Coal

Coal (from the Old English term col, which has meant "mineral of fossilized carbon" since the 13th
century)[1] is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata
in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as anthracite coal, can be
regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal is
composed primarily of carbon along with variable quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen,
sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen.[2] Throughout history, coal has been used as an energy resource,
primarily burned for the production of electricity and/or heat, and is also used for industrial purposes,
such as refining metals. A fossil fuel, coal forms when dead plant matter is converted into peat, which
in turn is converted into lignite, then sub-bituminous coal, after that bituminous coal, and lastly
anthracite. This involves biological and geological processes that take place over a long period. The
Energy Information Administration estimates coal reserves at 948109 short tons (860 Gt).[3] One
estimate for resources is 18 000 Gt.[4]
Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide, as well as one of the
largest worldwide anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide releases. In 1999, world gross carbon
dioxide emissions from coal usage were 8,666 million tonnes of carbon dioxide.[5] In 2011, world
gross emissions from coal usage were 14,416 million tonnes.[6] Coal-fired electric power generation
emits around 2,000 pounds of carbon dioxide for every megawatt-hour generated, which is almost
double the approximately 1100 pounds of carbon dioxide released by a natural gas-fired electric plant
per megawatt-hour generated. Because of this higher carbon efficiency of natural gas generation, as
the market in the United States has changed to reduce coal and increase natural gas generation,
carbon dioxide emissions have fallen. Those measured in the first quarter of 2012 were the lowest of
any recorded for the first quarter of any year since 1992.[7] In 2013, the head of the UN climate
agency advised that most of the world's coal res erves should be left in the ground to avoid
catastrophic global warming.[8]

Types
Coastal exposure of the Point Aconi Seam (Nova Scotia)
As geological processes apply pressure to dead biotic material over
time, under suitable conditions it is transformed successively into:
Peat, considered to be a precursor of coal, has industrial
importance as a fuel in some regions, for example, Ireland and
Finland. In its dehydrated form, peat is a highly effective absorbent for
fuel and oil spills on land and water. It is also used as a conditioner for
soil to make it more able to retain and slowly release water.
Lignite, or brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal and used
almost exclusively as fuel for electric power generation. Jet, a
compact form of lignite, is sometimes polished and has been used as
an ornamental stone since the Upper Palaeolithic.
Sub-bituminous coal, whose properties range from those of
lignite to those of bituminous coal, is used primarily as fuel for steamelectric power generation and is an important source of light aromatic
hydrocarbons for the chemical synthesis industry.
Bituminous coal is a dense sedimentary rock, usually black, but sometimes dark brown, often with
well-defined bands of bright and dull material; it is used primarily as fuel in steam-electric power
generation, with substantial quantities used for heat and power applications in manufacturing and to
make coke.

"Steam coal" is a grade between bituminous coal and anthracite, once widely used as a fuel for steam
locomotives. In this specialized use, it is sometimes known as "sea-coal" in the US.[15] Small steam
coal (dry small steam nuts or DSSN) was used as a fuel for domestic water heating.
Anthracite, the highest rank of coal, is a harder, glossy black coal used primarily for residential and
commercial space heating. It may be divided further into metamorphically altered bituminous coal
and "petrified oil", as from the deposits in Pennsylvania.
Graphite, technically the highest rank, is difficult to ignite and is not commonly used as fuel it is
mostly used in pencils and, when powdered, as a lubricant.

Environmental effects
Main article: Environmental effects of coal
Aerial photograph of Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill site
taken the day after the event A number of adverse health,[78] and
environmental effects of coal burning exist,[79] especially in power
stations, and of coal mining, including: Coal-fired power plants cause
nearly 24,000 premature deaths annually in the United States,
including 2,800 from lung cancer.[80] Annual health costs in Europe
from use of coal to generate electricity are 42.8 billion, or $55
billion.[81]
Generation of hundreds of millions of tons of waste products,
including fly ash, bottom ash, and flue-gas desulfurization sludge, that
contain mercury, uranium, thorium, arsenic, and other heavy metals
Acid rain from high sulfur coal
Interference with groundwater and water table levels due to
mining
Contamination of land and waterways and destruction of homes from fly ash spills. such as the
Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill
Impact of water use on flows of rivers and consequential impact on other land uses
Dust nuisance
Subsidence above tunnels, sometimes damaging infrastructure
Uncontrollable coal seam fire which may burn for decades or centuries
Coal-fired power plants without effective fly ash capture systems are one of the largest sources of
human-caused background radiation exposure.
Coal-fired power plants emit mercury, selenium, and arsenic, which are harmful to human health and
the environment.[82]
Release of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, causes climate change and global warming, according to
the IPCC and the EPA. Coal is the largest contributor to the human-made increase of CO2 in the
atmosphere.[83]
Approximately 75 Tg/S per year of sulfur dioxide (SO2) is released from burning coal. After release,
the sulfur dioxide is oxidized to gaseous H2SO2 which scatters solar radiation, hence its increase in the
atmosphere exerts a cooling effect on climate that masks some of the warming caused by increased
greenhouse gases. Release of SO2 also contributes to the widespread acidification of ecosystems.

Uses today
Coal as fuel

Coal is primarily used as a solid fuel to produce electricity and heat through combustion. World coal
consumption was about 7.25 billion tonnes in 2010[37] (7.99 billion short tons) and is expected to
increase 48% to 9.05 billion tonnes (9.98 billion short tons) by 2030.[38] China produced 3.47 billion

tonnes (3.83 billion short tons) in 2011. India produced about 578 million tonnes (637.1 million short
tons) in 2011. 68.7% of China's electricity comes from coal. The USA consumed about 13% of the
world total in 2010, i.e. 951 million tonnes (1.05 billion short tons), using 93% of it for generation of
electricity.[39] 46% of total power generated in the USA was done using coal.[40]
Coking coal and use of coke

Coke is a solid carbonaceous residue derived from low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal from which
the volatile constituents are driven off by baking in an oven without oxygen at temperatures as high
as 1,000 C (1,832 F), so the fixed carbon and residual ash are fused together. Metallurgical coke is
used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in smelting iron ore in a blast furnace.[56] The result is pig iron,
and is too rich in dissolved carbon, so it must be treated further to make steel. The coking coal should
be low in sulfur and phosphorus, so they do not migrate to the metal.
Gasification

Coal gasification can be used to produce syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen
(H2) gas. Often syngas is used to fire gas turbines to produce electricity, but the versatility of syngas
also allows it to be converted into transportation fuels, such as gasoline and diesel, through the
Fischer-Tropsch process; alternatively, syngas can be converted into methanol, which can be blended
into fuel directly or converted to gasoline via the methanol to gasoline process.[57] Gasification
combined with Fischer-Tropsch technology is currently used by the Sasol chemical company of
South Africa to make motor vehicle fuels from coal and natural gas. Alternatively, the hydrogen
obtained from gasification can be used for various purposes, such as powering a hydrogen economy,
making ammonia, or upgrading fossil fuels.
Liquefaction

Coal can also be converted into synthetic fuels equivalent to gasoline or diesel by several different
direct processes (which do not intrinsically require gasification or indirect conversion).[58] In the
direct liquefaction processes, the coal is either hydrogenated or carbonized. Hydrogenation processes
are the Bergius process,[59] the SRC-I and SRC-II (Solvent Refined Coal) processes, the NUS
Corporation hydrogenation process[60][61] and several other single-stage and two-stage processes.[62] In
the process of low-temperature carbonization, coal is coked at temperatures between 360 and 750 C
(680 and 1,380 F). These temperatures optimize the production of coal tars richer in lighter
hydrocarbons than normal coal tar. The coal tar is then further processed into fuels. An overview of
coal liquefaction and its future potential is available.[63]
Refined coal

Refined coal is the product of a coal-upgrading technology that removes moisture and certain
pollutants from lower-rank coals such as sub-bituminous and lignite (brown) coals. It is one form of
several precombustion treatments and processes for coal that alter coal's characteristics before it is
burned. The goals of precombustion coal technologies are to increase efficiency and reduce emissions
when the coal is burned. Depending on the situation, precombustion technology can be used in place
of or as a supplement to postcombustion technologies to control emissions from coal-fueled boilers.
Industrial processes

Finely ground bituminous coal, known in this application as sea coal, is a constituent of foundry sand.
While the molten metal is in the mould, the coal burns slowly, releasing reducing gases at pressure,
and so preventing the metal from penetrating the pores of the sand. It is also contained in 'mould
wash', a paste or liquid with the same function applied to the mould before casting.[65] Sea coal can be
mixed with the clay lining (the "bod") used for the bottom of a cupola furnace. When heated, the coal
decomposes and the bod becomes slightly friable, easing the process of breaking open holes for
tapping the molten metal.[66]

Production of chemicals[67]

Coal is an important feedstock in production of a wide range of chemical fertilizers and other
chemical products. The main route to these products is coal gasification to produce syngas. Primary
chemicals that are produced directly from the syngas include methanol, hydrogen and carbon
monoxide, which are the chemical building blocks from which a whole spectrum of derivative
chemicals are manufactured, including olefins, acetic acid, formaldehyde, ammonia, urea and others.
The versatility of syngas as a precursor to primary chemicals and high-value derivative products
provides the option of using relatively inexpensive coal to produce a wide range of valuable
commodities.

Cultural usage
Coal is the official state mineral of Kentucky.[73] and the official state rock of Utah;[74] both U.S.
states have a historic link to coal mining. Some cultures hold that children who misbehave will
receive only a lump of coal from Santa Claus for Christmas in their christmas stockings instead of
presents.

Petroleum
Petroleum (L. petroleum, from early 15c. "petroleum, rock oil" (mid-14c. in Anglo-French), from
Medieval Latin petroleum, from Latin petra rock(see petrous) + Latin: oleum oil (see oil (n.)).[1][2][3])
is a naturally occurring, yellow-to-black liquid found in geologic formations beneath the Earth's
surface, which is commonly refined into various types of fuels. It consists of hydrocarbons of various
molecular weights and other organic compounds.[4] The name petroleum covers both naturally
occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A
fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and
algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock and subjected to intense heat and pressure.
Petroleum is recovered mostly through oil drilling (natural petroleum springs are rare). This comes
after the studies of structural geology (at the reservoir scale), sedimentary basin analysis, reservoir
characterization (mainly in terms of the porosity and permeability of geologic reservoir
structures).[5][6] It is refined and separated, most easily by distillation, into a large number of
consumer products, from gasoline (petrol) and kerosene to asphalt and chemical reagents used to
make plastics and pharmaceuticals.[7] Petroleum is used in manufacturing a wide variety of
materials,[8] and it is estimated that the world consumes about 90 million barrels each day.

Environmental effects
Because petroleum is a naturally occurring substance, its presence in
the environment need not be the result of human causes such as
accidents and routine activities (seismic exploration, drilling,
extraction, refining and combustion). Phenomena such as seeps[70]
and tar pits are examples of areas that petroleum affects without
man's involvement. Regardless of source, petroleum's effects when
released into the environment are similar.
Ocean acidification

Ocean acidification is the increase in the acidity of the Earth's

oceans
caused
by
the
uptake
of
carbon
dioxide
(CO
[71]
2) from the atmosphere. This increase in acidity inhibits life such as scallops.
Global warming

When burned, petroleum releases carbon dioxide; a greenhouse gas. Along with the burning of coal,
petroleum combustion is the largest contributor to the increase in atmospheric CO2. Atmospheric CO2
has risen steadily since the industrial revolution to current levels of over 390 ppmv, from the 180
300 ppmv of the prior 800 thousand years, driving global warming.[72][73][74] The unbridled use of

petroleum could potentially cause a runaway greenhouse effect on Earth.[citation needed] Use of oil as an
energy source has caused Earth's temperature to increase by nearly one degree Celsius. This raise in
temperature has reduced the Arctic ice cap to 1,100,000 sq mi (2,800,000 km2), smaller than ever
recorded.[75] Because of this melt, more oil reserves have been revealed. It is estimated by the
International Energy Agency that about 13 percent of the world's undiscovered oil resides in the
Arctic.[76]
Extraction

Oil extraction is simply the removal of oil from the reservoir (oil pool). Oil is often recovered as a
water-in-oil emulsion, and specialty chemicals called demulsifiers are used to separate the oil from
water. Oil extraction is costly and sometimes environmentally damaging, although Dr. John Hunt of
the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution pointed out in a 1981 paper that over 70 percent of the
reserves in the world are associated with visible macroseepages, and many oil fields are found due to
natural seeps. Offshore exploration and extraction of oil disturbs the surrounding marine
environment.[77]
Oil spills
Volunteers cleaning up the aftermath of the Prestige oil spill

Crude oil and refined fuel spills from tanker ship accidents have damaged natural ecosystems in
Alaska, the Gulf of Mexico, the Galapagos Islands, France and many other places.
The quantity of oil spilled during accidents has ranged from a few hundred tons to several hundred
thousand tons (e.g., Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill, Atlantic Empress, Amoco Cadiz). Smaller spills
have already proven to have a great impact on ecosystems, such as the Exxon Valdez oil spill
Oil spills at sea are generally much more damaging than those on land, since they can spread for
hundreds of nautical miles in a thin oil slick which can cover beaches with a thin coating of oil. This
can kill sea birds, mammals, shellfish and other organisms it coats. Oil spills on land are more readily
containable if a makeshift earth dam can be rapidly bulldozed around the spill site before most of the
oil escapes, and land animals can avoid the oil more easily.
Control of oil spills is difficult, requires ad hoc methods, and often a large amount of manpower. The
dropping of bombs and incendiary devices from aircraft on SS Torrey Canyon wreck produced poor
results;[78] modern techniques would include pumping the oil from the wreck, like in the Prestige oil
spill or the Erika oil spill.[79]
Though crude oil is predominantly composed of various hydrocarbons, certain nitrogen heterocylic
compounds, such as pyridine, picoline, and quinoline are reported as contaminants associated with
crude oil, as well as facilities processing oil shale or coal, and have also been found at legacy wood
treatment sites. These compounds have a very high water solubility, and thus tend to dissolve and
move with water. Certain naturally occurring bacteria, such as Micrococcus, Arthrobacter, and
Rhodococcus have been shown to degrade these contaminants.[80]
Tarballs

A tarball is a blob of crude oil (not to be confused with tar, which is a man-made product derived
from pine trees or refined from petroleum) which has been weathered after floating in the ocean.
Tarballs are an aquatic pollutant in most environments, although they can occur naturally, for
example in the Santa Barbara Channel of California[81][82] or in the Gulf of Mexico off Texas.[83] Their
concentration and features have been used to assess the extent of oil spills. Their composition can be
used to identify their sources of origin,[84][85] and tarballs themselves may be dispersed over long
distances by deep sea currents.[82] They are slowly decomposed by bacteria, including
Chromobacterium violaceum, Cladosporium resinae, Bacillus submarinus, Micrococcus varians,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida marina and Saccharomyces estuari.[81]
Whales

James S. Robbins has argued that the advent of petroleum-refined kerosene saved some species of
great whales from extinction by providing an inexpensive substitute for whale oil, thus eliminating
the economic imperative for open-boat whaling.[86]

Chemistry

Octane, a hydrocarbon found in petroleum. Lines represent single bonds; black spheres represent carbon;
white spheres represent hydrogen.

Petroleum is a mixture of a very large number of different hydrocarbons; the most commonly found
molecules are alkanes (paraffins), cycloalkanes (naphthenes), aromatic hydrocarbons, or more
complicated chemicals like asphaltenes. Each petroleum variety has a unique mix of molecules,
which define its physical and chemical properties, like color and viscosity.
The alkanes, also known as paraffins, are saturated hydrocarbons with straight or branched chains
which contain only carbon and hydrogen and have the general formula CnH2n+2. They generally have
from 5 to 40 carbon atoms per molecule, although trace amounts of shorter or longer molecules may
be present in the mixture.
The alkanes from pentane (C5H12) to octane (C8H18) are refined into petrol, the ones from nonane
(C9H20) to hexadecane (C16H34) into diesel fuel, kerosene and jet fuel. Alkanes with more than 16
carbon atoms can be refined into fuel oil and lubricating oil. At the heavier end of the range, paraffin
wax is an alkane with approximately 25 carbon atoms, while asphalt has 35 and up, although these
are usually cracked by modern refineries into more valuable products. The shortest molecules, those
with four or fewer carbon atoms, are in a gaseous state at room temperature. They are the petroleum
gases. Depending on demand and the cost of recovery, these gases are either flared off, sold as
liquified petroleum gas under pressure, or used to power the refinery's own burners. During the
winter, butane (C4H10), is blended into the petrol pool at high rates, because its high vapor pressure
assists with cold starts. Liquified under pressure slightly above atmospheric, it is best known for
powering cigarette lighters, but it is also a main fuel source for many developing countries. Propane
can be liquified under modest pressure, and is consumed for just about every application relying on
petroleum for energy, from cooking to heating to transportation.