1.

Discuss Henri Fayol's administrative theory (14 principles of

Management)
Henri Fayol laid down what he called 14 principles of management. This
theory is called administrative theory. The principles of the theory are:
A. Division of work: Tasks should be divided up with employees
specializing in a limited set of tasks so that expertise is developed and
productivity increased.
B. Authority and responsibility: Authority is the right to give orders and
entails enforcing them with rewards and penalties; authority should be
matched with corresponding responsibility.
C. Discipline: This is essential for the smooth running of business and is
dependent on good relationship, clear and fair arguments, and the
judicious application of penalties.
D. Unity of Command: For any action whatsoever, an employee should
receive orders from one superior only; otherwise authority, discipline,
order, and stability are threatened.
E. Unity of direction: a group of activities concerned with a single
objective should be co-coordinated by a single plan under one head.
F. Subordination of individual interest to general interest: Individual
or group goals must not be allowed to override those of the business.
G. Remuneration of personnel: This may be achieved by various
methods but it should be fair, encourage effort, and not lead to
overpayment.
H. Centralization: The extent to which orders should be issued only from
the top of the organization is a problem which should take into account
its characteristics, such as size and the capabilities of the personnel.
I. Scalar Chain (Line of authority): Communications should normally
flow up and down the line of authority running from the top to the
bottom of the organization, but sideways communication between those
of equivalent rank in different departments can be desirable so long as
superiors are kept informed.
J. Order: Both materials and personnel must always be in their proper
place; people must be suited to their posts so there must be careful
organization of work and selection of personnel.
K. Equity: Personnel must be treated with kindness and justice.
L. Stability of tenure of personnel: Rapid turnover of personnel should
be avoided because of the time required for the development of
expertise.
M. Initiative: All employees should be encouraged to exercise initiative
within limits imposed by the requirements of authority and discipline.
N. Espirt de crops: Efforts must be made to promote harmony within the
organization and prevent dissension and divisiveness.

2. Explain shaping behavior and different methods of shaping

behavior.
 Shaping Behavior: When a systematic attempt is made to change
individuals' behavior by directing their learning in graduated steps.
Method's of Behavior:
Positive reinforcement: Is the process of getting something pleasant as a
consequence of a desired behavior, to strengthen the same behavior.
Negative reinforcement: Is the process of having a reward taken away as
a consequence of an undesired behavior.
Punishment: Is causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate
an undesirable behavior. This is the process of getting punishment as a
consequence of a behavior.
Extinction: Eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behavior.

Both positive and negative reinforcement result in learning. They

strengthen a response and increase the probability of repetition. Both
punishment and extinction weaken behavior and tend to decrease its
subsequent frequency.

3. Write a detailed note on MBTI and big five model.

The MBTI classifies Human beings into four opposite pairs (dichotomies)
base on their psychological opposites. These four opposite pairs result into
16 possible combinations. In MBTI, individuals are classified as (McCrae and
Costa, 1989):
a) Extroverted or Introverted (E or I).
b) Sensing or intuitive (S or N).
c) Thinking or feeling (T or F).
d) Perceiving or judging (P or J).
• These classifications are then combined into sixteen
personality types, for example:
a) ESTJs are organizers. They are realistic, logical,
analytical, decisive, and have a natural head for business
or mechanics. They like to organize and run activities.
b) The ENTP type is a conceptualizer. They are innovative,
individualistic, versatile, and attracted to entrepreneurial
ideas. This person tends to be resourceful in solving
challenging problems but may neglect routine
assignments.

The big five model:

1. Many researchers argue that five basic dimensions underlie all other
personality dimensions (e.g. McCrae and Costa, 1990; Digman 1997).
The five basic dimensions are:
1) Extraversion: Comfort level with relationships. Extraverts
tend to be gregarious, assertive, and sociable. Introverts tend to be
reserved, timed, and quiet.
 2) Agreeableness: Individual's propensity to defer to others.
High agreeableness people-cooperative, warm, and trusting. Low
agreeableness people-cold, disagreeable, and antagonistic.
3) Conscientiousness: A measure of reliability. A high
conscientious person in responsible, organized, dependable, and
persistent. Those who score low on this dimension are easily
distracted, disorganized, and unreliable.
4) Emotional Stability: A person's ability to withstand stress.
People with positive emotional stability tend to be calm, self-
confident, and secure. Those with high negative scores tend to be
nervous, anxious, depressed, and insecure.
5) Openness to experience: The range of interests and
fascination with novelty. Extremely open people are creative,
curious, and artistically sensitive. Those at the other end of the
openness category are conventional and find comfort in the
familiar.

4. Explain the Stepwise Procedure of Rational Decision Making

Model.
Step 1: Defining the Problem
• A problem is a discrepancy between existing and a desired state of
affairs.
• Many poor decisions can be traced to the decision-making overlooking
a problem or defining the wrong problem.
Step 2: Identifying the decision criteria important to solving the problem.
• The decision maker determines what is relevant in making the
decision. Any factors not identified in this step are considered
irrelevant to the decision maker.
• This brings in the decision maker's interests, values, and similar
personal preferences.
Step3: Weight the previously identified criteria in order to give them the
correct priority in the decision.
Step 4: Generate possible alternatives that could succeed in resolving the
problem.
Step 5: Rating each alternative on each criterion.
• Critically analyze and evaluate each alternative.
• The strengths and weaknesses of each alternative become evident as
they are compared with the criteria and weights established in the
second and third steps.
Step 6: The final step is to compute the optimal decision:
• Evaluating each alternative against the weighted criteria and selecting
the alternative with the highest total score.

5. Explain Group Structure

Work group in order to function as a coordinated unit need to have a proper
structure where there must be certain element like formal leadership, role
clarity among group members. In the absence of these factors group not
only conflict ridden, but also suffer from confusion, and function on a sub
optimal level. Elements of group structure are:
1) Formal Leadership:
Almost every work group must have a formal leader, which typically
identified by a title. The leader can play an important part in the
group's success.
2) Roles:
All group members are actors, where each is playing a role. While
some of these roles may be compatible others create conflicts.
Different groups impose different role requirements on individuals.
3) Role Perception:
For playing one's role effectively in a group, one's view of how one is
supposed to act in a given situation must be cleat leading to clear role
perception. By watching and imitating senior members of a group the
new comers learn how to take their roles effectively and also learn
how to play them well.
4) Role expectations:
Tuning oneself and behaving in a socially desirable manner is a part of
fulfilling role expectations n a given situation in the conflict of
achieving group goals and organizational goals.
5) Role Conflict
When a group member is faced with the challenge of playing multiple
roles, role conflict may occur due to inability of the individual to
balance all the roles effectively, thereby reducing role effectiveness,
hampering the group and organizational goal attainment process.

6. Write down different steps of conflict management.

The Process of conflict management has the following steps (Schermerhorn
et al, 2003):
Stage I: Potential opposition or Incompatibility:
1) Communication: Communication becomes a source of conflict due
to semantic difficulties, misunderstandings, and "noise" (distortion) in
the communication channels. Differing word connotations, jargon,
insufficient exchange of information, and noise in the communication
channel are all barriers to communication and potential antecedents
to conflict.
2) Structure: The term structure includes variables such as size,
degree of specialization, jurisdictional clarity, member goal
compatibility, leadership styles, reward systems, and the degree of
dependence, size and specialization act as forces to stimulate conflict.
The larger the group and more specialized its activities, the greater
the likelihood of conflict. The potential for conflict is greatest where
group members are younger and turnover is high. The greater the
ambiguity in responsibility for actions lies, the greater the potential for
conflict.
 3) Personal Variables: Personal variables include individual value
systems and personality characteristics. Certain personality types lead
to potential conflict. Value differences are the best explanation for
differences of opinion on various matters.

Stage II: Cognition and Personalization:

Antecedent conditions lead to conflict only when the parties are affected
by and aware of it. Conflict is personalized when it is felt and when
individuals become emotionally involved. Emotions play a major role in
shaping perceptions. Negative emotions produce oversimplification of
issues, reductions in trust, and negative interpretations of other party's
behavior. Positive feelings increase the tendency to see potential
relationships among the elements of a problem, to take a broader view of
the situation, and to develop more innovative solutions (Robbins, 2003).

Stage III: Intentions:

The primary conflict-handling intentions are represented as follows:
• Cooperativeness: The degree to which one party attempts to
satisfy the other party's concerns
• Assertiveness: The degree to which one party attempts to satisfy
his or her own concerns.
• Competing: When one person seeks to satisfy his or her own
interests, regardless of the impact on the other parties to the conflict.
• Collaborating: When the parties to conflict each desire to fully
satisfy the concerns of all parties. The intention is to solve the
problem by clarifying differences rather than by accommodating.
• Avoiding: A person may recognize that a conflict exists and want to
withdraw from it or suppress it.
• Accommodating: When one party seeks to appease an opponent,
that party is willing to be self-sacrificing.
• Compromising: When each party to the conflict seeks to give up
something, sharing occurs, resulting in a compromised outcome.
There is no clear winner or loser, and the solution provides
incomplete satisfaction of both parties' concerns.

Stage IV: Behavior

The behavior stage includes the statements, actions, and reactions made
by the conflicting parties. These conflict behaviors are usually overt
attempts to implement each party's intentions. It is a dynamic process of
interaction with a continuum. At the lower part of continuum, conflicts
are characterized by subtle, indirect, and highly controlled forms of
tensions. Conflict intensities escalate as they move upward along the
continuum until they become highly destructive. Functional conflicts are
typically confined to the lower range of the continuum.

Stage V: Outcomes:
Outcomes may be functional-improving group performance, or
dysfunctional in hindering it. Conflict is constructive when it (Robins,
2003):
a) Improves quality of decisions.
b) Stimulates Creativity and innovation.
c) Encourages interest and curiosity.
d) Provides the medium through which problems can be aired
and tensions releases.
e) Fosters an environment of self-evaluation change.
Outcomes may be dysfunctional as well. They are as follows:
Uncontrolled opposition breeds discontent, which acts to dissolve
common ties and eventually leads to the destruction of the group.
Undesirable consequences include a retarding of communication,
reductions in group cohesiveness, subordination of group goals to the
primacy of infighting between members. Conflict can bring group
functioning to a halt and potentially threaten the group's survival. The
demise of an organization as a result of too much conflict is not as
unusual as it might first appear.