02 Power System Protection Day 1 PDF

Modern Power System Protective
Relaying
With Expert Course Faculty
Jelica Polimac
DAY 1
Modern Power System Protective Relaying
CONTENTS 1/2
INTRODUCTION TO THE TRAINING

INTRODUCTION TO PROTECTION
Protection Role
Protection Objectives
Protection Requirements
Protection Basic Principles
Electromechanical relays
Static / Solid state relays
Digital Numerical relays
Numerical Protective Relays
Protection Principle Diagram

Principle of a Unit Protection
Principle of a Non-unit Protection
Protection Types
Protection Types
Protection Function Codes
Relay Protection History
Reliability Aspect
Techno-Economical Aspects
Protection in Power System
Numerical Protection Concept

Numerical Protection Signal Processing
Numerical Protection Connections
Numerical Protection Applications
POWER SYSTEM FAULT ANALYSIS
Power System Basics

What is a Power System?
Power Systems Types
Power System Parts
Power System Components
Terminology
Faults in Power Systems
Type of Faults
Balanced & Unbalanced Faults
Fault Effects on the Power System
Fault Current
Factors Affecting a Fault
Distorted Waveform
CONTENTS 2/2
POWER SYSTEM FAULT ANALYSIS (CONTINUES)
Power System Analysis

Short Circuit Calculation Method
1.
SC Calculations Basics
2.
Symmetrical Components
1.
2.
3.
3.
Symmetrical Components for Faults

1.
2.
3.
4.
Positive Sequence System

Negative Sequence System
Zero Sequence System
Three-Phase Fault
Earth Fault
Two-Phase Fault
Open Circuit
Symmetrical Components Example

Modelling Components
Generators Model
Transformers Model
Overhead Lines Model
Cables Model
Motors Model
Network Infeed
Load
Case Study: Applying Models

Short Circuit Calculation Procedure
Calculation Block Diagram
Standards for SC Calculations
Elements Affecting SC Calculation
SC Calculations by Computer Program
Short Circuit Calculation (Typical Data)
Short Cirdcuit Calculation (Typical Results)

Load Flow Calculations
Case Studies
INTRODUCTION TO PROTECTION
Protection
Role
Protection Types
Protection Codes
Numerical Relays
Protection Role
What is protection?
What is the role of protection?
~
GRID
400L
400-1
400-2
AT2
AT1
132-2
132L
132-1
T2
L4
11-1
L2
Load2
11-3
Load1
L3
L
L5
LV-M1
11-4
L4
LV-M2
M1
M2
11-2
Load1
T1
Load2
L1
LV-L
Load
Objectives
Protect
equipment from damage

Protect people from injury
Support uninterrupted power supply
Speed
Sensitivity
Selectivity
Reliability
Dependability (zone faults)

Security (no maloperation)
Specific requirements for protection types

A
~
F4
F3
F2
F1
T

Principle of a Unit Protection
Principle of a Non-unit Protection
Order
Circuit
breaker
Measurement
Sensor
Protection
Principle of Unit Protection

Protects a unit (selective element of the power system)
Operates for internal faults within the setting range
Does not operate for any external fault outside the protective zone
Differential protection
Circulating current protection
Busbar protection
Restricted earth fault protection
REF
Principle of Non-Unit Protection

Protects more than one element of the power system
Operates for any fault (internal or external) within the setting range
Overcurrent protection
Earth fault protection
Voltage protection
Distance protection
Frequency protection
OC Protection
10
Reliability Aspect 1/4
Protection components:
Protection errors and deterioration
CT & VT
Relay
Trip relay
Breaker trip coil
DC supply
Wiring
Errors in incorrect design / installation / setting
Deterioration in service (component failure)
Components in series -> low reliability

Components in parallel -> high reliability
11
Components in series (low reliability)
Component failure causes system failure
12
Components in parallel (high reliability)
Component failure doesnt cause system failure

Duplicate: relays, CT, VT, Trip coils, dc supplies, wiring
13
Transmission circuits require high reliability

Distribution HV circuits require medium reliability
LV circuits usually require low reliability
Reliability
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Cost
14
Techno-Economical Aspect
Technical Aspects
Protection requirements
Reliability aspect
New substation
Extending a substation
Organic growth
(minimum discrepancy new & old
Economical consideration
Equipment selection
(new technology)
Single, dual or triple main protection

Value for money
Combining technical and economical aspects
15
Protection in Power Systems
Power system behavior
Power system specific
Sudden load loss

Switching power transformers in
Switching capacitors in
Harmonics
Unbalanced load
Faults
System earthing (solid, isolated, NER, Petersen)
Transportation / Industrial systems connection
Power system configuration
Double circuits
Cable feeders, Long overhead lines
Running arrangements with open points
Outage planning
16
Question:
What would be requirements and cost

implication for protection of:
LV feeder
b. Transmission feeder
a.
17
Protection Types
Over-current
Overload protection
Earth-fault protection
Distance protection
Busbars protection
Voltage protection
Frequency protection
Reverse power
Unbalance protection
Mechanical protection
18
Protection Function Code

ANSI code
Function
3
11
Multifunction element
12
Overspeed
14
Underspeed
21
Distance protection
24
Volts / Hz
25
Synchronizing
26
Thermostat
27
Undervoltage
32
Directional power
37
Undercurrent
37P
Active under power
37Q
Reactive under power
Flux control
Winding temperature
32P, 32Q
19

ANSI code Function
38
Rotor bearing temperature
40
Field loss / Excitation loss
46
Negative sequence / unbalance
47
Negative sequence overvoltage
48
Excessive starting time supervision
49
Thermal overload
50
Instantaneous over-current
50, 50N (50G), 50BF
50BF
Breaker fail protection
51, 51N
51
Delayed over-current
51N
Delayed neutral earth fault
51LR
Locked rotor
59
Overvoltage
20

ANSI code
Function
63
Pressure
Buchholz relay
64
Earth fault
Residual voltage
66
Excessive starting time
67
Directional over-current protection
67N
Directional earth fault
78
Vector shift / Pole slip
79
Reclosing
81
Frequency (under / over)
86
Lockout relay/Trip circuit supervision
87
87, 87B, 87T, 87G
21
Power systems in 1880s:
DC system (Thomas A Edison)

AC three-phase system (Nikola Tesla)
Protection
Electromechanical relays
Static / Solid state relays
Digital Numerical relays
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
Electomech ptn
Static ptn
2010
2000
1992
1988
1982
1975
1970
1960
1950
1940
1930
1920
1910
1890
10
Digital ptn
22
Electromechanical Relays
Moving parts lower speed, longer reset

Robust, Reliable, accurate
Significant wiring (logic & communication)
Different relay names for same type (51: CDG, CDD, CAG)
Connection to SCADA via transducers & I/P relays
No requirements for aux supply
Deterioration due to ageing effect
Several relays in protection
High burden to CT & VT
Easy plug set value
Long service life
High maintenance
23
Static / Solid State Relays
No or few moving parts

Electronic components
Connection to SCADA via interface relays &
transducers
Standard 19 rack design
Low burden to CT / VT
Requirement for aux supply
Fast operation
Quick reset
Service life limited
Low maintenance
24
Digital Numerical Relays
Occupy small space

Microprocessor
Communication ports to SCADA
Communication to other relays
Standard relay for any application
High functionality integration
Different setting characteristics
Self-monitoring
Short lifetime due to continues
development of new technology
Complicated setting files
Specially trained staff for operation &
maintenance
Risk of hacking
25
Numerical Protective Relays

Numerical Protection Processing
Numerical Protection Characteristics
26
Analogue/Digital convertor
RAM Random Access Memory
ROM Read Only Memory
EPROM Electrical Programmable ROM
HMI Human Interface Machine (Local, PC, Web)
RAM
CT Inputs
ROM
EPROM
Binary
Outputs
A/D
VT Inputs
Binary
Inputs
Microprocessor
HMI
Communication
Port
27
Numerical Protection Front & Back View
A Aux supply & 4 outputs contacts

B1, B2 - CT inputs (I1,R, IY, IB )
C1, C2 Communication ports
D1, D2 Remote module connection ports
E VT input, Residual voltage, Residual current
F Communication port for old relays only
H1, H2, H3 Input / output modules
28
Numerical Protection - HMI
29
Numerical Protection Diagram
30
Numerical Protection Schematic
31
Numerical Protection Signal Processing
32
Sampling
Sampling rate (fixed or adaptive)
Resolution
Simultaneous sampling for parallel channels
(more channels, more precise protection)
A/D
33
Analogue/Digital Conversion
Sample
Hold
Quantify
Analogue
Coding
0101
Word length [bit]
Number of steps
Resolution [%]
50
25
12.5
16
6.25
32
3.125
64
1.563
128
0.781
256
0.391
512
0.195
10
1024
0.098
11
2048
0.049
12
4096
0.024
Digital
34
Digital Filtering
Filtered values are used to surpress transients

Longer window length, better harmonics elimination
Longer window length, slower processing
20ms window length
10ms window length
35
Fourier Transformation
Fourier Transformation
Original curve
i(t)
Compute imaginary component
IS=2/N * [Ssin(w*n*Dt)*in]
Compute real component:
IS=2/N * [i0/2+iN/2+Ssin(w*n*Dt)*in]
36
Distance Relay - Algorithm
37
Sliding Data Windows 1/2
Longer window length, better harmonics elimination

Longer window length, slower processing
38
Sliding Data Window 2/2
Placing data window for distance protection
39

Remote
control
To substations
SYSTEM
S/S control
.
To relays
S/S
Relay
To bay
controls
Bay
control
Relay
BAY
BAY BAY
S/S2
S/S3
40
Protection Connections Levels
41
Numerical Protection Characteristics
Uniform design for all applications
Self monitoring
Multi-functionality
Incorporates event/fault recorder
Extensive setting characteristics
User configurable via keyboard, switches
Accessibility (local & remote)
Communications
Some variations for the type
Unique IP address
Optional IEC 61850
42
Numerical Protection in Transmission
Concept of a separate relays for each main protection
Relays for 1st Main, 2nd Main, 3rd Main Protection
Provides higher reliability for protection systems
Independent aux supply for each relay
Independent trip circuits for each relay
Independent self-monitoring
1M
2M
3M
43
Numerical Protection in Distribution
Concept of a relay per bay (Figure a & b)

Concept of a relay for several bays (Figure c)
+
Id
I> AR Sy
I>
I>
I> A
R
Figure a
+
Id
I> In> U< 46
t,63
t,38
Figure c
Figure b
44
Numerical Distance & Diff Protection
45
Case Study: - Protection Requirements

A
~
T
F4
F3
F2
F1
Relay R is a distance protection, installed in substation A.

Considering Figure above what is the right statements:
a.
Relay R trips for fault F4
b.
Relay R operates for fault F3
c.
Relay R will not operate for short circuits in transformer T
d.
Relay R protects feeder AB, transformer T and busbars B
e.
Relay R is sensitive to earth faults within feeder AB
f.
After F2 fault inception relay R operates within 3 seconds
g.
After F3 fault inception relay R operates within 50ms
h.
After F4 fault inception relay R operates within 100 ms
i.
j.
46
POWER SYSTEM FAULT ANALYSIS
Power System Basics

Faults in Power Systems
Short Circuit Calculation Methods
Fault Calculation Procedure
Case Study: LF & SC Calculations
47
Power System Basics
A Power system is a combination of electrical

components, which supply, transmit,
distribute and consume electrical energy
AC Power systems:
AC 3-phase systems (Grid)

AC 3-phase industrial / commercial systems
AC 2-phase systems (25kV traction)
AC 1-phase systems (Building services)
DC systems
HVDC
DC Traction systems
48
Power System Parts
Generation
Transmission
Distribution
49
Power System Components
Generators
Transformers
Overhead lines (EHV, HV)
Cables (EHV, HV, MV)
Power Quality equipment
Rectifiers
Motors
50
Faults In Power Systems
Type of Faults
Fault Current
Factors Affecting Fault Severity
Distorted Waveform
51
Type of Faults
Three phase fault
Three phase to
earth fault
Single phase fault
Discontinued
phase
Two phase fault
Discontinued
two phases
Two phase to
earth fault
Discontinued phase
to earth fault
52

5% of all faults are balanced faults
80% of line faults are earth faults (unbalanced)
5% two-phase faults (unbalanced)
5% two-phase with earth faults (unbalanced)
53
Damage at the point of fault

Depression of the voltage during the fault
Loss of load for generators close to the fault
Generators stability
Induction motors slips
VIDEO: Faults
54
Fault Current
If=ISC
Sub-transient: If=(5-10)*In, t<0.1s
Transient:
If=(2-6)*In, t=0.1-1s
Steady state: If=(0.5-2)*In, t>1s
55
Factors Affecting a Fault

Value
of Short Circuit (MVA or kA)

Network electrical parameters
System Earthing
Network configuration
DC Component
Voltage values
56
Distorted Waveform
Harmonics are components of current/voltage distorted waveform
Harmonics are generated by nonlinear load (not faults)
Welders, variable speed drives, static converters, rectifiers, FC lamps, PC
computers generate harmonics
Some harmonics are used in protection to distinguish faults & disturbances
57
Question:
What type of faults is the most common fault

in overhead lines:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Three phase faults

Two-phase faults
Earth faults
Broken conductor
58

1.Short Circuit Analysis (Fault Calculations)
For control
For specifying HV equipment
For protection settings
2.Load Flow
For control
For specifying HV equipment
For protection settings
3.Stability Studies
For generators
For transmission system
4.Harmonic Studies
For power quality equipment
5.Other Analysis
59
Short Circuit Calculation Method
SC Calculations Basics
Symmetrical Components
Symmetrical Components - Example
60
SC Calculations Basics 1/3

Short Circuit (SC) calculations are carried out to define maximum &
minimum fault currents
The equipment is chosen for the maximum fault current
Max & Min fault and load currents are used in protection settings
For the maximum fault current all generation is in service
For the minimum fault current minimum generation is in service
Sub-transient calculations for the fault inception and transient
calculation (100ms) are carried out for the maximum and minimum
fault currents
Voltage factors, applicable for fault calculations, are listed in the Table
Nominal voltage
Voltage Factor for the SC calculations (IEC 60038)

Ifmax
Ifmin
Vn < 1kV (Vn+6%)

Vn < 1kV (Vn+10%)
1.05
1.1
0.95
1kv < Vn <-35kV
1.1
0.95
Vn >36kV
1.1
61
Calculation of impedances from the fault point

Voltage transformation (base values SB, VB )
Impedances in % -> ZS=Z400%+Z132%+Z11%
Unbalanced faults (Symmetrical components)
62

Base values:
SB=100MVA
VB = select the voltage where the fault is -> 11kV

ZB=VB2/SB=112*106/(100*106)=1.21W
Impedances in % (OR per unit):
Data for line L: RL=0.021W/km, XL=0.16W/km, l=3km
ZL=RL+jXL=0.021*3+j0.16*3=(0.063+j0.48)W
ZL%=100%*ZL/ZB=(5.2+j39.7)%
Arc resistance: Rarc=28700*(a+2*vw*t)/I1.4 [W]
a-Arc length, vw-wind speed, t-arc duration, I-current
63
Question:
Line impedance is:
ZL%=(5.2+j39.7)%
Calculate the line impedance in a vector form ZL|j
64
Symmetrical Components 1/3

Symmetrical Components, developed by Fortescue
in 1920s, consider a power system as superposition
of three independent symmetrical systems
a. positive sequence system (subscript 1)
b. negative sequence system (subscript 2)
c. zero sequence system (subscript 0)
Any fault can be calculated through the symmetrical

component method
Balanced fault through a single phase system

Unbalanced faults through symmetrical components
65

VB1
VB
VY2
VR1
VR
VY
VY1
VB2
VR2
VR0
VY0
VB0
Voltage:
VR=VR1+VR2+VR0=V1+V2+V0
VY=VY1+VY2+VY0= a2V1+aV2+V0
VB=VB1+VB2+VB0=aV1+a2V2+V0
V1= 1/3 * (VR+aVY+a2VB)

V2= 1/3 * (VR+a2VY+aVB)
V0= 1/3 * (VR+VY+VB)
Current:
IR=IR1+IR2+IR0=I1+I2+I0
IY=IY1+IY2+IY0= a2I1+aI2+I0
IB=IB1+IB2+IB0=aI1+a2I2+I0
I1= 1/3 * (IR+aIY+a2IB)

I2= 1/3 * (IR+a2IY+aIB)
I0= 1/3 * (IR+IY+IB)
VIDEO: Symmetrical components

66

Symmetrical components of voltage, current and
impedance correspond to physical phenomena (can be
measured)
Generators produce positive sequence component
Faults produce zero sequence components
For motors positive sequence component creates
moving force. negative sequence component creates
breaking force
For Transformers for earth-faults zero sequence
component is closed via the transformer tank
67
a. Positive Sequence System
Positive sequence short circuit impedance Z1
68
b. Negative Sequence System
Negative sequence short circuit impedance Z2

(also associated with motors)
69
c. Zero Sequence System
Zero sequence short circuit impedance Z0

(returns via earth)
70
Symmetrical Components For Faults

a.
b.
c.
d.
3-phase fault
2-phase fault
Earth fault
Open circuit
71
Symmetrical Components For 3-ph Fault

1
ZN
VR = VY = VB = 0
IR + IY + IB = 0
IR+IY+IB=I1+I2+I0+a2I1+aI2+I0+aI1+a2I2+I=3I0=0, I0=0
VR = E I1Z1 - I2Z2
VY = a2Ea2I1Z1-aI2Z2 ; when multiply with a: a*VY=EI1Z1-a*aI2Z2
0 = E-I1Z1-I2Z2-E+I1Z1+a2I2Z2=(a2-1)I2Z2, therefore I2=0
VR = 0 = E I1Z1 - I2Z2 ; E=I1Z1
I1 = E / Z 1
If3 =(U/3)/Z1 If3-Three-phase fault current
72
Symmetrical Components For 2-ph Fault

2
ZN
IR = 0
IY = -IB
VY = VB
I0=0
I1= -I2=E/(Z1+ Z2)
V1=E*(Z2)/(Z1+ Z2)
V2= Z2*E/(Z1+ Z2)
V0=0
If2=(U)/(Z1+Z2)
If2- two-phase fault current
73
Symmetrical Components For Earth Fault

1
ZA
ZN
VR = 0
I Y = IB
I1= I2=I0=E/(Z1+Z2+Z0+3Z)
V1=E*(Z2+Z0 +3Z)/(Z1+ Z2+Z0+3Z)
V2= -Z2*E/(Z1+ Z2+Z0 +3Z)
V0= -Z0*E/(Z1+ Z2+Z0 +3Z)
If1 = 3*U/(Z1+Z2+Z0 +3Z)
Z=ZN+ZA
ZN >> (isolated PS) or ZN=0 (solid earth)
3Z
74
Symmetrical Components For Open Circuit
IR = 0
IY = -IB
VY = VB
-I1 = I2 + I0
75
Question:
Where are the symmetrical components used

and why?
76
Modeling Components
Generators Model
Transformers Model
Cables Model
Motors Model
Network Infeed
Load
Applying Models
77
Generators Model 1/2

Synchronous generators are most complex equipment in
the power system
Currents and voltages are calculated through differential
Laplace equations
78
Generators Model 2/2

Sub transient period (80-120ms): Xd (XST)
Transient period (up to 1s): Xd
(XT)
Steady state period: Xd
(XS)
79
Transformers Model
Model for two winding, 3-phase transformers

Model for three winding, 3-phase transformers
Model for 3-phase auto transformers
Model for single phase transformers
80
Two Winding Transformer Model

ZT= (uk/100% )* (UT2 / ST), RT= (pk/100% )* (UT2 / ST)
uk (short circuit % voltage), pk (short circuit % transformer losses)
81
Three Winding Transformer Model

ZHL=(uHL/100)*(Ur2/SkHL), ZLT=(uLT/100)*(Ur2/SLT), ZHT=(uHT/100)*(Ur2/SHT)
a. Positive sequence
b. Zero sequence
82
Auto Transformer Model

ZHL=(uHL/100)*(Ur2/SkHL)
ZLT=(uLT/100)*(Ur2/SLT)
ZHT=(uHT/100)*(Ur2/SHT)
a. Positive sequence
b. Zero sequence
83

Zl = Rl + jXl
Values per unit length
RL= r / qn
d = 3 (dL1L2*(dL1L2*(dL2L3*dL3L1) geometric mean distance

between conductors, or the centre of bundles
r Radius of a single conductor or for conductor bundles
the radius is rB = n (nrRn-1) where R is the bundle radius
n Number of bundled conductors, m0=4px10-7 H/m
84
Cables Model
The equivalent model for OHL
is applicable for cables
Zl = Rl + jXl
Rl and Xl dependent on the
geometry
Rl and Xl are measured and
recorded in commissioning
85
Motors Model
Similar modeling as for the generators
Motor characteristics are dependent on construction
Sub transient characteristic is related to the motor
inertia
Standard IEC 60909; take into account only if the
sum of motors rated currents is greater than Ik/100
(Ik short circuit current)
Pragmatic value 4 to 6 times rated current
Contribution to the fault level for smaller motors can

be often neglected
86
Network Infeed
87
Load
1.
Load Type:
1.
2.
3.
2.
Inductive load (L)

Capacitive load (C)
Resistive load (R)
Load modeling:
1.
S[MVA] and power factor
88
Applying Models 1/3
Source: 20kA, 132kV

Transformer T: 132/33kV, 60MVA, uk=12%, pk=0.3%, Yd1, Z1=Z0
Feeder L: 3km, RL1=0.021 W/km, XL1=0.16 W/km
RL0=0.12 W/km, XL0=0.04 W/km
Non-rotating load at A
Non-rotating load at F
For fault K3 calculate: a. 3-phase fault current b. Earth fault current
89
Applying Models 2/3

ZS1
ZT1
ZL1
Select SB=100MVA, UB=33kV

~
a: Three Phase Fault

The equivalent diagram for the considered network is shown above
For positive sequence system impedances are:
ZB=VB2/SB=332*106/(100*106)=10.9W
ZS1=V/(3*I)=132*103/(3*20*103)=3.81W
ZS1%=100%*ZS1/ZB=100%*3.81/10.9=34.95%
XT1=12*100/60=20%, RT1=0.3*100/60=0.5%, ZT1=0.5+j20%
ZL1=RL1+jXL1=0.021*3+j0.16*3=(0.063+j0.48)
ZL1%=100%*ZL1/ZB=(0.58+j4.4)%
ZS3%=ZS1+ZT1+ZL1=j34.95+0.5+j20+0.58+j4.4=1.08+j59.35=59.36|89
Sf3= (SB/ ZS3%)*100%=10000/59.36=168.46MVA
If3= Sf3/(3*33*103)=2.95kA
90
Applying Models 3/3

ZS1
ZT1
ZL1
b: Earth Fault
The equivalent diagram for the considered system
~ E
Positive sequence impedances are as calculated for
the 3-phase fault
ZS2
ZT2
ZL2
Negative sequence impedances are equal to positive
For the zero sequence system impedances are:
ZB=10.9%
ZS0
ZT0
ZL0
ZS0=ZS1=34.95%
ZT0=ZT1=0.5+j20%
ZL0=RL0+jXL0=0.12*3+j0.04*3=(0.36+j0.12)
ZL0%=100%*ZL0/ZB=(3.3+j1.1)%
ZS1%=3*(ZS1+ZT1)+2*ZL1+ZL0=3*(j34.95+0.5+j20)+2*(0.58+j4.4)+3.3+j1.1=
=5.96+j174.75=174.85|88
Sf1= (SB/ ZS1%)*100%=10000/174.85=57.19MVA
If1= Sf1/(3*33*103)=1.001kA
91
Fault Calculation Procedure

Standards for Fault Calculations
SC Calculations by Computer Program
Short Circuit Calculations
92
93
93
Standards for Fault Calculation
IEC 60909 and 61393 ANSI / IEEE Standard C37 and UL 489
94
IEC 60909
Calculation
is based on equivalent voltages at the

point of the fault (LF is required prior to SC)
The
introduction of a voltage factor c is necessary

for various reasons (IEC 60909-0, 1.3.15). These
are:
voltage
variation depending on time and place;

changing of transformer taps;
neglecting loads and capacitances by calculating
according to IEC 60909-0 (see 2.3.1);
the sub-transient behaviour of generators, powerstation units and motors.
95
ANSI IEEE C37.010-1979

The Method is described in IEEE Std.
C37.010-1979 and its revision in 1999,
is used for high-voltage (above 1000V)
equipment
The
IEEE standard permits the
exclusion of all 3-phase induction
motors below 50 hp and all singlephase motors. Hence, no reactance
adjustment is needed for these motors.
The Chart at right clarifies the
ANSI/IEEE procedure.
96

Capacitors & non rotating load (not affecting calc)
Static convertors (initial contribution to If, but no

contribution on SC breaking current)
Limiting reactors (taken as part of the current return)
Motors (to take it into account is: Sin > Ik/100):

Synchronous motors begin to function like generators and feed
the fault (sub-transient reactance xd is applied to dissipate
energy stored in motors)
Asynchronous motors (neglected for some cases)
The contribution of LV motors is negligible
97
Fault Calculations By Computer

Power System Analysis and Studies:
Use proven software

Correct electrical parameters
Verification of the model
98
Short Circuit Calculation (Typical Data)
99
Short Circuit Calculation (Typical Results)

S/S
WINTER
Sub-transient
SUMMER
Transient
Sub-transient
Transient
3ph
[kA]
1ph
[kA]
3ph
[kA]
1ph
[kA]
3ph
[kA]
1ph
[kA]
3ph
[kA]
1ph
[kA]
30
34
22
28
19
16
12
14
45
38
41
37
40
35
27
30
23
23
22
20
20
20
12
16
23
21
19
24
20
21
13
16
46
39
42
36
41
34
29
33
100

To calculate Load Flow (LF) the power system is
represented through a model of its components
The model for Load Flow Calculations is the
same as the model for short circuit calculations
The load flow calculations show the flow of load
in the power system
Maximum and minimum load flow is calculated,
which are used for equipment specification and
operations and for protection settings
LF example is shown in the Case study
101
Case Study: LF&SC Calculations

~
GRID
400L
400-1
400-2
AT2
AT1
132-2
132L
132-1
T2
11-2
Load1
T1
L4
Load2
L2
Load2
11-1
11-3
Load1
L3
L
L5
11-4
L4
LV-M1
LV-M2
M1
M2
L1
LV-L
Load
102
Case Study: LF & SC Calculations Data

Grid Infeed: 400kV, 40kA, R/X=0.1
Generator: 21kV, 400MW, Pf=0.95, Xd=Xq=2.04pu, Xd=0.27pu, Rstator=0.0015pu , X0=0.1pu,
R0=0, X2=0.2pu, r2=0,
Generator transformer 21/400kV, 500MVA, uk=8.15%, ukr0=0.57%, Xm=0.29%, Rm-50,04kW,
TC:-1,0,1, +1.25%
400L: 400kV, 20km, L12 tower, double lines A700mm2, earth wire Z400mm2, R1=0.54W,
X1=0.48W,R0=4.78W, X0=31.6W
AT1, AT2: 400/132kV, 240MVA, uk=15%, ukr0=0.28%, Xm=0.82%, Rm-66kW, TC=1-12-15, 1.43%
132L: 132kV, 20km, L132 tower, double lines Z400mm2, earth wire L175mm2, R1=0.7W,
X1=3.9W, R0=2.99W, X0=14.37W
Load 132kV: S=100MVA, Pf=0.95 ind
T1, T2: 132/11kV, 60MVA, uk=12%, ukr0=0.57%, Xm=0.29%, Rm-50.04kW, TC: 1-7-19, 1.67%
Generator 11kV, 1MVA, Pf=0.9, Xd=Xq=0.18pu, Xd=0.18pu, Rstator=0.027pu , X0=0.038pu,
R0=0.00054pu, X2=0.18pu, r2=0.0027pu
L, L2, L3: 11kV, XLPE 3-c 240mm2, R=0.098W/km, X=0.109W/km, R0=0.371W/km,
X0=0.049W/km, B=132.3*10-6S/km
Load1, Load2: 11kV, 20MVA, Pf=0.95 ind
T1, T2: 11/0.4kV, 4MVA, uk=10%, ukr0=0.08%, Xm=0.05%, Rm-0.6kW, TC: 1-3-5, 2.5%
L1, L4, L5: 0.4kV, l=20m, XLPE 3-c 630mm2, R=0.06W/km, X=0.08W/km, R0=0.061W/km,
X0=0.08W/km
M1, M2: Induction motor, 2.1625MVA, RS=0.008pu, XS=0.105pu, Xm=5.25pu, Rr=0.01pu,
Xr=0.144pu, R/X=0.5
Load: 0.4kV, 3.5MVA, Pf=0.95 ind
103
Case Study: LF Calculation
104
Case Study: LF Calculation Results

Object
V [kV]
P [MW]
Q [MVAR]
Grid
400
84.73
-10.17
AT1
400
115.96
43.44
0.18
132
-115.72
-32
0.54
GT
400
-149.51
-43.92
0.22
AT2
400
118.28
45.37
0.18
132
-118.03
-33.51
0.55
400
-31.23
-53.61
0.09
400
31.23
-1.45
0.05
132
-1.93
9.05
0.04
132
1.93
-5.71
0.03
132
22.65
9.82
0.11
11
-22.53
-8.43
1.3
132
21.1
7.99
0.1
11
-20.99
-6.8
1.19
11
1.43
0.54
0.08
11
-1.42
-0.59
0.08
400L
132L
T1
T2
IL [kA]
105
Case Study: SC Calculation
106
Case Study: SC Calculation
107
Case Study: SC Calculation Results

S/S - Busbars
Max Fault current [kA]
400-1
42.44
400-2
20.12
132-1
12.72
132-2
12.53
11-1
28.62
11-2
27.7
11-3
17.75
11-4
15.2
LV-M1
44.6
LV-M2
44.6
LV-L
10.47
108
Case Study / Questionnaire
109
Case Study 1.1: SC Calculation

For the circuit shown on the figure below, calculate the following:
a.
Two-phase fault current at beginning of L2 line
Data:
T1: 400/132kV, 240MVA, uk=15%, pk=0.3%, Yy0

T2: 132/11kV, 30MVA, uk=12%, pk=0.6%, Yd11
L1: R1=0.035W/km, x1=0.195W/km, R0=0.15W/km, x0=0.72W/km, 8km
400/132kV
132/11kV
L1
400kV
T1
L2
T2
110

a.
Three-phase fault current when all transformers are in service
b.
Three phase fault current when transformer T2 is out of service
Data:
T1: 400/132kV, 240MVA, uk=12%, pk=0.4%, Yy0

T2: 132/11kV, 50MVA, uk=10%, pk=0.6%, Yd5
T3: 132/11kV, 50MVA, uk=10%, pk=0.6%, Yd5
400/132kV
L1
T2,
11kV
T1
T3
111

For the circuit shown below, calculate the following:
a.
Two-phase fault current at the end of L3 line
Data
T1: 400/132kV, 240MVA, uk=12%, pk=0.4%, Yy0

T2: 132/11kV, 50MVA, uk=10%, pk=0.6%, Yd5
400/132kV
L1
132/11kV
L3
400kV
T1
L2
T2
112

a.
Three-phase fault current in s/s D when L2 and L3 are in service
b.
Three-phase fault current in s/s D when L3 is out of service
Data:
T1: 400/132kV, 200MVA, uk=12%, pk=0.3%

400/132kV
L1
A
T1
L2
L3
113
Case Study: Protection Requirements

A
~
T
F4
F3
F2
F1
Relay R is a distance protection, installed in substation A.

Considering Figure above what is the right statements:
a.
b.
Relay R operates for fault F3
c.
Relay R will not operate for short circuits in transformer T
d.
Relay R protects feeder AB, transformer T and busbars B
e.
Relay R is sensitive to earth faults within feeder AB
f.
After F2 fault inception relay R operates within 3 seconds
g.
After F3 fault inception relay R operates within 50ms
h.
After F4 fault inception relay R operates within 100 ms
i.
j.
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
114

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Modern Power System Protective

INTRODUCTION TO THE TRAINING

Protection Basic Principles

Numerical Protective Relays

Protection Principle Diagram

Numerical Protection Concept

POWER SYSTEM FAULT ANALYSIS

Power System Basics

Faults in Power Systems

Modern Power System Protective Relaying

POWER SYSTEM FAULT ANALYSIS (CONTINUES)

Power System Analysis

Symmetrical Components for Faults

Positive Sequence System

Symmetrical Components Example

Overhead Lines Model

Case Study: Applying Models

Calculation Block Diagram

Standards for SC Calculations

Elements Affecting SC Calculation

SC Calculations by Computer Program

Short Circuit Calculation (Typical Data)

Short Cirdcuit Calculation (Typical Results)

Modern Power System Protective Relaying

Modern Power System Protective Relaying

equipment from damage

Modern Power System Protective Relaying

Dependability (zone faults)

Specific requirements for protection types

Protection Basic Principles

Modern Power System Protective Relaying

Principle of Unit Protection

Principle of Non-Unit Protection

Modern Power System Protective Relaying

Reliability Aspect 1/4

Protection errors and deterioration

Components in series -> low reliability

Modern Power System Protective Relaying

Reliability Aspect 2/4

Components in series (low reliability)

Component failure causes system failure

Modern Power System Protective Relaying

Reliability Aspect 3/4

Components in parallel (high reliability)

Component failure doesnt cause system failure

Modern Power System Protective Relaying

Reliability Aspect 4/4

Transmission circuits require high reliability

Single, dual or triple main protection

Combining technical and economical aspects

Modern Power System Protective Relaying

Protection in Power Systems

Power system behavior

Power system specific

Sudden load loss

Power system configuration

Modern Power System Protective Relaying

What would be requirements and cost

Modern Power System Protective Relaying

Modern Power System Protective Relaying

Protection Function Code

Active under power