1.274+j3.541 -1.176+j4.705 2.45-j8.246

0
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
3/37

Comparison of N-RLF and FDLF algorithms
System
FDLF
Time (m.sec)
N-RLF
Time (m.sec)
5 Bus
0.950
1.394
14 Bus
1.577
2.954
30 Bus
2.630
6.338
57 Bus
4.910
15.443
118 Bus
11.440
52.103
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
3/37
APPLICATION OF POWER FLOW STUDIES

Power Flow analysis provides the steady state
operating condition (power flow, bus voltages) of
a power system.
It is a fundamental and most common study of
the power transmission network.
It is an integral part of most system planning and
operation studies.
It is a starting point for many other studies
Short Circuit; Transient Stability;
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
3/37
System Planning and Design:

Evaluate the adequacy of present and planned
system expansion.
Contingency evaluation Any abnormal
condition such as a generator or a
transmission line outage this will provide
opportunity to the planning engineer to
upgrade the existing system.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
3/37
System Operation and Control:

Evaluate the adequacy of present operating
condition line overloads; bus voltage
violations.
Security evaluation Present operating cond.
may be adequate but what if any abnormal
condition such as a generator or a
transmission line outage is the system
operation adequate (Secure) for contingencies
also.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
3/37
SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Lesson Summary
1. Introduction
2. Cause and Consequences
3. Types of Faults
4. Symmetrical Short Circuit Analysis
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
2/37
be able to:
A. Explain the significance of Short Circuit
B. Explain the causes and consequences of
Short Circuit
C. Classify different types of faults
D. Compute currents for symmetrical faults
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
3/37
Cause of Short Circuit Insulation Failure

Over-voltages caused by Lightning or Switching
Surges
Insulation contamination salt spray, pollution
Mechanical Causes Over-heating, abrasion
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
4/37
Faults on Transmission Lines

Most Common Lines are exposed to
elements of nature (60-70%).
Lightning strokes Over voltages cause
insulators to flash over line to ground short
circuit or line to line short circuit.
High winds Topple tower, tree falls on line.
Winds and ice loading Mechanical failure of
insulator.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
5/37

Fog, salt spray, dirty insulator Conduction
path insulation failure
Short circuit in other elements

Cables (10-15%), circuit breakers (10-12%),
generators, motors, transformers etc (10-15%).
much less common Over loading for
extended periods deterioration of insulation
Mechanical failure.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/37
Consequences of Short Circuit

Currents several magnitude larger than normal
operating current.
Thermal damage to equipment.
Windings and busbars Mechanical damage
due to high magnetic forces caused by high
current.
Faulted section must be removed from

service as soon as possible (3-5 cycles).
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
7/37
Types of Short Circuit

a
b
c
LG
LL
LLG
3 G
75 - 80%
5 7%
10 12%
8 10%
Asymmetrical Faults
Symmetrical Faults
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
8/37
Short Circuit Calculations

R L Series Circuit Transients
R
e(t) = 2V Sin (t + )
L
SW
e(t)
Vmax
= Vmax Sin (t + )
t=0
di
sin ( t + ) = Ri + L ; t 0
dt
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
9/37

Solving for i(t)
Vmax
i(t) =
Z
sin t + - e Rt /L sin -
(
)
(
)
Where, Z = R + ( L ) and = tan-1 ( L /R ) .

2
or
i(t) = iac (t) + idc (t)

iac (t) = Symmetrical fault current (Constant)
idc (t) = DC offset current (decays with time)
i(t) = Asymmetrical fault current
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
10/37

I(t)
idc
iac
Time
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
11/37
3-phase Short Circuit on

Synchronous Machine
Unloaded Machine:
Symmetrical short circuit
current
Subtransient period
c
Transient period
b
Steady state period
a
0
Time
Actual envelope
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
12/37

Xf
XD
XI
Xa
+
Eg
XI
Xf
+
Eg
''
d
Direct axis
subtransient
reactance
Xa
'
d
Direct axis transient reactance
XI
+
Eg
NPTEL
Xa
Xd
Synchronous
reactance
A.K. Sinha
13/37

1
1 - t / Td''
'' - ' e
Xd Xd
i a c (t) = 2 E g
1
- t / Td'
1
1
+
+
e
'
X d
X d X d
x S in ( t + - )
2
idcmax (t) =
2Eg
X
''
d
- t / TA
''
= 2I e
- t / TA
TA = Armature Time Const.

NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
14/37
i (t) = iac (t) + idc (t)

Eg
Iac (0) = O C =
I = Ob =
'
Eg
X
'
d
X ''d
= I'' (Subtransient Current)
(T ra n s ie n t c u rre n t)
Ia c ( ) = O a =
Eg
Xd
(S te a d y S ta te c u rre n t)
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
15/37
Indian Institute of Technology,Kharagpur
Short Circuit on a loaded

Synchronous Machine
Zext
''
dg
'' +
g
''
Eg
'
Eg
IL
Vt
= Vt +
''
jX dgIL
= Vt +
'
jX dgIL
Vf
(
+ (Z
ZL
= Vf + Z ext +
''
jX dg
= Vf
'
jX dg
NPTEL
ext
A.K. Sinha
) IL
)I
L
16/37

For Motor:
E"m = Vt jX "dm IL
E'm = Vt jX 'dm IL
Example: A synchronous generator and a
synchronous motor each rated 50 MVA, 11KV
having 12% subtransient reactance are
connected through transformers and a line as
shown in figure below. The transformers are
rated 50 MVA, 11/132 KV and 132/11KV with
leakage reactance of 8% each. The line has a
reactance of 15% on a base of 50 MVA, 132 KV.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
17/37

The motor is drawing 25 MW at 0.8 power
factor leading and a terminal voltage og 10.6
KV when a symmetrical three-phase fault
occurs at the motor terminals. Find the subtransient current in the generator, motor and
fault.
Gen
T1
Line
T2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
Motor
18/37

Zext
P
+
(j0.31)
jXdg
Eg
I0
(j0.12)
jXdm
(j0.12)
V0
+
Em
Neutral
(a) Before the fault
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
19/37

Zext
(j0.31)
jXdg
Eg
(j0.12)
P
Ig
Im
jXdm
(j0.12)
If
+
Em
Neutral
(b) After the fault
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
20/37
10.6
0
V
=
=
0.9636
0
pu
Prefault Voltage =
11
Load = 25 MW 0.8 pf leading
0
25
=
pu 0.8 pf leading
50
= 0.5 pu 0.8 pf leading
Prefault Current
I0 =
0.5
36.9o = 0.648636.9o
0.96360.8
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
21/37

Voltage behind sub-transient reactance (generator)
E = 0.96360 + j0.43 0.648636.9

"
g
= 0.7962 + j0.223pu
Voltage behind sub-transient reactance (Motor)
E = 0.96360 - j0.12 0.648636.9

"
m
= 1.0103 - j0.0622pu
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
22/37

Under faulted condition
0.7962 + j0.223
I =
= 0.5186 - j1.8516pu
j0.43
1.0103 - j0.0622
"
Im =
= -0.5183 - j8.4191pu
j0.12
f
"
"
Current in fault I = Ig + Im = 0.0003 - j10.2707pu
"
g
Base current (generator/motor) =

3
50 10
= 2624.3A
3 11
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
23/37

Contribution from Gen. and Motor
I"g =2624.3(0.5186- j1.8516) =(1360.96- j4859.15) A

"
Im
=2624.3(-0.5183- j8.4191) =(-1360.17- j22094.24) A
If =2624.3(0.0003- j10.2707) =(0.78- j26953.39) A
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
24/37
Short Circuit Calculations using

Thevenins Theorem
A Short Circuit Structural change in
network addition of an impedance (ZF =
fault impedance, zero for solid short circuit)
at the point of fault.
The change in voltage or current resulting
from this structural network change can be
analyzed using Thevenins theorem.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
25/37
Thevenins Theorem
The changes in network voltages and
currents due to the addition of an
impedance between two points of a network
are identical with those voltages and
currents that would be caused by placing an
emf, having a magnitude and polarity equal
to the pre-fault voltage between the nodes,
in series with the impedance all other
voltage sources being zeroed.
NPTEL
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26/37

Post fault voltages and currents are computed
by superimposing these changes on pre-fault
voltages and currents.
Example:
Gen
T1
Line
T2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
Motor
27/37

Zext
P
+
(j0.31)
jXdg
Eg
I0
(j0.12)
jXdm
(j0.12)
V0
+
Em
Neutral
(a) Before the fault

NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
28/37

Zext
(j0.31)
jXdg
Eg
(j0.12)
V0
I0
V0
Em
+
Neutral
jXdm
(j0.12)
(b) After the fault

NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
29/37

Using Superposition:
Zext
P
(j0.31)
jXdg
Eg
(j0.12)
V0
I0
jXdm
(j0.12)
+
Em
Neutral
Circuit A (Pre fault Circuit)

NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
30/37
''
g
Zext
''
Im
(j0.31)
jXdg
(j0.12)
(j0.12)
jXdm
V0
P +
Neutral
G
Circuit B (Thevenins Eq. Circuit)
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
31/37
10.6
0
V
=
=
0.9636
0
pu
Prefault Voltage =
11
0
o
0
V
0.9636
0
I''g =
=
= - j2.2409
j0.31 + j0.12
j0.43
o
0
V
0.9636
0
''
Im
=
=
= - j8.03
j0.12
j0.12
I''g = I0 + I''g = 0.648636.9o - j2.2409

= 0.5186 - j1.8516
''
''
Im
= - I0 + Im
= 0.648636.9o - j8.03
= - 0.5186 - j8.4194
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
32/37
The selection of circuit breakers

From the viewpoint of current the two factors
that need to be considered in selecting circuit
breakers are:
The maximum instantaneous current which
the breaker must carry ( withstand ) and
The total current when the breaker contacts
open to interrupt the circuit.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
33/37
Short Circuit MVA

Short-circuit MVA= 3 (nominal kV)
| ISC | 10-3
Base MVA = 3 (base kV) | Ibase | 10-3
Short-circuit MVA in per unit = | ISC | in per unit
Z th
1.0
1.0
=
per unit =
per unit
ISC
short circuit MVA
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
34/37

The maximum momentary current is found by
calculating the ac short circuit current using
sub-transient impedances of the generators
and motors and then multiplying it by 1.6 to
take care of the dc off-set current.
The breaker interrupting current depends on
the interruption time of the circuit breakers and
is obtained by multiplying the sub-transient ac
short circuit current by following factors:
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
35/37

Circuit breaker speed
Multiplying factor
8 cycle or slower
1.0
5 cycles
1.1
3 cycles
1.2
2 cycles
1.4
For CBs having short circuit MVA greater

than 500 MVA the multiplying factors are
increased by 0.1
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
36/37
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENT
ANALYSIS
Avinash K. Sinha
I. I. T. Kharagpur
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
1/37
ANALYSIS
Lesson Summary
1. Introduction
2. Symmetrical Component Transformation
3. Sequence network for PS Components
4. Sequence network for Power Systems
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
2/37
be able to:
A. Explain the significance of symmetrical
component transformation
B. Develop sequence network for power
system components and networks
C. Compute current, voltage and power in
sequence networks
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
3/37
Types of Short Circuit

a
b
c
LG
LL
LLG
3 G
75 - 80%
5 7%
10 12%
8 10%
Asymmetrical Faults
Symmetrical Faults
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
8/37
Symmerical Component Transformation

Introduced by C. L. Fortescue (1918)
Modeling technique for analysis and design of
three-phase systems
Decouples a balanced three-phase network into
three simpler networks
For unbalanced three phase networks the three
sequence networks are connected only at the
point of unbalance.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
4/37
Symmerical Component Transformation

A powerful tool for analyzing three phase
systems
Reveals complicated phenomena during
unbalanced operation in simple terms
Sequence network results have to be
superposed to obtain three phase network
results
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
5/37
TRANSFORMATION
An unbalanced set of n phasors can be resolved
into n sets of balanced phasors (symmetrical
components). The n phasors of each set of
components are equal in magnitude and angles
between adjacent phasors of the set are equal.
Unbalanced phasors of a three phase system
can be resolved into three balanced system of
phasors positive, negative, and zero
sequence
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/37

Positive-sequence components,
consist of three phasors with equal Vc1
magnitudes with 120 phase
Va1 = V1
displacement from each other, and
same phase sequence as original
Vb1
phasors.
V
Negative-sequence components, b2
Va2 = V2
consist of three phasors with equal

magnitudes with 120 phase
displacement from each other, and
opposite phase sequence as original
phasors.
Vc2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/37

Zero-sequence components,
consist of three phasors with
equal magnitudes and zero
phase displacement from each
other.
NPTEL
Va0Vb0Vc0 = V0
A.K. Sinha
6/37

Va
Vc
Vb = Vb0 + Vb1 + Vb2

Vb0
Vc2
Vb
Vb1
Vc
Vb2
Vb
Va
Va0
Va1
Va2
Va = Va0 + Va1 + Va2

Phase a
Phase b
NPTEL
Vc1
Vc0
Vc = Vco + Vc1 + Vc2

Phase c
A.K. Sinha
6/37

Va = V0 + V1 + V2
Vb = V0 +
a2V1
+ aV2
Vc = V0 + aV1 + a2V2
Va
1 1
2
[ VP ] = Vb = 1 a
Vc
1 a
NPTEL
-1
3
a = 1 120 = + j
2
2
o
a
2
a
V0
V
1
V2
A.K. Sinha
6/37

Vp = A
Vs
Where,
1 1
2
A = 1 a
1
1
a
and
-1
Vp
Vs = A
V0
Vs = V1
V2
Where,
A
NPTEL
-1
1 1
1
=
1 a
3
2
1 a
A.K. Sinha
1
2
a
a
6/37
V0
1 1
1
V1 =
1 a
3
2
V2
1 a
1
2
a
Va
Vb
Vc
1
V0 = (Va + Vb + Vc )
3
1
V1 = (Va + aVb + a 2 Vc )
3
1
2
V2 = (Va + a Vb + aVc )
3
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/37
Ia = I0 + I1 + I2
Ip = A
Is
Ib = I0 + a2I1 + aI2
Ic = I0 + aI1 + a2I2
-1
Is = A
1
I0 = (Ia + Ib + Ic )
3
1
I1 = (Ia + aIb + a 2 Ic )
3
1
I2 = (Ia + a 2 Ib + aIc )
3
Ip
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/37

POWER IN SEQUENCE NETWORKS
S 3 = VagIa* + VbgIb* + VcgIc*
S 3
Ia*
*
= Vag Vbg Vcg Ib
Ic*

= VpT Ip*
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/37
S3 = (AVs )T (AIs )*
= V A A I
T
s
1 1
T
*
2
A A = 1 a
1 a
NPTEL
a
a 2
*
s
1 1
1 a 2
1 a
A.K. Sinha
a
a 2
6/37
1 1
= 1 a 2
1 a
1
a
a 2
1 1
1 a
1 a 2
1
a 2
a
3 0 0
= 0 3 0 = 3U
0 0 3
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/37

T *
s s
S 3 = 3V I
I0*
*
= [ V0 + V1 + V2 ] I1
I2*

S 3 = 3V0 I0* + 3V1I1* + 3V2 I2*

= Sum of symmtrical component
powers
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/37
Sequence Network for Power

System Components
Ia
a
Impedance Load: +
c
Ic
+
Balanced Star
Grounded Load
Vag V
cg
g NPTEL
ZY
ZY
N
Ib
In
Zn
ZY
Vbg +
-
A.K. Sinha
6/37
Vag = Z YIa + ZnIn
= Z YIa + Zn (Ia + Ib + Ic )
= (Z Y + Zn )Ia + ZnIb + ZnIc
Vbg = ZnIa + (Z Y + Zn )Ib + ZnIc

Vcg = ZnIa + ZnIb + (Z Y + Zn )Ic
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/37
Vag
(Z Y + Zn )
Vbg =
Vcg
Zn
Zn
Zn
(Z Y + Zn )
Zn
Zn
(Z Y + Zn )
Vp = ZpIp
Ia
Ib
Ic
AVs = Zp AIs
Vs = Z sIs
-1
Vs = (A Zp A)Is
Where,
Zn
-1
Z s = A Zp A
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/37
1 1
1
Zs = 1 a
3
1 a2
1 1
1 a2
1 a
1 (Z Y + Zn )
Zn
Zn
a2
Zn
(Z Y + Zn )
Zn
a
Zn
Zn
(Z Y + Zn )
1
a
a2
(Z Y + 3Zn ) 0
=
0
Zy
0
0
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
0
0
Zy
6/37
V0
(Z Y + 3Zn )
I0
V1 =
ZY
I1
V2
ZY
I2
V0 = (Z Y + 3Zn )I0 = Z 0I0

V1 = Z YI1 = Z1I1
V2 = Z YI2 = Z 2I2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/37

+
I0
ZY
V0
3Zn
Z0 = ZY + 3Zn
Zero-sequence network
For star ungrounded load Zn = infinity

Zero sequence network is open
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/37
I1
V1
ZY
Z1 = ZY
ZY
Z2 = Z1 = ZY
- Positive-sequence network
+
I2
V2
- Negative-sequence network
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/37
Balanced Delta Connected Load:

I0
Z
3
Z
Z1 =
3
Z
3
Z0 =
I1
I2
Z
Z 2 = Z1 =
3
Z
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/37
General three-phase impedance load

Ia
Ic
+
+
Vag
Vcg
Ib
+
General
three-phase
impedance
load
Vbg
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/37

-1
Z s = A Zp A
Z0
Z10
Z 20
Z 01 Z 02
1 1
1
Z1 Z12 =
1 a
3
Z 21 Z 2
1 a2
1
a2
a
1 1
1 a2
1 a
1
a
a2
NPTEL
Z aa
Z ab
Z ac
Z ab
Zbb
Zbc
A.K. Sinha
Z ac
Zbc
Z cc
6/37
1
Z 0 = (Z aa + Zbb + Z cc + 2Z ab + 2Z ac + 2Zbc )
3
1
Z1 = Z 2 = (Z aa + Zbb + Z cc - Z ab - Z ac - Zbc )
3
1
Z 01 = Z 20 = (Z aa + a2 Zbb + aZ cc - aZ ab - a2 Z ac - Zbc )
3
1
Z 02 = Z10 = (Z aa + aZbb + a2 Z cc - a2 Z ab - aZ ac - Zbc )
3
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/37

Z 12
1
= (Z aa + a 2 Z bb + aZ cc + 2aZ ab + 2a 2 Z ac + 2Z bc )
3
1
Z 21 = (Z aa + aZ bb + a 2 Z cc + 2a 2 Z ab + 2aZ ac + 2Z bc )
3
Z aa = Z bb = Z cc
and
Z ab = Z ac = Z bc
Conditions
for a
symmetrical
load
Z 01 = Z10 = Z 02 = Z 20 = Z12 = Z 21 = 0
Z 0 = Z aa + 2Z ab
Z1 = Z 2 = Z aa - Z ab
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/37

Example: Three identical Y-connected
resistors from a load bank with a three phase
rating of 2300 V and 500 KVA. If each bank
has applied voltages
|Vab| = 1800V
|Vbc| = 2700V
|Vca| = 2300V
find the line voltages and currents in per unit

into the load. Assume that the neutral of the
load is not connected to the neutral of the
system and select a base of 2300 V,100 KVA.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/37

Solution: On 2300 V, 100 KVA base line
voltages in per unit are: Vab = 1800 2300 = .7826
Vbc = 2700 2300 = 1.174
Vca = 2300 2300 = 1.0
Let, Vca 1800 be taken as reference

Then, Vab = .782681.390 and Vbc = 1.174 - 41.230
Symmetrical components of the line voltages are
1
Vab1 = (Vab + aVbc + a 2 Vca )
3
Vab1 = 1/3[.782681.39 + 1.174(120 - 41.23)

+ 1.0(240 +180)]
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/37
= 1/3[.1171+j.7738+.2286+j1.152+.5+j.866]
=1/3[.8454+j2.7918] = .2819+ j.9306
= 0.97236 73.1470
Vab2
1
= (Vab + a 2 Vbc + aVca )
3
0
Vab2 = 1/3[.782681.39 + 1.174(2400 - 41.230 )

+ 1.0(120 +180 )]
0
= 1/3[0.11716+j0.7737-1.111-j0.378 + 0.5 - j0.866]

=1/3[-0.49339 - j0.4703] = -0.1645 - j0.1567
=.2272 - 136.370 =.2272 223.6270
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/37
1
Vab0 = (Vab + Vbc + Vca )
3
0
0
0
Vab0 =1/3[.782681.39 + 1.174 - 41.23 + 1.0180 ]
=0
Voltages to neutral are given by
V = 0.97236(73.147 - 30 ) = 0.9723643.147
1
an
Vc1
Vca Va1 = V1
Vbc n
Vb1
Vab
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/37
V = 0.2272(223.627 + 30 ) = 0.2272253.627
2
an
0
an
V =0
resistance value in p.u.=1.100/500=.2 p.u.
I = (0.9723643.147 )/.2 = 4.861843.147 p.u.

1
a
I = (0.2272253.627 )/.2 = 1.136253.627 p.u.

2
a
0
a
I =0
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/37
SEQUENCE NETWORKS
Avinash K. Sinha
I. I. T. Kharagpur
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
1/36
SEQUEMCE NETWORKS
Lesson Summary
1. Introduction
2. Sequence networks for Transmission
Lines
3. Sequence network for Genetators
4. Sequence network for Transformers
5. Sequence network for Power System
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
2/36
be able to:
A. Develop sequence network Tr. Lines
B. Develop sequence network for Generators
C. Develop sequence network for Transformers
D. Assemble sequence networks for small
power systems
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
3/36
Sequence Networks of Three-Phase Lines

a
b
c
n
Ia
Van Ib
Vcn Ic
Zca
Vcn In
Zaa
Zbb
Zab
Zcc
Zbc
Znn
NPTEL
Zcn Zbn
b Van
Zan
c Vbn
Vcn
A.K. Sinha
n
4/36

For a fully transposed line:
Zaa = Zbb = Zcc
Zab = Zbc = Zca
Zan = Zbn = Zcn
a
Van
n
Ia Zab Ib Zab Ic
+
Zan In
-
In Zan Ia Zan Ib
+
Zaa
Zan Ic
-
NPTEL
Znn
A.K. Sinha
Van
n
5/36
Van = Z aa Ia + Z ab Ib + Z ab Ic + Z anIn + Va'n'

- (Z nnIn + Z anIc + Z anIb + Z anIa )
Van - Va'n' = (Z aa - Z an )Ia + (Z ab - Z an )(Ib + Ic )
+ (Z an - Z nn )In
Vbn - Vb'n' = (Z aa - Z an )Ib + (Z ab - Z an )(Ia + Ic )

+ (Z an - Z nn )In
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/36
Vcn - Vc'n' = (Z aa - Z an )Ic + (Z ab - Z an )(Ia + Ib )

+ (Z an - Z nn )In
In = - (Ia + Ib + Ic )
Van - Va'n' = (Z aa + Z nn - 2Z an )Ia + (Z ab + Z nn - 2Z an )Ib
+ (Z ab + Z nn - 2Z an )Ic
Vbn - Vb'n' = (Z ab + Z nn - 2Z an )Ia + (Z aa + Z nn - 2Z an )Ib
+ (Z ab + Z nn - 2Z an )Ic
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
7/36
Vcn - Vc'n' = (Z ab + Z nn - 2Z an )Ia + (Z ab + Z nn - 2Z an )Ib

+ (Z aa + Z nn - 2Z an )Ic
Z s @Z aa + Znn - 2Z an
Zm @Z ab + Znn - 2Z an
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
8/36
Vaa'
Van - Va'n'
Zs
Zm
Zm Ia
Vbb' = Vbn - Vb'n' = Zm

Vcc'
Vcn - Vc'n'
Zm
Zs
Zm
Zm Ib
Z s Ic
Vaa' @Van - Va'n'
-1
Z sy = A Zp A
Vbb' @Vbn - Vb'n'

Vcc' @Vcn - Vc'n'
NPTEL
Z sy
Z0
= 0
0
Z1
0
0
Z2
A.K. Sinha
9/36
Z 0 = Z s + 2Zm
Z1 = Z 2 = Z s - Z m
V0 - V0' = Z 0I0
V1 - V1' = Z1I1
V2 - V2' = Z 2I2
I0
+
V0
-
Z0 = Zaa + 2Zab
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
+
V0
10/36

I1
+
V1
-
Positive-sequence network
I1
+
V2
-
Z1 = Zaa - Zab
+
V1
-
Z2 = Z1 = Zaa - Zab
Negative-sequence network
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
+
V2
11/36
Sequence networks of Synchronous

Generator
c
a
+ Ec
In
Zn
Ic
Ia
- - Ea
Eb
+
b
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
Ib
12/36

Zg1
Eg+
-
I1
+
V1
Z g1 jX d
For calculating initial Sub - transient fault current

Eg = E''g and Z g1 jX ''d
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
13/36

Zg2
I2
+
V2
-
Z g2 j
X q + X 'd
2
For calculating initial Sub - transient fault current
Z ''g2 jX ''d as ( X q'' X d'' )
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
14/36

Zg0
I0
+
V0
3Zn
Z g0 jX l
Z g1 Z g2 > Z g0
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
15/36
Sequence networks of Synchronous

Motor and Induction Motor
Synchronous motor
Zm1
I
Induction motor
Zm1
I
1
+
V1
-
+
Em1
-
Positive-sequence
network
NPTEL
V1
Positive-sequence
network
A.K. Sinha
16/36
Synchronous motor
Zm2
I
Induction motor
Zm2
I
V2
V2
Negative-sequence
network
Negative-sequence
network
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
17/36

Synchronous motor
Zm0
I
Induction motor
I0
V0
3Zn V
0
Zm0
3Zn
Zero-sequence
network
Zero-sequence
network
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
18/36

Per-Unit Sequence Models of Three-Phase
Two-Winding Transformers
+
+
VH
VL
jXl
NPTEL
300
A.K. Sinha
19/36

+
VH1
+
jXl
VL1
positive-sequence network
+
VH2
+
jXl
VL2
negative-sequence network
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
20/36

C
Zero Sequence Network

c
X3
H3
H1
N
H2
B
X1
A
ZN
X2
b
a
Zn
Schematic representation
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
21/36

C
H3
N
H2
B
H1
c
A
X2
b
ZN
X3
a
X1
Schematic representation
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
22/36
Zn Transformer
ZN
jXl+3ZN+3Zn
+
VL0
-
+
VH0
-
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
23/36

Transformer
+
VH0
jXl+3ZN
+
VL0
-
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
24/36

Transformer
+
VH0
jXl
+
VL0
-
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
25/36

Transformer
+
VH0
jXl+3ZN
+
VL0
-
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
26/36

Transformer
+
VH0
jXl
+
VL0
-
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
27/36

Transformer
jXl
+
VL0
-
+
VH0
-
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
28/36

The per-unit sequence network of the Y-
transformer, shown in Figure (b), have the
following features.
1. The per-unit impedances do not depend on
the winding connections. That is, the perunit impedances of a transformer that is
connected Y-Y. Y-, -Y. or - are the
same. However, the base voltages do
depend on the winding connections.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
29/36

2. A phase shift is included in the per-unit
positive- and negative- sequence networks.
For the American standard, the positivesequence voltages and currents on the
high-voltage side of the Y- transformer
lead the corresponding quantities on the
low-voltage side by 30. For negative
sequence, the high-voltage quantities lag
by 30.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
30/36
3. Zero-sequence currents can flow in the Y

winding if there is a neutral connection, and
corresponding zero-sequence currents flow
within the winding. However, no zerosequence current enters or leaves the
winding.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
31/36

Example: For the system shown in figure
assemble the sequence networks
Gen
T1
Line
NPTEL
T2
A.K. Sinha
Motor
32/36
Xg1
XT1
XL1
XT1
Eg1
Xm1
Em1
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
33/36
Xg2
XT2
XL2
XT2
Xm2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
34/36
Xg0
XT0
XL0
XT0
Xm0
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
35/36
Thank You !
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
37/37
FAULT ANALYSIS FOR LARGE

POWER SYSTEMS
Avinash K. Sinha
I. I. T. Kharagpur
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
1/36
ASSYMETRICAL FAULT
ANALYSIS (Contd..)
Lesson Summary
1. Introduction
2. Fault analysis using Ybus matrix

3. Fault analysis using Zbus matrix
4. Example
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
2/36
On completion of this lesson a student
should be able to:
A. Develop algorithm for fault analysis using
Ybus method
B. Explain the difficulties associated with
fault analysis using Ybus method
C. Develop algorithm for fault analysis using
Zbus method
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
3/36

D. Develop fault impedance matrix for different
types of fault
E. Solve for fault current and bus voltages for a
faulted power system
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
4/36
Short-Circuit Analysis of
Large Power Systems
For small systems it is possible to reduce the
sequence networks into its Thevenins equivalent
at the fault point.
For large systems it is extremely difficult to
obtain such an equivalent.
For large systems we need to develop a
systematic and general procedure (algorithm)
which is suitable for solution on computer.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
8/36
Problem Statement
The system under study has n buses.
It is initially operating in a symmetrical
normal state.
All prefault bus voltages and power flows
are assumed to be known.
A fault occurs at bus q.
Fault can be represented as a fault
impedance matrix Z f or fault admittance
matrix Y f .
n-bus power system

+
Bus q
a
b
c
f
f
f
Currents Iaq
, Ibq
, Icq
f
aq
f
f
V Vbq
Vcq
- -
Zf
Fault impedance
matrix Z f

Symmetrical Short Circuit
Let the pre-fault bus voltage of the system be
given as:
0
VBUS
=
V10
0
V2
M
Vn0
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
8/36

Using the Thevenins theorem the post-fault Bus
voltages are given by:
f
bus
V
Where,
VBUS
=V
0
bus
+ Vbus
V1
Changes caused by
V2
=
= the fault
M
Vn
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
8/36
n-bus power system

Bus q
+
f
Vq
-
+
Zf
0
q
Fault impedance

Network Equations
IBUS = YBUS VBUS

VBUS = ZBUS IBUS
IBUS = YBUS VBUS
VBUS = ZBUS IBUS
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
8/36
I1 Y11

M
M

Iq = Yq1

M M
I Y
n n1
Y1q
M
Yqq
M
Yn2
NPTEL
Y1n V1
M M
Yqn Vq
M M
Ynn Vn
A.K. Sinha
8/36
Iq Yqq
Y
I
1 1q
M = M

M M
I Y
n nq
Yq1 L L
Y11 L L
M
M
Yn1 L L
NPTEL
Yqn Vq
Y1n V1
M M
M M
Ynn Vn
A.K. Sinha
8/36
Iq
=
I0
I0 = 0 ;
Yqq Yq0 Vq
Y0q Y00 V0
Y0q Vq + Y00 V0 = 0
-1
00
V0 = - Y Y0q Vq ; Substituting
-1
q0 00
Iq = (Yqq - Y Y Y0q) Vq
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
8/36

-1
00
If = - Iq = - (Yqq - Yq0 Y Y0q ) Vq

f
q
0
q
Also, V = V + Vq ; For a fault with

Zero impedance V = 0; Vq = - V
f
q
0
q
Therefore,
-1
00
0
q
If = (Yqq - Yq0 Y Y0q ) V

NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
8/36

Although this algorithm looks straight forward
there are some difficulties associated with this:
The algorithm involves inversion of (n-1)x(n-1)
matrix Y00.
For finding out the Circuit breaker ratings and
relay settings we require calculation of fault
currents for faults at different busses. For each
of these fault calculations we will require
inversion of Y00 matrix which will be different in
each case. This is computationally very
expensive.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
8/36

Fault Analysis Using ZBUS Method
Using the Thevenins theorem the postfault
Bus voltages are given by
f
bus
Ibf u s
=V
0
0
M
= f
I
M
0
bus
+Z
f
bus bus
qth component
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
8/36
V1
Vq =
M
V
n
Z11 L Z1q L Z1n 0

M
M
M
M

Z L Z L Z -If
q1
qq
qn

M
M
M M
0
Zn1 L Znq L Znn
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
8/36

V0bus and Zbus both are known, therefore
we can find If in the following manner.
V = V Z1qI
f
1
0
1
..........................
V = V Z qqI
f
q
0
q
..........................
V = V ZnqI
f
n
0
n
V =ZI
f
q
f f
Z I = V Z qqI
f f
0
q
I = ( Z + Z qq ) V
f
0
q
Vi = V Ziq ( Z + Z qq ) V
f
0
i
V = Z ( Z + Z qq ) V
f
q
0
q
0
q
for i q

Example:Two synchronous machines are
connected through three-phase transformers to
the transmission line. The rating and reactance of
the machines and transformers are
Machine 1 and 2 : 100 MVA,20KV;
X d = X 1 = X 2
X 0n
''
X d = X1 = X 2 = 12%; X 0 = 5%; Xn = 4%
Transformer T1 and T2 : 100MVA,20/400KV; X=7%.

On a base of 100MVA,400 KV the line reactances
are X1=X2=15% and X0=50%.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
13/36

The system is operating at normal voltage
without pre-fault currents when a bolted(Zf =0)
three phase fault occurs at bus 3. Determine the
sub-transient fault current.
Gen
1 T1
Line
NPTEL
T2 4
A.K. Sinha
Motor
14/36

1
3
4
j0.12 j0.07 j0.15 F j0.07 j0.12
Eg1
= 1.000
Ref
Em1
= 1.000
1
1
YBUS =
2
3
4
0
0
-22.6190j 14.2860j
14.2860j -20.9530j 6.6670j
0
6.6670j -20.9530j 14.2860j
0
0
14.2860j
-22.6190j
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
15/36

On inverting YBUS we get ZBUS
1
1
Zbus =
2
3
4
j.0928
j.0769
j.0430
j.02716
j.0769 j.043 j.0271

j.1218 j.0681 j.0430
j.0681 j.1218 j.0769
j.043 j.0769 j.0928
For fault at Bus 3 fault Current If is given

by
1
I = ( Z + Z 33 ) V
f
0
3
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
8/36
In this case
Zf
= 0; Z33 = 0.1218 and V = 1.00

0
3
Therefore,
1.00
I =
= 8.210 p.u.
0.1218
Bus Voltages are calculated as:
0
V = V Zi3 ( Z qq )
f
1
0
1
= 0.6469 p.u.
j0.043
V = 1.0 x(1.0)
j0.1218
0
3
Bus Impedance (ZBUS) Matrix

ZBUS can not be formed by inspection like
the YBUS matrix.
ZBUS formation requires assembling the
impedance matrix step by step.
ZBUS matrix provides an open circuit
description of the network.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
4/39

Network equation can be written as:
V1

M

Vp =

M
V
n
Z11 L
M
Z L
q1
L
Z
n1
Z1p L Z1n I1

M
M M
Zpp L Zqn Ip

M
M M

Znp L Znn In
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
5/39

All the voltages are referred to a common
reference and all the currents are injections
into the bus.
If we make all current injections zero except at
bus p:
Z
V1

M
Vp =

M
V
n
1p
M
Z x I
pp p
M
Znp
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/39

This defines the p-th column elements as:
Zpi = (Vi /Ip )Ik =0; k p i = 1,.....,n

Since all the impedance elements are defined
with all the nodes open circuited except one
the impedance elements are called open circuit
driving point and open circuit transfer
impedances.
Zpi = Open circuit driving point impedance, p=i
= Open circuit transfer impedance, p i
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
7/39

The diagonal elements of the ZBUS matrix
provides
the
Thevenins
equivalent
impedance of the network at that node.
ZBUS matrix formation by simulation:
Ip
Vp
Vn
Vk
V1
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
8/39
ZBUS Building Algorithm

We assume that we are given ZBUS matrix
for a k-bus system and we want to modify
this matrix to include some more
elements. In general these modification of
adding new elements in the system can be
of four types:
1. Adding a branch with impedance Zb from a
new bus P to the reference node.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
9/39
2. Adding Zb from a new bus P to an

existing bus k.
3. Adding Zb from existing bus k to the
reference node.
4. Adding Zb between two existing
bus j and k.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
10/39
Modification of an existing Zbus

Type 1. Adding Zb from a new bus P to the
reference node.
Ip
P
Zb
Original
network with
the
reference node
extracted
0
NPTEL
Reference
A.K. Sinha
11/39
V10
0
V
2
M =
Z orig
0
VN
V P 0 0 L
p
0 I1
I
0 2
M M

0 IN
0 Zb Ip
Zbus(new)
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
12/39

Type 2. Adding Zb from a new bus P to
an existing bus k
Ik
Ik + Ip
Ip
P
Zb
Original
network with
bus k and the
reference node
extracted
0
NPTEL
Reference
A.K. Sinha
13/39
Vk = I1Zk1 + I2 Zk2 + .. + (Ik + Ip )Zkk . + IN ZkN

0
k
Vk = V + Ip Z kk
0
k
Vp = V + Ip Zkk + Ip Zb
Vp = I1Zk1 + I2 Zk2 + ... + IN ZkN + Ip ( Zkk + Zb )
0
k
V
Vi = I1Z i1 + I2 Z i2 + .. + (Ik + Ip )Z ik . + IN Z iN
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
14/39

P
V1

V2
M =

VN
V P Z
p k1 Zk2
ZNk
Zkk + Zb
Z1k
Z 2k
Z orig
L
ZkN
I1
I
2
M

IN
Ip

Zbus(new)
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
15/39

Type 3. Adding Zb from existing bus k to
the reference node.
k
Ik + Ip
Zb
Original
network with
bus k and the
reference node
extracted
Reference
1. Type 2 modification Add Zb from existing

bus k to new bus P
2. Connect bus P to reference.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
16/39

P
Step 1:
V1

V2
M =

VN
V P Z
p k1 Zk2
ZNk
Zkk + Zb
Z1k
Z 2k
Z orig
L
ZkN
I1
I
2
M

IN
Ip

Zbus(new)
Bus P is connected to ref. Vp = 0
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
17/39

Step 2:
V1

V2
M =

VN
0 P Zk1 Zk2

ZNk
Zkk + Zb
Z1k
Z 2k
Z orig
L
ZkN
I1
I
2
M

IN
Ip

Zbus(new)
Eliminating last row and column, we get
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
18/39
0 = I1Zk1 + I2 Zk2 + ... + IN ZkN + Ip ( Zkk + Zb )
1
Ip = (I1Zk1 + I2 Zk2 + ... + IN ZkN )
( Zkk + Zb )
Vi = I1Zi1 + I2 Zi2 + .. + Ik Zik + . + INZiN + Ip Zik
Vi = I1Zi1 + I2 Zi2 + .. + Ik Zik + . + INZiN
1
(I1Zk1 + I2 Zk2 + ... + INZkN )Zik
( Zkk + Zb )
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
19/39
1
1
Vi =I1(Zi1 Zk1Z1k ) +I2 (Zi2 Zk2Z2k )
( Zkk +Zb )
( Zkk +Zb )
1
+..+IN(ZiN ZkNZNk )
( Zkk +Zb )
Zik Zkj
Zij(new ) = Zij(OLD) Zkk + Zb
ZBUS(new )
1
= ZBUS(OLD) Zkk + Zb
NPTEL
Z1k
M Z L Z
kN ]
[ k1
ZNk
A.K. Sinha
20/39

Case 4. Adding Zb between two existing
bus j and k
Ij
Ik
Ij + Ib
Ib
Zb
Ik - Ib
Original
network with
Buses j , k and the
reference node
extracted
0
NPTEL
Reference
A.K. Sinha
21/39
Vi = Z i1I1 + ... + Z ij (I j + Ib ) L +
Z ik (Ik - Ib ) + ... + Z iN IN
Vi = Z i1I1 + ... + Z ijI j L +
Z ik Ik + ... + Z iN IN + (Z ij - Z ik )Ib
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
22/39
V j = Z j1I1 + ... + Z jjI j + Z jk Ik + ...

+ Z jN IN + ( Z jj - Z jk ) Ib
Vk = Z k1I1 + ... + Z kjI j + Z kk Ik + ...
+ Z kNIN + ( Z kj - Z kk ) Ib = Vj + Z bIb
0 = -(Z k1I1 + ... + Z kjI j + Z kk Ik + ...

+ Z kNIN + ( Z kj - Z kk ) Ib ) + Z j1I1 + ...
+Z jjI j + Z jk Ik + ... + Z jNIN + ( Z jj - Z jk ) Ib + Z bIb
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
23/39
0 = (Z j1 - Z k1 )I1 + L + (Z jj - Z kj )I j + L
+ (Z jk - Z kk )Ik + L + (Z jN - Z kN )I1 +
(Z
+ Z jj + Z kk - Z jk - Z kj ) Ib
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
24/39
V1
M

Vj

Z orig
Vk =
M

VN
0 ( row j - row k ) of Z orig

( col.j - col.k )
of Z orig
Zb + Z jj + Zkk - 2Z jk
I1
M

Ij

Ik
M

IN
I
b
Eliminating last row and column, we get

NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
25/39
ZBUS(new )
1
= ZBUS(OLD) x
Z jj + Zkk + Zb - 2Z jk
Z1j - Z1k
M (Z j1 - Zk1 ) L (Z jN - ZkN )
ZNj - ZNk
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
26/39

Modification of existing Zbus
Case Add branch Zb from
Zbus(new)
Reference node to new

bus P
P
Zoring
Zb
0
NPTEL
Z oring
P 0 L
A.K. Sinha
P
0
M
0
0 Zb
27/39
Zbus(new)
Existing bus k to
new bus P
P
Zoring
Zb
k Zoring
col.k
P row k Z + Z
kk
b
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
28/39

Existing bus k to
reference node
Repeat Case 2 and

P
Zoring
Zbus(new)
Zb
Remove row p and

column p by Kron
reduction
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
29/39

From the matrix
Existing bus j to
existing bus k
Zoring
q
q
Zbus(new)
Zb
Zorig
col.j- col.k
q row j - row k Zth.jk + Zb
Where Z th.jk = Z jj + Zkk - 2Z jk

and
0
(Node q is temporary)
NPTEL
Remove row q and

column q by Kron
reduction
A.K. Sinha
30/39

Example: Two synchronous machines are
the transmission line as shown in figure. The
rating and reactance of the machines and
transformers are:
Machine 1 and 2: 100 MVA, 20KV;
Xd = X1 = X 2 = 12%
X 0 = 5%
Xn = 4%
Transformers T1 and T2: 100 MVA,
20 / 400 Y kv;
NPTEL
X = 8%
A.K. Sinha
31/39

On a chosen base of 100 MVA, 345 KV in the
transmission line circuit the line reactances are
X1=X2=15% and X0=50%. Find the positive sequence bus impedance matrix by means of
the Zbus building algorithm.
Machine 1
T1 2
T2
Machine 2
Single line diagram of the system

NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
32/39

+ve sequence network
1
j.12
j.07
j.15
j.07
j.12
Vf
Vf
reference
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
33/39

Formation of Zbus matrix for positive sequence
network
Step 1:
Add branch 1 to reference node
1
1 [j0.12]
Step 2: Add branch 2 between bus1 and bus2

1
1 j.12
2 j.12
NPTEL
j.12
j.19
A.K. Sinha
34/39

Step 3: Add branch 3 between buses 2 and 3
1
1
2
3
j.12
j.12
j.12
j.12
j.19
j.19
NPTEL
j.12
j.19
j.34
A.K. Sinha
35/39
Step 4: Add branch 4 between buses 3 and 4
1
2
3
4
j.12
j.12
j.12
j.12
j.12
j.12
j.19
j.19
j.19
j.34
j.19
j.34
NPTEL
j.12
j.19
j.34
j.41
A.K. Sinha
36/39

Step 5: Add branch 5 between bus 4(old) and
reference
Z14
Z
1
24
[Z 41 Z 42 Z 43 Z 44 ]
Znew = Z old
Z 44 + Zb Z 34
Z
44
j.12
j.19
1
[ j.12
= Z old j.41+ j.12 j.34
j.41
NPTEL
j.19
A.K. Sinha
j.34
j.41]
37/39

j.12
j.12
=
j.12
j.12
j.12
j.12
j.19
j.19
j.19
j.34
j.19
j.34
j.0928
j.077
=
j.043
j.0272
j.12 j.0272
j.19 j.0430
j.34 j.077

j.41 j.0928
j.0928
j.0681 j.1219 j.1469
j.1219 j.2181 j.2630
j.1469 j.2630 j.3172

j.0430
j.077
j.0272
j.1219 j.0681 j.0431
j.0681 j.1219 j.077

j.0431 j.077 j.0928
j.077
j.043
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
38/39
Asymmetrical Fault Analysis

of Large Power Systems
The system under study has n buses. It is
initially operating in a symmetrical normal state.
All pre-fault bus voltages and power flows are
assumed to be known.
A fault occurs at bus q.
Fault can be represented as a fault impedance
matrix Zf or fault admittance matrix Yf .
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
8/36
n-bus power system

+
Bus q
a
b
c
f
f
f
Currents Iaq
, Ibq
, Icq
f
aq
f
f
V Vbq
Vcq
- -
Zf
Fault impedance
matrix Z f
Network Modeling using Sequence

Bus Impedance Matrices
Network is separately modeled for each of
the three sequence systems (I.e., there will be
three different bus impedance matrices).
The network matrices are assembled into
a Sequence bus impedance matrix, Zs,bus, of
dimension 3n 3n.
Z + bus
Z +11
Z
+21
=
M
Z +n1
Z +1n
Z +22 L Z +2n
M M M
Z + n2 L Z + nn
Z +12 L
Z bus = Z + bus
The zero-sequence network will be vastly
different from both
Z s,bus
Z s11
Z
s21
K
=
K
K
Z sn1
Z s12
Z s22
L
L
K
K
K
K
K
K
Z s1n
Z s2n
K
K
K
Z snn
Where each element of the

Z s,bus matrix is a 3X3 matrix
Z s,ij
Z 0ij
= 0
0
0
Z + ij
0
Z ij
and voltage and current vectors

are given as :
V s ,b u s
V0 1
V
+1
V1
Vs1
K
M
V
0i
@ V+i = Vsi
V
M
i
V s n
K
V
0n
V
+n
V n
and
I s ,b u s
I0 1
I
+1
I 1
Is 1
K
M
I
0i
@ I+ i = Is i
I
M
i
I s n
K
I
0n
I
+n
I n
Vs,bus = Z s,bus Is,bus

Vsi = Z si1Is1 + Z si2 Is2 + ... + Z siiIi + ... + Z sinIsn
Using the Thevenins theorem the postfault
Bus voltages are given by
f
s,bus
=V
0
s,bus
+Z
f
s,bus s,bus
Pre-fault bus voltages
Vs0,bus
0
V0
+1
0
L
0
0
V+ 2
= 0
L
M
V+0n

Fault Current injection:
I fs ,b u s
0
0
M
= f
I s ,q
M
f
s,q
f
I0q
f
= I+ q
f
I q
qth component

V0s,bus and Zs,bus both are known.
We can, therefore, find Ifsq as follows:
V = V Z
f
s1
0
s1
f
s1q sq
..........................
V = V Z
f
sq
0
sq
f
sqq sq
..........................
V = V Z
f
sn
0
sn
f
snq sq
f f
s sq
ZI
f
sq
= V Z
0
sq
f
sqq sq
= ( Z + Z sqq ) V
1
f
s
0
sq
V = V Z siq ( Z + Z sqq ) V
f
si
0
si
V =Z
f
sq
f
s
f
s
(Z
f
s
+ Z sqq ) V
1
0
sq
0
sq
for i q

All relations involve three-dimensional
vectors and 3 3 matrices. The matrices
Zsij are diagonal, but the matrix Zfs is not.
In any case, all the involved matrix operations can be easily programmed on a digital
computer.
The prefault bus voltages V0i are either
obtained from a load flow analysis or, are
usually set equal to 1.0 pu; i.e.,
0
Vsi 1
0
for i = 1,...,n

Z+bus, Z-bus, and Z0bus can be obtained either
by inversion of the corresponding bus
admittance matrices or by using the Zbus
building algorithms.

Fault Impedance matrix
+
+
+
f
aq
f
cq
f
bq
V V V
f
aq
Za
Zb
Zc
f
bq
Zg
-
f
cq
f
Inq
Faulted
Bus q
1
Ya =
Za
1
Yb =
Zb
1
Yc =
Zc
1
Yg =
Zg
The Fault Impedance Matrix Z fs
V = I Za + (I + I + I
f
aq
f
aq
f
aq
f
bq
f
cq
V = I Zb + ( I + I + I
f
bq
f
bq
f
aq
f
bq
f
cq
f
cq
f
aq
f
bq
V = I Zc + (I + I + I
)Z
)Z
)Z
f
cq
f
cq

f
Vaq
Z a + Zg
f
Vbq = Z g
f
Vcq
Zg

Zg
Zb + Z g
Zg
Iaq
f
Z g Ibq
f
Z c + Z g Icq
Zg
Where fault impedance matrix
Z a + Zg
f
Z = Zg
Zg
Zg
Zb + Z g
Zg
Z c + Z g
Zg
Zg

Eq. can be written in compact form
f
Pq
1
T = a2
f f
Pq
V =Z I
f
sq
f
sq
TV = Z TI
V = T Z TI @Z I
f
sq
-1
f
sq
f f
s sq
1 1
a 1
2
a 1
1 a
1
-1
T = 1 a2
3
1 1
a2
a
1

Za + Zb + Zc
Za +a2 Zb +aZc Za +aZb +a2 Zc
1
2
2
= Za +aZb +a Zc
Za + Zb + Zc
Za +a Zb +aZc
3
Za +a2 Zb +aZc Za +aZb +a2Zc Za + Zb + Zc +9Zg
For some type of faults some of the impedances

take on infinite values. Some elements of the Zsf
matrix become undefined. In such cases we
must work with its inverse, the SC transformed
fault admittance matrix.
I = (Z
f
sq
Ysf =
f -1
s
f
sq
f
s
f
sq
V @Y V
Ya + Yb + Yc + Yg
1
1
2
Y
Y
a
Yb + aYc )
+
(
Y
Y
Y
Y
+
+
(
)
g
a
g
a
b
c
3
3
( Yb Yc + aYa Yb + a2 Ya Yc )
+ ( Ya Yb + Yb Yc + Yc Ya )
1
1 Y Y + aY + a2 Y
Yg ( Ya + Yb + Yc )
g( a
b
c)
3
3
2
+ ( Ya Yb + Yb Yc + Yc Ya )
( Yb Yc + a Ya Yb + aYa Yc )
1
1 Yg ( Ya + a2 Yb + aYc )
Yg ( Ya + aYb + a2 Yc )
3
3
1
2
Yg ( Ya + aYb + a Yc )
3
Yg ( Ya + a2 Yb + aYc )
3
1
Yg ( Ya + Yb + Yc )
V = V Z sqq Y V
f
sq
0
sq
f
s
V = (U + Z sqq Y
f 1
s
f
sq
f
sq
0
sq
= Y V = Y (U + Z sqq Y
f
s
f
sq
V = V Z I
f
si
f
sq
0
si
f
siq sq
f 1
s
f
s
0
sq
= V Z siq Y (U + Z sqq Y
0
si
f
s
f 1
s
0
Vsq
iq
Example: Two synchronous machines are

the transmission line as shown in figure. The
rating and reactance of the machines and
transformers are:
Machine 1 and 2: 100 MVA, 20KV;
Xd = X1 = X 2 = 12%
X 0 = 5%
Xn = 4%
Transformers T1 and T2: 100 MVA,
20/400Ykv;
NPTEL
X = 8%
A.K. Sinha
6/37
On a chosen base of 100 MVA, 345 KV in the

transmission line circuit the line reactances are
X1=X2=15% and X0=50%. Draw each of the three
sequence networks and find fault current and
post fault bus voltages for a bolted L-G fault on
bus 2 using the Zbus algorithm.
Machine 1
T1 2
T2
Machine 2
Single
diagram
of the
Singleline
line
diagram
ofsystem
the system
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/37

+ve sequence network
1
j.12
j.07
j.15
j.07
j.12
Vf
Vf
reference
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
33/39

Zero sequence network
1
j.05
j.12
j.07
j.15
j.07
4
j.05 5
j.12
reference
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
33/39
Zbus for the positive sequence network was

already built in the previous lesson. Also we
have
1
1
(1)
bus
=Z
(2)
bus
2
3
4
j.0928
j.0769
j.0430
j.02716
j.0769 j.043 j.0271

j.1218 j.0681 j.0430
j.0681 j.1218 j.0769
j.043 j.0769 j.0928
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/37

Zbus for the zero sequence network using
the building algorithm is given by
0
Z bus
j.1406
j.1284
=
j.0417
j.0295
j.1284
j.1813
j.0588
j.0417
NPTEL
j.0417
j.0588
j.1813
j.1284
j.0295
j.0417
j.1284
j.1406
A.K. Sinha
1/36

For single line to ground fault,
(1) Z b = Z c = ( Yb = Yc = 0)
(2) Z g = 0
(3)
Za = Z
( Yg = )
f
f
Y
Since Yg = s
1
(Ya = f @Y f )
Z
Reduces to
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
1/36

2
2
Ya + Yb + Yc
+
+
+
+
Ya Yb Yc Ya Yb Yc
1
2
2
f
Ys = Ya + Yb + Yc
Ya + Yb + Yc
Ya + Yb + Yc
3
Ya + 2Yb + Yc Ya + Yb + 2Yc
Ya + Yb + Yc
Upon substitution of
Ya = Y f and Yb = Yc = 0, simplifies to
1 1 1
Y
f
1 1 1
Ys =
3
1 1 1
f
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
1/36

1 0 0 Z + qq
Vsq = 0 1 0 + 0
0 0 1 0
0
Z qq
0
0 f
Y
0
3
Z 0 qq
1
1
1
V
q
1 1 1 0

1 1 1 0
Yf
1 + 3( Z + Z )
qq
0 qq
0
f
V
Y
q
f
Z qq
Vsq =
f
Y
3
1+
( Z + qq + Z qq + Z 0 qq )
3
Yf
Z 0 qq
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
1/36

For the short circuit at the faulted bus,
1
f
Y /3
0
f
f
f
1
I sq = Ys Vsq = Vq
f
Y
1+
( Z + qq + Z qq + Z 0 qq ) 1
3
The post fault voltages other than the faulted
one are obtained as
Vsif = Vsi0 Z siq I sqf
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
1/36

Vi 0 Z + iq

= 0 0
0 0
0
Z iq
0
0
f
0 I sq
Z oiq
f
I
Substituting sq
Vi 0
Z + iq
f
Y /3

f
0
Vsi = 0 Vq
Z iq
f
Y
1+
( Z + qq + Z qq + Z 0 qq ) Z 0iq
0
3
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
1/36

For Zf = 0 above equations simplifies to,
Z qq + Z 0 qq
V
f
Vsq =
Z qq
f
Y
1+
( Z + qq + Z qq + Z 0 qq ) Z 0 qq
3
0
q
1
I = Ys V =
Z + qq + Z qq + Z 0 qq
f
sq
f
sq
NPTEL
1
1
A.K. Sinha
1/36
Z + iq
1
1
Vsi = 0
Z iq for i q
Z + qq + Z qq + Z 0 qq
Z 0iq
0
Since short circuit occur at bus 2, q = 2
0
0
Z +22
Z sqq = Z s 22 = 0
Z 22
0
0
Z 022
0
j.1218
= 0
0
j.1218
0
NPTEL
0
0 p.u.
j.1813
A.K. Sinha
1/36

j.1218 + j.1813
1
f
j.1218
Vs 2 =
j (.1218 + .1218 + .1813)

j.1813
.7133
= .2866 p.u
.4267
1
1
f
f
1
I sq = I s 3 =
j (.1218 + .1218 + .1813)
1
NPTEL
2.35
= j 2.35 p.u
2.35
A.K. Sinha
1/36
Z s12
Z +12
= 0
Z s 32
Z +32
= 0
0
Z 12
0
0
Z 32
0
0
0 =
Z 012
0
0 =
Z 032
NPTEL
0
0
.0769
j 0
.0769
0
0
.1284
0
0
0
.0681
j 0
.0681
0
0
.0588
0
A.K. Sinha
1/36
Z s 42
Z +42
= 0
0
Z 42
0
0
0 =
Z 042
0
.043 0
j 0 .043
0
0 .0417
0
1
j.0769
1
f
j.0769
Vs1 = 0
(.1218 + .1218 + .1813)
0
j.1284
.819
= .181
.302
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
1/36

.839
1
j.0681
.160
1
f
=
Vs 3 = 0
j.0681
(.1218 + .1218 + .1813)
.138
0
j.0588
1
j.043
1
f
j.043
Vs 4 = 0
(.1218 + .1218 + .1813)
0
j.0417
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
.898
= .101
.098
1/36
Thank You !
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
36/36
POWER SYSTEM STABILITY
Avinash K. Sinha
I. I. T. Kharagpur
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
1/35

Lesson Summary
1. Introduction
2. Classification of Power System Stability
3. Dynamic Equation of Synch. Machines
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
2/35
be able to:
A. Explain the concept of power system
stability
B. Classify stability problem into different
types based on the phenomenon under
consideration
C. Develop dynamic equation of motion for
synchronous machines
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
3/35

Power System Operates in Synchronous
Mode
Power System is subjected to a wide range
of disturbances (small and large)
Loads and generation keep changing
continually
Faults and Network changes also take place
sometimes
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
4/35
Power System stability involves the study of the

dynamics of the power system under
disturbances.
In simplest term power system instability can be
seen as loss of synchronism (i.e., some
synchronous machines going out of step) when
the system is subjected to a particular
disturbance.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
5/35

CIGRE-IEEE Def. Of Power System Stability:Power system stability is the ability of an
electric power system, for a given initial
operating condition, to regain a state of
operating equilibrium after being subjected to
a physical disturbance, with most system
variables bounded so that practically the
entire system remains intact.
Stability involves study of dynamics of the
system about an equilibrium- initial op. cond.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/35

Power system is highly non-linear system
Stability study study of non-linear dynamics
of a large system.
Stability Initial operating condition
Nature and magnitude of
disturbance
Def. applies to an interconnected power system
as a whole. Most of the time we are interested in
stability of a particular generator or a group of
generators
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
7/35

A typical power system will consist of large
number of devices having dynamic
characteristics Generators, AVRs, Speed
Governors, FACTS Devices, OLTC
Transformers etc.
Power System a large multivariable dynamic
system with varying characteristics (linear /
nonlinear) and response rates.
Stability equilibrium between the opposing
forces generated by the devices as a response
to the disturbance
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
8/35

Classification of Stability:
Power system stability is essentially a single
problem.
High dimensionality and complexity of the
problem Simplifying assumptions to
analyze specific types of problem
Classification of stability problem.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
9/35

For a given network topology and initial
operating condition depending on nature and
magnitude of disturbance, imbalance between
different sets of opposing forces may lead to
different types of instability.
Classification is done on the basis of:
Physical nature of instability main variable
Size of the disturbance method of analysis
Time span of analysis devices to be
modeled
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
10/35

Power System
Stability
Rotor angle
stability
Frequency
stability
Voltage
stability
Small
signal
stability
Small
Transient
signal
stability
stability
Short term
Short term /
long term
NPTEL
Large
signal
stability
Short term /
long term
A.K. Sinha
11/35
Rotor Angle Stability Analysis

Assumptions:
Balanced three phase system and balanced
disturbances considered
Deviation of machine frequencies from
synchronous frequency are small, dc offset
current and harmonics are neglected.
Network and impedance loads are at steady
state Voltage current and powers can be
computed from power flow equations.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
12/35
Dynamics of a Synchronous machine

The kinetic energy of the rotor at synchronous
machine is
1
KE = J2sm 10-6 MJ
2
Where
J = rotor moment of inertia in kg-m2

sm = synchronous speed in rad (mech)/s
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
13/35
But
P
s =
sm = rotor speed in rad (elect)/s
2
Where P = number of machine poles

2
1 2
-6
KE =
J s 10 s
2 P
1
= M s
2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
14/35

2
Where
P
M = J sm 10- 6
2
= Angular Momentum in MJ-s/elect rad.
We define the inertia constant H:

KE stored at s (MJ)
1
H=
; GH = KE = M s MJ
G (MVA rating of Mc.)
2
Where G = machine rating (base) in MVA (3phase).

H = inertia constant in MJ/MVA or MWs/MVA
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
15/35
2GH GH
M=
=
MJ- s/elect rad
s
f
GH
=
MJ- s/elect degree
180f
M is also called the inertia constant.

Taking G as base, the inertia constant in pu is
H 2
M(pu) =
s /elect rad
f
H
=
s2 /elect degree
180f
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
16/35

Type of machine
Inertia Constant H
Stored Energy in MW Sec MVA
Turbine Generator
Condensing
Non-condensing
1,800 rpm
3,000 rpm
3,000 rpm
Water wheel Generator

Slow-speed (< 200 rpm)
High-speed (> 200 rpm)
NPTEL
96
74
43
23
24
A.K. Sinha
17/35
Type of machine
Inertia Constant H
Stored Energy in MW Sec MVA
Synchronous Condenser
Large
Small
1.25
1.00
Synchronous Motor with load varying from

1.0 to 5.0 and higher for heavy wheels
2.00
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
18/35
Synchronous Machine Rotor Dynamics

(The Swing Equation)
d2m
J 2 = Tm - Te Nm
dt
Where
m = angle in rad (mech)
Tm = turbine torque in Nm; it acquires a

negative value for a motoring machine.
Te = electromagnetic torque developed in Nm;
it acquires negative value for a motoring
machine.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
19/35

Pe
Te
Pm
Generator
Tm s
(a)
Pe
Tm
Pm
Motor
(b)
s Ts
Fig. Flow of mechanical and electrical powers
in a synchronous machine
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
20/35
d2m
6
J sm
10
= Pm - Pe MW
2
dt
Where
Pm = mechanical power input in MW
Pe = electrical power output in MW; stator
copper loss is assumed negligible.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
21/35

2
2
J s 10- 6
P
d2 e
= Pm - Pe MW
2
dt
Where e = angle in rad (elect)

or
d2 e
M 2 = Pm - Pe
dt
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
22/35

It is more convenient to measure the angular
position of the rotor with respect to a
synchronously rotating frame of reference. Let
= e st; rotor angular displacement
from synchronously rotating
reference frame
(called torque angle/power angle)
d e
d2 e
d
d2
=
+ s ;
=
2
dt
dt
dt
dt 2
d2
M 2 = Pm - Pe
dt
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
23/35

Dividing throughout by G, the MVA rating of the
machine,
2
d
M(pu) 2 = Pm - Pe ;
dt
in pu of machine rating as base
Where
H
M(pu) =
f
2
or
H d
= Pm - Pe pu (Swing Equation)
2
f dt
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
24/35

Example: A 50 Hz. 20-pole hydro-electric
generator rated at 500 MVA, 20 kV has H=2
MJ/MVA. (i) Determine its s and sm. (ii) Write the
swing equation for this generator. (iii) The
generator is initially working at Pm=Pe=1.0 pu
with 0=100 when a 3-phase short circuit occurs
at its terminals which results in its electrical
output reducing to 0 for t > 0. (iii) Determine its
power angle , 2 cycles after the short circuit.
Assume the mechanical input power Pm remains
constant at 1.0 pu during this time.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
25/35

Solution:
(i) For a 50 Hz. Generator s = 250 = 314 rad/s
sm = (2/P) s = (2/20)314 = 31.4 rad/s
(ii)
or
H d2
= Pm - Pe pu
2
f dt
2 d2
= Pm - Pe pu
2
50 dt
(iii) Initial power angle d0=100 = 0.1745 rad

d
Also at t = 0 ,
= 0 and
dt
Pm (0+ ) = 1.0 pu and Pe (0+ ) = 0.0 pu
+
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
26/35

Substituting the values in swing equation
2 d2
= 1.0 - 0 pu; Integrating
2
50 dt
d 250
= 4 t +0
dt
2
(t) = 250
t
+
0.1745
4
t = 2 cycles at 50Hz. = 40 ms
2
(0.04) = 250
(0.04)
+ 0.1745
4
= 0.30 rad = 17.20

NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
27/35

Machine Connected to Infinite Bus
X transfer = Xd + X e
E V
Pe =
sin = Pmax sin
X transfer
2
H d
= Pm - Pe pu
2
f dt
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
28/35
Xd
Xe
Infinite
bus
Pe
0
V
Fig. Machine connected to infinite bus
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
29/35
The electrical power transfer is given by

expression
E1 E2
Pe =
sin
Xd + X e
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A.K. Sinha
30/35
Xd1
Xe
Xd2
+
Pm1
+
1
Pe1
Pe2
E1 1
Pm2
E2 2
Fig. Two-machine system

NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
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Pm1 = - Pm2 = Pm
Pe1 = - Pe2 = Pe
Pm1 - Pe1
d2 1
= f
2
dt
H1
2
d 2
= f
2
dt
Pm2 - Pe2
H2
NPTEL
Pm - Pe
= f
H1
= f
Pe - Pm
H2
A.K. Sinha
32/35
d2 (1 - 2 )
H1 + H2
= f
(Pm - Pe )
2
dt
H1H2
Heq d2
= Pm - Pe
2
f dt
= 1 - 2
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A.K. Sinha
33/35
H1H2
Heq =
H1 +H2
expression
Pe =
E1 E2
Xd1 + X e + Xd2
sin
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
34/35
Synchronous Machine Rotor Dynamics

(The Swing Equation)
d2m
J 2 = Tm - Te Nm
dt
Where
m = angle in rad (mech)
Tm = turbine torque in Nm; it acquires a

negative value for a motoring machine.
Te = electromagnetic torque developed in Nm;
it acquires negative value for a motoring
machine.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
19/35

Pe
Te
Pm
Generator
Tm s
(a)
Pe
Tm
Pm
Motor
(b)
s Ts
Fig. Flow of mechanical and electrical powers
in a synchronous machine
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
20/35
d2m
6
J sm
10
= Pm - Pe MW
2
dt
Where
Pm = mechanical power input in MW
Pe = electrical power output in MW; stator
copper loss is assumed negligible.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
21/35

2
2
J s 10- 6
P
d2 e
= Pm - Pe MW
2
dt
Where e = angle in rad (elect)

or
d2 e
M 2 = Pm - Pe
dt
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
22/35

It is more convenient to measure the angular
position of the rotor with respect to a
synchronously rotating frame of reference. Let
= e st; rotor angular displacement
from synchronously rotating
reference frame
(called torque angle/power angle)
d e
d2 e
d
d2
=
+ s ;
=
2
dt
dt
dt
dt 2
d2
M 2 = Pm - Pe
dt
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
23/35

Dividing throughout by G, the MVA rating of the
machine,
2
d
M(pu) 2 = Pm - Pe ;
dt
in pu of machine rating as base
Where
H
M(pu) =
f
2
or
H d
= Pm - Pe pu (Swing Equation)
2
f dt
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
24/35
Including Damping term in Swing Equation

Damping torque produced by the damper
winding is proportional to slip speed
Td (e - s )
de
d
d
(e - s ) =
- s = (s t + ) - s =
dt
dt
dt
d
d
Pd = Tde = k (e - s )e = k(s + - s )(s + )
dt
dt
2
d
d
d
Pd = k(s ) + k D
dt
dt
dt
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
24/35
Damping power due to friction is usually small

and it is accounted for in the mechanical input
power Pm. Therefore, the swing equation with
damping included is given by :
2
H d
d
+D
= (Pm - Pe ) pu
2
f dt
dt

Example: A 50 Hz. 20-pole hydro-electric
generator rated at 500 MVA, 20 kV has H=2
MJ/MVA. (i) Determine its s and sm. (ii) Write the
swing equation for this generator. (iii) The
generator is initially working at Pm=Pe=1.0 pu with
0=100 when a 3-phase short circuit occurs at its
terminals which results in its electrical output
reducing to 0 for t > 0. Determine its power angle
, 3 cycles after the short circuit. Assume the
mechanical input power Pm remains constant at
1.0 pu during this time.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
25/35

Solution:
(i) For a 50 Hz. Generator s = 250 = 314 rad/s
sm = (2/P) s = (2/20)314 = 31.4 rad/s
(ii)
or
H d2
= Pm - Pe pu
2
f dt
2 d2
= Pm - Pe pu
2
50 dt
(iii) Initial power angle 0=100 = 0.1745 rad

d
Also at t = 0 ,
= 0 and
dt
Pm (0+ ) = 1.0 pu and Pe (0+ ) = 0.0 pu
+
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
26/35

Substituting the values in swing equation
2 d2
= 1.0 - 0 pu; Integrating
2
50 dt
d 250
= 4 t + 0 ; Integrating again
dt
2
(t) = 250
t
+ 0.1745
8
t = 3 cycles at 50Hz. = 60 ms
2
(0.06) = 250
(0.06)
+
0.1745
8
= 0.3158 rad = 18.10

NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
27/35
Simplified machine model

E' = V + rI + jX d Id + jX q Iq
E' = V + jX d I
E = E
Xd
V

i
Xdi + X e
V00
Ei'
System network
H=
r

Xd
Xe
Infinite
bus
Pe
V 0o
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
29/35
V 1
1
E V
Pe =
sin +
- ~ sin2
~
Xt
2 X' X'
d
q
2
X t = Xd + X e = Xd ; Xq + X e = Xq
E V
Pe =
sin = Pmax sin
Xt
2
H d
d
+D
= Pm - Pe pu
2
f dt
dt
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
28/35

Two-machine system
Xd1
Xe
Xd2
+
Pm1
+
1
Pe1
Pe2
E1 1
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
Pm2
E2 2
31/35
Pm1 = - Pm2 = Pm
Pe1 = - Pe2 = Pe
Pm1 - Pe1
d2 1
= f
2
dt
H1
2
d 2
= f
2
dt
Pm2 - Pe2
H2
NPTEL
Pm - Pe
= f
H1
= f
Pe - Pm
H2
A.K. Sinha
32/35
d2 (1 - 2 )
H1 + H2
= f
(Pm - Pe )
2
dt
H1H2
Heq d2
= Pm - Pe
2
f dt
= 1 - 2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
33/35
H1H2
Heq =
H1 +H2
expression
Pe =
E1 E2
Xd1 + X e + Xd2
sin
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
34/35
Multimachine System
Gmach
= machine rating (base)
Gsystem = system base
Gmach
Gsystem
Or
Hmach d
Gmach
= (Pm - Pe )
2
f dt
Gsystem
Hsystem d2
= Pm - Pe pu in system base
2
f dt
Where
Hsystem = Hmach
Gmach
Gsystem
= machine inertia constant in system base
Machines Swinging Coherently

Consider the swing equations of two machines
on a common system base.
H1 d21
= Pm1 - Pe1 pu
2
f dt
H2 d22
= Pm2 - Pe2 pu
2
f dt
Since the machine rotors swing together

(coherently or in unison)
1 = 2 =
Adding the two equations
Heq d2
= Pm - Pe
2
f dt
Where Pm = Pm1 + Pm2
Pe = Pe1 + Pe2
Heq = H1 + H2
Small Signal Stability

2
d
d
M 2 +D
= Pm - Pe pu
dt
dt
H
in pu system
M =
f
E V
Pe =
sin = Pmax sin
Xd
For small disturbance the swing eqn.

can be linearized about the initial
operating point = 0 +
d2
d
M 2 +D
= Pm - Pe ()
dt
dt
d2 (0 + )
d(0 + )
M
+D
= Pm - Pmax Sin(0 + )
2
dt
dt
Pmax Sin(0 + ) = Pmax (Sin0Cos + Cos0 Sin)
Sin ; ; Cos = 1
2
d2 0
d0
d
d
M 2 +M
+D
+D
2
dt
dt
dt
dt
= Pm - (Pmax Sin0 + Pmax Cos0 )
d2
d
M
+D
= Pmax Cos0
2
dt
dt
dPe (0 )
Pmax Cos0 =
=
dt
= Synchronizing Coefficient
Stiffness Coefficient
d
d
M
+D
+=0
2
dt
dt
2
d2
d
M
+D
+ = 0
2
dt
dt
Describes the dynamics of the single
machine connected to infinite bus system
for small disturbances about any arbitrary
operating point. Dynamics of this system
can be analyzed by finding the roots of the
characteristic polynomial
Ms2 +Ds + = 0
roots of the characteristic polynomial

Ms 2 + Ds + = 0 are given by
D 2 - 4M
s 1,2 =
2M
For normal operating condition M ? D 2
-D
s 1,2 =
W ith D small lightly damped system

= 0 + 0
How ever w ith negative value of or D, one
of the roots have
Stable
Unstable
Small Signal Stability

d2
d
M 2 +D
= Pm - Pe pu
dt
dt
H
in pu system
M =
f
E V
Pe =
sin = Pmax sin
Xd
For sm all disturbance the sw ing eqn.

can be linearized about the initial
operating point = 0 +
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
4/30

2
d
d
M 2 +D
= Pm - Pe ()
dt
dt
d2 (0 + )
d(0 + )
M
+D
= Pm - Pmax Sin(0 + )
2
dt
dt
Pmax Sin(0 + ) = Pmax (Sin0Cos + Cos0 Sin)
Sin ; ; Cos = 1
d2 0
d0
d2
d
M 2 +M
+D
+D
2
dt
dt
dt
dt
= Pm - (Pmax Sin0 + Pmax Cos0 )
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
5/30
d2
d
M
+D
= Pmax Cos0
2
dt
dt
dPe (0 )
Pmax Cos0 =
=
dt
= Synchronizing Coefficient
Stiffness Coefficient
d
d
M
+D
+
2
dt
dt
2
NPTEL
=0
A.K. Sinha
6/30
d
d
M
+D
+ = 0
2
dt
dt
Describes the dynamics of the single
machine connected to infinite bus system
2
for small disturbances about any arbitrary

operating point. Dynamics of this system
can be analyzed by finding the roots of the
characteristic polynomial
Ms2 +Ds +
=0
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
7/30

roots of the characteristic polynomial
Ms 2 + Ds +
= 0 are given by
-D
D 2 - 4M
s 1,2 =
2M
For normal operating condition M
s 1,2 =
? D2
W ith D small lightly damped system

= 0 + 0
How ever w ith negative value of
of the roots have
NPTEL
or D, one
A.K. Sinha
8/30
V
V
1
1
E
Pe =
sin +
- ~ sin2
~
Xt
2 X' X'
d
q
E V
Pe =
sin
Pe
Xt
2
-180
-90
NPTEL
90
180
A.K. Sinha
9/30
H d2
d
+D
+
2
f dt
dt
= 0
d2
d
2
+
2
n
n = 0
2
dt
dt
f0
=
H
and
D
=
2
f0
H
damped freq. of oscillation

d = n 1-
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
10/30

F o r a s m a ll p u rtu rb a tio n 0
a b o u t th e in itia l o p e ra tin g p o in t 0
th e d yn a m ic re s p o n s e o f th e s ys te m is
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
11/30
Stable
NPTEL
Unstable
A.K. Sinha
12/30

Problem: A 50 Hz synchronous generator having
inertia constant H =5 MJ /MVA and a transient
reactance Xd = 0.2 p.u. is connected to an infinite
bus through a purely reactive circuit as shown in
figure. Reactance values are marked on the
diagram on a common system base. The
generator is delivering real power of a) 0.6p.u. b)
2.0 p.u, at 0.8 power factor lagging to the infinite
bus at a voltage of V=1 p.u.
X = 0.4
X = 0.1
X = 0.4
'
d
X = 0.2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
13/30

The transfer reactance between the generated
voltage and the infinite bus is
0.4
X = 0.2 + 0.1+
= .5
2
Apparent power in p.u
0.6
S=
cos-1(0.8) = 0.75 36.87o
0.8
The current is
S* 0.75 - 36.87o
I= * =
= 0.75 - 36.87
o
V
1.0 0
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
14/30

Excitation voltage is
E = V + jXI = 1 0o + (j0.5) 0.75 - 36.870
= 1.225 + j0.3 = 1.261 13.76o
Initial operating power angle is 13.76 degree

The synchronizing power coefficient is given by
= Pmaxcos0
1.2611.0
=
cos(13.76o ) = 2.449
0.5
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
15/30

The undamped angular frequency of oscillation
and damping ratio are
f0
n =
H
50
=
2.449 = 8.771 rad/sec
5
D f0 0.15
50
=
=
= 0.2686
2 H
2
5 2.449
The linearized force-free equation which

determines the mode of oscillation is given by
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
16/30

d2
d
2
+
2
n
n = 0
2
dt
dt
d2
d
or,
+ 4.71
+ 76.93 = 0
2
dt
dt
The damped angular frequency is

=
Frequency of damped oscillation

d
fd =
= 1.345Hz
2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
17/30

The motion of rotor relative to the synchronously
revolving field is
= 0 +
0
1- 2
e- nt sin(dt + )
= 13.76 +10.38e-2.356t sin(8.448t + 74.419)

Frequency excursion
f = 50 - .2528e
-2.356t
sin(8.448t)
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
18/30

Case (b): The generator is delivering real
power of 2.0 p.u, at 0.8 power factor lagging to
the infinite bus.
The current is
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
19/30


= Pmaxcos0
2.015 1.0
=
cos29.74o = 3.5
.5
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
20/30


NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
21/30
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
22/30
Dynamic response
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A.K. Sinha
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Case(c): The generator is delivering real power
of 0.6p.u, at 0.8 power factor lagging to the
infinite bus and D= - 0.01pu
0.6
S=
cos-1(0.8) = 0.75 36.87o
0.8
The current is
S* 0.75 - 36.87o
I= * =
= 0.75 - 36.87
o
V
1.0 0
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
24/30

E = V + jXI = 1 0o + (j0.5) 0.75 - 36.870
= 1.225 + j0.3 = 1.261 13.76o

Ps = Pmaxcos0
1.2611.0
=
cos(13.76o ) = 2.449
0.5
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
25/30

f0
n =
H
50
=
2.449 = 8.771 rad/sec
5
D f0 -0.01 50
=
= - 0.179
=
2 H
2
5 2.449

NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
26/30

d2
d
2
+
2
n
n = 0
2
dt
dt
d2
d
or,
- 0.942
+ 76.93 = 0
2
dt
dt

d
fd =
= 1.396Hz
2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
27/30

The motion of rotor relative to the synchronously
revolving field is
= 0 +
0
1- 2
e- nt sin(dt + )
= 13.76 +10.38e0.471t sin(8.769t + 74.419)

Frequency excursion
f = 50 - .2528e0.471t sin(8.769t)
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
28/30
Dynamic response
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
29/30
Large Signal Rotor Angle Stability

(Transient Stability)
Large disturbances such as Faults, Outages
of heavily loaded lines, generators etc.
sudden large changes in power outputs of
generators acceleration / deceleration of
generator rotor large deviation of rotor
angle and rotor oscillations about the
operating point.
Linearized dynamic model can not be used.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
4/33
Nonlinear swing equation has to be solved.

2
d
d
M 2 +D
= Pm - Pe
dt
dt
Pe = Pmax sin
D = 0 Pessimistic result
d2
M 2 = Pm - Pmax sin
dt
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
5/33

Pe
Pm1
Pm1
Pm0
0
s
1 1
2
> s s
< s
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
6/33

Assumptions for Transient Stability Study
1. Transmission line as well as synchronous
machine resistance are ignored.
2. Damping term contributed by synchronous
machine damper windings is ignored.
3. Rotor speed is assumed to remain constant.
Note: Since rotor speed and hence frequency
vary insignificantly, the network parameters
remain fixed during a stability study.
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
7/33
4. Mechanical input to machine is assumed

to remain constant during the transient.
5. Voltage behind transient reactance is
assumed to remain constant.
6. Loads
are
admittances.
modeled
NPTEL
as
constant
A.K. Sinha
8/33
Unstable
d
=0
dt
Stable
t1 t 2 t3
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
9/33
Equal Area Criterion

2
Pa
d
1
=
(Pm - Pe ) = ; Pa = accelerating power
2
dt
M
M
H
in pu system
M =
f
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
10/33

Multiplying both sides of the swing equation by
d
2
, we get
dt
2
d d 2Pa d
2
=
2
dt dt
M dt
2
2
d
=
dt M
NPTEL
P d
a
A.K. Sinha
11/33
d 2
=
dt M
2
Pad
0
d
For the system to be stable
=0
dt
1
2
Pad = 0
0
P d = 0
a
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
12/33
Sudden Change in Mechanical Input

E
Xd
Xe
Infinite
bus bar
Pm
0
V
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
13/33
E V
Pe =
sin = Pmax sin
Xd + X e
Under steady operating condition

Pm0 = Pe0 = Pmax sin
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
14/33

Pe
c
b
Pm1
A2
Fig. Pe diagram
for sudden increase
in mechanical input
to generator
A1
Pm0
0
s
1
> s
< s
2
s
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
15/33

2
P d = 0
a
Since the rotor is decelerating
Pm1 = Pe = Pmax sin 1

1
A1 = (Pm1 - Pe )d
0
A 2 = (Pe - Pm1 )d
1
2 = max
Pm1
= - 1 = - sin
Pmax
-1
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
16/33

Pe
b
Pm1
A1
Pm0
A2
0
1
Fig. Limiting case of transient stability with
mechanical input suddenly increased
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
17/33
Effect of Clearing Time on Stability
Pm
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
18/33

Pe
Pmax
d
A2
Pm
a
A1
b
0
Pe = 0
(3-phase fault)
c
c
Clearing angle
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
19/33

Pe
Fig. Critical
clearing angle
Pmax
A2
Pm
A1
max
cr
Critical clearing
angle
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
20/33
max = - 0
Pm = Pmax sin0
cr
A1 =
(P
- 0)d = Pm (cr - 0 )
max
A2 =
(Pmax sin - Pm )d
cr
= Pmax (coscr - cosmax ) - Pm (max - cr )

NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
21/33

For the system to be stable, A2 = A1, which
yields
Pm
cos cr =
(max - 0 ) + cos max
Pmax
Where
cr = critical clearing angle
cr = cos-1[( - 20 ) sin 0 - cos 0 ]
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
22/33
d2 f
=
Pm ; Pe = 0
2
dt
H
Integrating twice
f
=
Pm t 2 + 0
2H
or
f
2
cr =
Pm t cr
+ 0
2H
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
23/33
Where
tcr = critical clearing time
cr= critical clearing angle
t cr =
2H (cr - 0 )
fPm
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
24/33

Problem: For the system shown in fig, both the
terminal voltage and infinite bus voltage are 1.0
per unit and the generator is delivering 1.0 p.u.
power. Calculate the critical clearing angle and the
critical clearing time when the system is subjected
to a 3 ph. Fault at point P on the short
transmission line. H=5 MJ/MVA
j0.1
j0.5
Xd = j0.15
A P
NPTEL
j0.5
B
open
A.K. Sinha
25/33

j0.1
j0.5
Xd = j0.15
A P
j0.5
B
open
The series reactance between the terminal
.5
X = j.1+ j = j.35
2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
26/33

Generator is delivering 1p.u power, so
Vt V
11
1.0 =
sin =
sin
X
.35
or, sin = .35 i.e., = sin-1.35 = 20.49o
So, the terminal voltage is given by,
Vt = 1.0 20.49o = .937 + j.35
The output current from the generator is now

calculated as,
1.0 2 - 1.0 0o
I=
= 1+ j.18 = 1.016 10.2o
j.35
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
27/33

And the transient internal voltage is then
found to be
E1 = .937 + j.35 + (j.15)(1+ j.18)
= .91+ j.5 = 1.038 28.786o p.u

Series reactance between transient internal
voltage and infinite-bus
j.5
X = j.15 + j.1+
2
Hence power angle equation can be written as
1.038 1.0
Pe =
sin = 2.076sin
.5
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
28/33

Initial rotor angle
0 = 28.786o
cr
A1 = Pmd = Pm (cr - 0 )
0
A2 =
max
cr
(Pmax sin - Pm )d
Equating A1 and A2
coscr = (Pm /Pmax )(max - 0 ) + cosmax
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
29/33
max = - 0
Pm = Pmax sin0
Substituting for max and Pm
cr = cos-1[( - 20 )sin0 - cos0 ]
-1
= cos [( - 2 .5024)sin28.786 - cos28.786]

= cos-1(.1525) = 81.226o = 1.4176 elec rad
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
30/33

If time to clear the fault is denoted by tc
Then for time t less than tc,
d2 w s
=
Pm (as Pe = 0)
2
dt
2H
d t w s
ws
=
Pmdt =
Pm t
dt 0 2H
2H
w sPm 2
=
t + 0
4H
w sPm 2
(t) |t=tc =
t c + 0
4H
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
31/33
w sPm 2
cr =
t cr + 0
4H
So, critical clearing time,
4H(cr - 0 )
t cr =
w sPm
4 5(1.4176 - .5024)
t cr =
= .241sec
314 1
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
32/33

Lesson Summary
1. Equal Area Criterion
2. Examples
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
2/30
Effect of Clearing Time on Stability
Pm
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
18/33

Pe
Pmax
d
A2
Pm
a
A1
b
0
Pe = 0
(3-phase fault)
c
c
Clearing angle
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
19/33

Pe
Fig. Critical
clearing angle
Pmax
A2
Pm
A1
max
cr
Critical clearing
angle
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
20/33
max = - 0
Pm = Pmax sin0
cr
A1 =
(P
- 0)d = Pm (cr - 0 )
max
A2 =
(Pmax sin - Pm )d
cr

NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
21/33

For the system to be stable, A2 = A1, which
yields
Pm
cos cr =
(max - 0 ) + cos max
Pmax
Where
cr = critical clearing angle
cr = cos-1[( - 20 ) sin 0 - cos 0 ]
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
22/33
d2 f
=
Pm ; Pe = 0
2
dt
H
Integrating twice
f
=
Pm t 2 + 0
2H
or
f
2
cr =
Pm t cr
+ 0
2H
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
23/33
Where
tcr = critical clearing time
cr= critical clearing angle
t cr =
2H (cr - 0 )
fPm
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
24/33

Problem: For the system shown in fig, both the
terminal voltage and infinite bus voltage are 1.0
per unit and the generator is delivering 1.0 p.u.
power. Calculate the critical clearing angle and the
critical clearing time when the system is subjected
to a 3 ph. Fault at point P on the short
transmission line. H=5 MJ/MVA
j0.1
j0.5
Xd = j0.15
A P
NPTEL
j0.5
B
open
A.K. Sinha
25/33

j0.1
j0.5
Xd = j0.15
A P
j0.5
B
open
The series reactance between the terminal
.5
X = j.1+ j = j.35
2
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
26/33

Generator is delivering 1p.u power, so
Vt V
11
1.0 =
sin =
sin
X
.35
or, sin = .35 i.e., = sin-1.35 = 20.49o
So, the terminal voltage is given by,
Vt = 1.0 20.49o = .937 + j.35
The output current from the generator is now

calculated as,
1.0 2 - 1.0 0o
I=
= 1+ j.18 = 1.016 10.2o
j.35
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
27/33

And the transient internal voltage is then
found to be
E1 = .937 + j.35 + (j.15)(1+ j.18)
= .91+ j.5 = 1.038 28.786o p.u

Series reactance between transient internal
voltage and infinite-bus
j.5
X = j.15 + j.1+
2
Hence power angle equation can be written as
1.038 1.0
Pe =
sin = 2.076sin
.5
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
28/33

Initial rotor angle
0 = 28.786o
cr
A1 = Pmd = Pm (cr - 0 )
0
A2 =
max
cr
(Pmax sin - Pm )d
Equating A1 and A2
coscr = (Pm /Pmax )(max - 0 ) + cosmax
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
29/33
max = - 0
Pm = Pmax sin0
Substituting for max and Pm
cr = cos-1[( - 20 )sin0 - cos0 ]
-1
= cos [( - 2 .5024)sin28.786 - cos28.786]

= cos-1(.1525) = 81.226o = 1.4176 elec rad
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
30/33

If time to clear the fault is denoted by tc
Then for time t less than tc,
d2 w s
=
Pm (as Pe = 0)
2
dt
2H
d t w s
ws
=
Pmdt =
Pm t
dt 0 2H
2H
w sPm 2
=
t + 0
4H
w sPm 2
(t) |t=tc =
t c + 0
4H
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
31/33
w sPm 2
cr =
t cr + 0
4H
So, critical clearing time,
4H(cr - 0 )
t cr =
w sPm
4 5(1.4176 - .5024)
t cr =
= .241sec
314 1
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
32/33
Sudden Loss of One of Parallel Lines

E V
PeI =
sin = PmaxI sin
X d + X1 X 2
Immediately on switching off line 2, power

angle curve is given by
E V
PeII =
sin = PmaxII sin
Xd + X1
Infinite
bus
Pm
V 0
(a)
X1
E Xd
Pm
Switched off
0
V
X2
(b)
Fig. Single machine tied to infinite bus
through two parallel lines
PmI (both lines in)
Pe
A2
a
Pm
c
b
PmII (line 2 out)
A1
Fig. Equal area criterion applied to the opening of

one of the two lines in parallel
1 = max = - c
Short circuit at one end of line
X1
E Xd
Infinite
bus
Pm
0
V
X2
(a)
X1
E Xd
0
V
Pm
(b)
X2
Fig. Short circuit at one end of the line.
E V
PeI =
sin = PmaxI sin
Xd + X1 X 2
PeII = 0
E V
PeIII =
sin = Pmax II sin
Xd + X1
Pe
Pe I, prefault (2 lines)
A2
Pm
Pe III, postfault (1 line)
A1
Pe II
0
2 max
Fig. Equal area criterion applied to the system of Fig. ,

I system normal, II fault applied, III faulted line isolated.
Case b: Short circuit away from line ends

E V
PeII =
sin = Pmax II sin
X II
Xd
X2/2
X1
Xa
Xb
Xc
(a)
X2/2
X1
Xa
Xb
Xc
(b)
XII
(c)
Pe
A2
Pm
Pe II, during fault
A1
max
Fig. Fault on middle of one line of the system of Fig. ,

with c < cr.
Pe
A2
Pm
Pe II, during fault
A1
0 cr
0
Critical clearing angle
2= max
Fig. Fault on middle of one line of the system of Fig. ,

case of critical clearing angle.
cr
(P
max
- Pmax II sin )d =
(Pmax III sin - Pm )d
cr
Pm1
Pmax III
-1
max = - sin
(Pm +Pmax II cos)
cr
0
+ (Pmax III cos + Pm)
max
cr
Pm (cr - 0 ) +Pmax II (coscr - cos0 ) +

Pm (max - cr ) +Pmax III (cosmax - coscr ) = 0
=0
Pm (max - 0 ) - Pmax IIcos0 +Pmax III cosmax

cos cr =
Pmax III - Pmax II
Pm (max - 0 ) - Pmax IIcos0 +Pmax III cosmax

cos cr = 180
Pmax III - Pmax II
-1
1 = max = - sin (Pm1 Pmax I )

cr
(P
rc
- Pmax II sin )d =
(P
max III
sin - Pm )d
cr
max
rc
(Pmax I sin - Pm )d
Pe
Pe I
Pe II
A2
Pm
A1
Pe III
rc
2 max
(Clearing angle)
(Angle of reclosure)
Fig. Fault in middle of a line of the system of Fig.
Where trc = tcr + ; = time between clearing and
reclosure.
Thank You !
NPTEL
A.K. Sinha
35/35

Power Systems - AK Sinha

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Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Introduction to electric power generation,

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

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What Is a Power System?

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Power System provides a vital service to

Minimum environmental impacts

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Consumption devices are part of the PS & need

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High voltage transmission offers:

Lower transmission losses / MW transfer

Lower line-voltage drop / Km

Higher transmission capacity / Km

Reduced right-of-way requirement / MW

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Power Transmission Equipment

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Standard Transmission Voltages in

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Single phase and/or three-phase

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Distribution transformers (DXFR)

Feeders (O/H or underground cables)

Switches, fuses, etc.

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System Security: Equipment power flows

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Power Utility Structure

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No incentive to increase generation efficiency

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Regulated Power Utility

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