Journal of Hazardous Materials 185 (2011) 16091613

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Hazardous Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhazmat

Short communication

Sorption of SO2 and NO from simulated ue gas over rice husk ash
(RHA)/CaO/CeO2 sorbent: Evaluation of deactivation kinetic parameters
Irvan Dahlan a , Keat Teong Lee b , Azlina Harun Kamaruddin b , Abdul Rahman Mohamed b,
a
b

School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Engineering Campus, Seri Ampangan, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
School of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Engineering Campus, Seri Ampangan, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 22 June 2010
Received in revised form 7 October 2010
Accepted 13 October 2010
Available online 20 October 2010
Keywords:
Rice husk ash (RHA)
Sorbent
SO2 /NO sorption
Breakthrough curves
Deactivation kinetic model

a b s t r a c t
In this study, the kinetic parameters of rice husk ash (RHA)/CaO/CeO2 sorbent for SO2 and NO sorptions
were investigated in a laboratory-scale stainless steel xed-bed reactor. Data experiments were obtained
from our previous results and additional independent experiments were carried out at different conditions. The initial sorption rate constant (k0 ) and deactivation rate constant (kd ) for SO2 /NO sorptions
were obtained from the nonlinear regression analysis of the experimental breakthrough data using deactivation kinetic model. Both the initial sorption rate constants and deactivation rate constants increased
with increasing temperature, except at operating temperature of 170 C. The activation energy and frequency factor for the SO2 sorption were found to be 18.0 kJ/mol and 7.37 105 cm3 /(g min), respectively.
Whereas the activation energy and frequency factor for the NO sorption, were estimated to be 5.64 kJ/mol
and 2.19 104 cm3 /(g min), respectively. The deactivation kinetic model was found to give a very good
agreement with the experimental data of the SO2 /NO sorptions.
2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Cleaning ue gases from sulfur oxides (SOx ) and nitric oxides
(NOx ) has become an issue of great importance to governmental
regulatory agencies and general public due to their negative effect
towards the environment and human health. Normally SOx and
NOx , which consists of more than 98% of sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) [1]
and over 9095% of nitric oxide (NO) [2], are generated mainly from
the combustion of fossil fuels in power stations as well as chemical
plants and metallurgy processes. Attempts have been made to nd a
suitable method for the removal of SO2 and NO simultaneously. Dry
sorption method is now considered to be the most attractive way
to treat waste gases containing SO2 and NO due to the drawbacks
of wet sorption methods [3,4]. There are several dry-type sorbents
that have been considered in the previous study for simultaneous
removal of SO2 and NO.
RHA, which is produced from the burning of rice husk, has been
chosen in this study as a raw material in the preparation of dry-type
sorbent since it is available abundantly in rice-producing countries
like Malaysia. RHA also contains high amount of silica. However,
RHA has low sorption capacity when used alone to remove acidic
gases. Therefore, this agricultural waste-siliceous starting material
needs to be activated with other materials and the silica in RHA

Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 4 5996410; fax: +60 4 5941013.

E-mail address: chrahman@eng.usm.my (A.R. Mohamed).
0304-3894/$ see front matter 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.10.053

plays an important role in the formation of reactive species which

is responsible for high sorption capacity [5,6].
Previously, we had reported the sorption characteristics of SO2
and NO over rice husk ash (RHA)-based sorbent at low temperature [511]. Nevertheless, our previous reports only dealt with
activity measurement related to sorbent preparation conditions
and effects of reactor operating conditions. Our previous results
also showed that the highest sorption capacity for the simultaneous
removal of SO2 and NO was obtained using RHA/CaO/CeO2 sorbent.
Currently, the optimum preparative parameters for this kind of sorbent had also been reported [12]. On the other hand, the reaction
between the siliceous/calcium dry-type sorbents and SO2 /NO is
very scarcely reported. The reaction between this siliceous/calcium
dry-type sorbents and SO2 /NO are very complicated due to the
complex composition of the sorbent. The sorption of these pollutant gases (SO2 /NO) on the sorbents is not a simple physical
sorption processes, but also may be described as chemisorption or
as gassolid non-catalytic reactions.
There are various kinetic models that have been employed to
estimate kinetic parameters in gassolid reaction, mainly involves
single component sorbent (such as CaO, Ca(OH)2 and CaCO3 ) and it
was carried out mainly at high operating temperature. These kinetics models included shrinking unreacted core model [13], changing
grain size model [14] and random pore model [15]. Most of these
models contain large number of adjustable parameters related to
the pore structure, to the product layer and pore diffusion resistances as well as the surface sorption rate parameters. In addition,

1610

I. Dahlan et al. / Journal of Hazardous Materials 185 (2011) 16091613

it is complicated to incorporate them without having to perform

lengthy computer programs. Therefore in this study, the simplied
deactivation kinetic model was used to estimate kinetic parameters against other models. The breakthrough curves data obtained
from our previous results (SO2 and NO sorptions) [11] was tted to
deactivation kinetic model. In the present work, kinetic parameters
such as deactivation rate constant, initial sorption rate constant,
activation energy and frequency (pre-exponential) factor of the
SO2 an NO sorptions were estimated from the breakthrough data
through nonlinear regression analysis. In chemical engineering, the
rate of reaction is a prerequisite to the design and evaluation of
xed-bed reactor performance especially under dry-type gassolid
reactionsorption processes.

2.1. Preparation of sorbent

RHA-based sorbents (RHA/CaO/CeO2 ) were prepared from
rice husk ash (RHA), CaO (BDH Laboratories, England) and
Ce(NO3 )3 6H2 O (Fluka, 98%). The raw RHA was collected directly
without any pretreatment from Kilang Beras & Minyak Sin Guan
Hup Sdn. Bhd., Nibong Tebal, Malaysia. Prior to use, the RHA was
sieved to produce less than 200 m particle size. The chemical composition of raw RHA was 68.0% SiO2 , 2.30% K2 O, 1.20% P2 O5 , 0.71%
MgO, 0.59% CaO, 0.32% SO3 , 0.32% Cl2 O, 0.16% Al2 O3 , 0.40% others
and 26.0% LOI. The preparation method was based on the optimum
hydration conditions reported in our previous studies [12].
2.2. Activity test
The sorption/activity of the prepared sorbents was tested in a
laboratory-scale stainless steel xed-bed reactor (Swagelok, 10 mm
ID, 50 cm length) which was vertically tted in a tube furnace (Linberg/Blue M). The schematic diagram and details of the activity
study is presented elsewhere [7]. The experiments were conducted
at various reactor temperature range of 70170 C while maintaining the simulated ue gas under the xed condition of 2000 ppm
SO2 , 500 ppm NO, 10% O2 , 10% RH, balance N2 with total gas ow
rate of 150 ml/min. Other operating conditions are given in our
previous study [11].
2.3. Kinetic parameters estimation of RHA/CaO/CeO2 sorbent
using deactivation kinetic model.
The analysis of kinetic parameters was carried out using
breakthrough data of single component gases of SO2 and NO,
respectively. The deactivation kinetic parameters such as initial
sorption rate constants (k0 ) and deactivation rate constants (kd )
were calculated from breakthrough curve analysis. The outline of
the analysis using deactivation kinetic modeling is given as follows.
As in a typical gassolid reaction, pore structure, active surface
area and activity per unit area of the solid reactant have signicant
effects on the reaction rate. In the deactivation model, the effects
of all these factors are combined in an activity term (a) introduced
into the sorption rate expression and is written in Eq. (1) [16].
da
= kd C m an
dt

a = a0 exp(kd t)

(2)

Furthermore, the following basic assumptions were made in the

derivation of the deactivation model, such as isothermal and
pseudo-steady state conditions, and axial dispersion in the xed
bed reactor and any mass transfer resistances were neglected. Considering these assumptions, and the initial activity (a0 ) of the solid
as unity, the pseudo-steady state species conservation equation for
gases in the xed bed reactor is given by Eq. (3) [1618].
Q

dC
= k0 Ca
dW

(3)

where Q is the volumetric ow rate (m3 /min), W is the sorbent mass

(kg) and k0 is the initial sorption rate constant (m3 kg1 min1 ).
Combining Eqs. (2) and (3) and solving these equations will yield
Eq. (4)

2. Experimental

expression.

(1)

where kd is the deactivation rate constants (min1 ), C is the concentration of the reactant gas (kmol/m3 ), t is the reaction time (min),
and m and n are exponential coefcients. Assuming that the concentration of the reactant gas is independent along the reactor (m = 0)
and the deactivation of the sorbent is rst-order with respect to
the solid active site (n = 1), integration of Eq. (1) gives the following

C
= exp[k0 B exp(kd t)]
C0

(4)

whereby B is equal to W/Q and this kinetic model is known as the

zeroth solution of deactivation model, which predicts the behavior of breakthrough curves for a gassolid non-catalytic reaction.
This solution assumes a uid phase concentration that is independent of deactivation process along the reactor. However, it would
be reasonable to expect the deactivation rate to be concentration
dependent and axial position dependent in the xed bed reactor.
In order to nd analytical solutions of Eqs. (1) and (2) by considering concentration and axial position dependents in the xed
bed reactor (m = n = 1), iterative procedure was applied. The method
used was similar to the method for the estimated solution of nonlinear equations proposed by Dogu [19]. In this procedure, Eq. (4)
was substituted into Eq. (1) with m = n = 1 and the rst estimated
value for the activity (a) term was obtained by integrating the equation. Then, the estimated value for the activity (a) term expression
was substituted into Eq. (3), and integration of this equation gave
the following corrected solution for the breakthrough curve.

C
1 exp(k0 B[1 exp(kd t)])
exp(kd t)
= exp
C0
1 exp(kd t)

(5)

This Eq. (5) is also known as the solution of two-parameter deactivation kinetic model. Deactivation rate constant (kd ) and initial
sorption rate constant (k0 ) was then calculated by using a nonlinear
regression technique.
A commercial software, MATHEMATICA ver. 5.2 (Wolfram
Research Inc.), was used for nonlinear regression analysis together
with the experimental/breakthrough data to nd the rate constants
for the model. In order to obtain the best tting results, an error
minimization technique was also applied and included after running the main program code of MATHEMATICA. MATHEMATICA
software was run under Microsoft Windows XP Professional (ver.
2002) environment.
Based on the analysis of the experimental breakthrough data at
different temperatures, the initial sorption rate constants (k0 ) can
be obtained by tting Eq. (5) using nonlinear regression technique.
Then, Arrhenius equation [16] was used for the determination of
activation energy and frequency (pre-exponential) factor for SO2
and NO sorptions at different temperatures, and is given in Eq. (6).
k0 = A exp

 E 
a

RT

(6)

where A is a frequency (pre-exponential) factor, Ea is the activation

energy, R is the gas constant (8.314 J/(mol K)) and T is the temperature (K).

I. Dahlan et al. / Journal of Hazardous Materials 185 (2011) 16091613

1611

Table 1
Rate parameters obtained from the breakthrough data at different temperature.
Temp. ( C)

70
87
100
120
150
170

kd (min1 )

k0 (cm3 /(g min))

k0 (W/Q)

R2

SO2 sorption

NO sorption

SO2 sorption

NO sorption

SO2 sorption

NO sorption

SO2 sorption

NO sorption

4.06
5.84
8.57
10.85
13.12
11.69

10.22
11.00
11.45
13.38
14.56
15.78

1.22E+03
1.75E+03
2.57E+03
3.25E+03
3.93E+03
3.50E+03

3.06E+03
3.30E+03
3.43E+03
4.01E+03
4.36E+03
4.73E+03

0.12
0.15
0.20
0.21
0.23
0.24

0.11
0.12
0.126
0.128
0.130
0.135

0.987
0.975
0.972
0.983
0.991
0.965

0.989
0.990
0.954
0.976
0.964
0.957

3. Results and discussion

Fig. 1a and b shows the experimental SO2 and NO breakthrough
curves obtained under various operating temperatures, respectively. The initial sorption rate constants (k0 ) and deactivation rate
constants (kd ) values were estimated by nonlinear tting of Eq. (5)
to the experimental SO2 and NO breakthrough curves at different
temperatures. The results of rate parameters from the regression
analysis of the data obtained with RHA/CaO/CeO2 sorbents at different temperatures are given in Table 1. The accuracy of the proposed
deactivation kinetic model was assessed from the coefcient of
determination (R2 ) which was found to be 0.95 or higher. Other
kind of regression results (including statistical analysis) could be
obtained from the nonlinear regression analysis after running the
main program code of MATHEMATICA.
The initial sorption rate constants and deactivation rate
constants, as expected, increased with increasing temperature
(Table 1). However, at operating temperature of 170 C, the initial sorption rate constant for SO2 was decreased. The decrease in
the rate of SO2 sorption at higher temperatures might be due to

water that accumulated and gas dissolving on the RHA/CaO/CeO2

sorbent surface was reduced [11]. The predictions of the breakthrough curves from Eq. (5) at different temperatures using these
rate constants are also shown in Fig. 1, whereby the deactivation
kinetic model shows good agreement with the experimental data
at different temperatures. As predicted for SO2 sorption at high
temperature (170 C), the breakthrough curves shifted to shorter
time (Fig. 1(a)). For NO sorption, the initial sorption rate constants still increased at high temperature (170 C) and the resulting
breakthrough curves shifted to longer time (Fig. 1(b)). This might
be attributed to a lesser amount of water accumulated on the
RHA/CaO/CeO2 sorbent surface thus allowing the metal species
(CeO2 ) present in the sorbent to become more active [11].
Based on the data obtained in Table 1, Arrhenius equation (Eq.
(6)) was used for the estimation of activation energy (Ea ) and frequency (pre-exponential) factor (A) for SO2 and NO sorptions at
different temperatures. Fig. 2(a) and (b) shows ln k0 versus 1/T plots
for SO2 and NO sorptions, respectively at different temperatures.
The plots were found to yield a straight line indicating that the

8.6

SO2 sorption

8.4
8.2

ln (ko)

8.0
7.8
7.6

y = -2165.3x + 13.51
2
R = 0.9428

7.4
7.2
7.0
2.0E-03

2.2E-03

2.4E-03

2.6E-03

2.8E-03

3.0E-03

2.8E-03

3.0E-03

-1

1/T (K )

8.5

NO sorption
8.4

ln (ko)

8.3
8.2
8.1

y = -678.48x + 9.9921
2
R = 0.9844

8.0
7.9
2.0E-03

2.2E-03

2.4E-03

2.6E-03
-1

1/T (K )
Fig. 1. Effect of operating temperature on the (a) SO2 and (b) NO sorptions.

Fig. 2. Arrhenius plot of sorption rate constant versus reciprocal of operating temperature for (a) SO2 and (b) NO sorptions.

1612

I. Dahlan et al. / Journal of Hazardous Materials 185 (2011) 16091613

1.0

SO2 sorption

0.9

Predicted C/Co

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

Experimental C/Co

NO sorption

0.9

Fig. 3. Comparison between predicted and experimental breakthrough curves at

two different experimental conditions.

0.8

Predicted C/Co

sorption rate constant obtained from deactivation kinetic model do

follow the Arrhenius law as in Eq. (6). Accordingly, the slope of the
plot equal to Ea /R and intercept equivalent to ln A, from which activation energy (Ea ) and frequency factor (A) for SO2 and NO sorptions
can be obtained, respectively.
The value of frequency factor (A) for SO2 and NO sorptions were
calculated to be 7.37 105 cm3 /(g min) and 2.19 104 cm3 /g min,
respectively. Whereas the activation energy (Ea ) values determined
for the SO2 and NO sorptions were 18.0 kJ/mol and 5.64 kJ/mol,
respectively. The activation energy of the SO2 sorption at low
temperature using the RHA/CaO/CeO2 sorbent was found to be
slightly higher as compared to sorbent prepared from coal y
ash/Ca(OH)2 (14.9415.47 kJ/mol) [20], activated carbon from oil
palm shell with KOH impregnation (13.2 kJ/mol) [21] and activated carbon from oil palm shell (12.6 kJ/mol) [22]. However,
the activation energy obtained in this study was lower than
the SO2 sorption when Ca(OH)2 (32 kJ/mol) [23] and coal y
ash/CaO/CaSO4 (22.9 kJ/mol) [24] were used as the sorbent, and
also much lower than the reported value by Irabien et al. [25]
and Renedo and Fernandez [26] using Ca(OH)2 (75 kJ/mol) and coal
y ash/Ca(OH)2 /CaSO4 (57.7 kJ/mol), respectively. Apart from that,
this activation energy for SO2 sorption at low temperature was also
found to be similar as compared to sorbents prepared from various type of CaCO3 (15.219.5 kJ/mol) [27]. For the case of the NO
sorption, the value of activation energy was also much lower than
previously reported in the literature which include the sorbent prepared from V2 O5 /NH4 Br/TiO2 /SiO2 (30.1 kJ/mol) [28], V2 O5 Al2 O3
(53.56 kJ/mol) [29] and Fe-ZSM-5 (54 kJ/mol) [30]. However, most
of the reported studies for NO sorption were carried out at high temperature processes. The relatively small activation energy obtained
in this study suggested an easy sorption process of SO2 and NO by
this kind of sorbent. In other word, the sorption between SO2 /NO
and the reference sorbent synthesized from RHA/CaO/CeO2 is easier to occur due to the easier access of SO2 and NO molecules to the
active species in the sorbent.
In order to verify the proposed deactivation kinetic model,
additional independent experiments were carried out at different
conditions using 0.5 g RHA/CaO/CeO2 sorbent. The rst experiment
was conducted at initial condition of 1500 ppm SO2 , 1200 ppm NO,
10% O2 , 60% RH, balance N2 and 150 ml/min of total ow rate at
a reactor temperature of 80 C. While the second experiment was
conducted at the following conditions of 1800 ppm SO2 , 800 ppm
NO, 10% O2 , 40% RH, balance N2 and 150 ml/min of total ow rate
at a reactor temperature of 110 C. Fig. 3 shows the experimental
versus predicted breakthrough curves of SO2 and NO sorptions at
two different experimental conditions. It was shown that the deac-

1.0

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Experimental C/Co
Fig. 4. Plot of all experimental C/C0 vs predicted C/C0 under various operating conditions for (a) SO2 and (b) NO sorptions.

tivation kinetic model provided a very accurate description of the

experimental data.
For further conrmation, the breakthrough curves data from our
previous results [11] was tted to the proposed deactivation kinetic
model. The comparison between predicted breakthrough curves
(obtained with deactivation kinetic model) with the experimental results was performed for all the SO2 /NO sorption experiments
under various operating conditions. Fig. 4(a) and (b) shows the
comparison between the experimental C/C0 versus predicted C/C0
of SO2 and NO sorptions in all experiments, respectively. The results
indicated that the proposed model prediction agrees reasonably
well with the experimental data of the SO2 /NO sorptions within
the range of 10% experimental error.
4. Conclusions
The deactivation model was applied successfully to describe the
experimental breakthrough curves for the sorption of SO2 and NO
from simulated ue gas in a xed-bed reactor over RHA/CaO/CeO2
sorbent. The breakthrough data obtained for both SO2 and NO sorptions was tted to the proposed deactivation kinetic model. Both
the initial sorption rate constants and deactivation rate constants
increased with increasing temperature, except at operating temperature of 170 C whereby the initial sorption rate constant for SO2
decreased. The breakthrough curves obtained by using the developed deactivation kinetic model were found to t the experimental
breakthrough curves very well.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the nancial support from the
Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MOSTI) Malaysia,

I. Dahlan et al. / Journal of Hazardous Materials 185 (2011) 16091613

Yayasan Felda and Universiti Sains Malaysia (Short Term Grant A/C.
6035278 and RU Golden Goose Project Grant A/C. 814004).
References
[1] R.F. Probstein, R.E. Hicks, Synthetic Fuel, Dover Publications, New York,
2006.
[2] J.L. Zhu, Y.H. Wang, J.C. Zhang, R.Y. Ma, Experimental investigation of adsorption
of NO and SO2 on modied activated carbon sorbent from ue gases, Energy
Convers. Manage. 46 (2005) 21732184.
[3] T. Ishizuka, H. Tsuchiai, T. Murayama, T. Tanaka, H. Hattori, Preparation of active
absorbent for dry-type ue gas desulfurization from calcium oxide, coal y ash,
and gypsum, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 39 (2000) 13901396.
[4] R.-B. Lin, S.-M. Shih, C.-F. Liu, Characteristics and reactivities of Ca(OH)2 /silica
fume sorbents for low-temperature ue gas desulfurization, Chem. Eng. Sci. 58
(2003) 36593668.
[5] I. Dahlan, K.T. Lee, A.H. Kamaruddin, A.R. Mohamed, Key factor in rice husk
ash/CaO sorbent for high ue gas desulfurization activity, Environ. Sci. Technol.
40 (2006) 60326037.
[6] I. Dahlan, K.T. Lee, A.H. Kamaruddin, A.R. Mohamed, Analysis of SO2 sorption
capacity of rice husk ash (RHA)/CaO/NaOH sorbents using response surface
methodology (RSM): un-treated and pre-treated RHA, Environ. Sci. Technol. 42
(2008) 14991504.
[7] K.T. Lee, A.M. Mohtar, N.F. Zainudin, S. Bhatia, A.R. Mohamed, Optimum conditions for preparation of ue gas desulfurization absorbent from rice husk ash,
Fuel 84 (2005) 143151.
[8] I. Dahlan, G.M. Mei, A.H. Kamaruddin, A.R. Mohamed, K.L. Lee, Removal of
SO2 and NO over rice husk ash (RHA)/CaO-supported metal oxides, J. Eng. Sci.
Technol. 3 (2008) 109116.
[9] I. Dahlan, K.T. Lee, A.H. Kamaruddin, A.R. Mohamed, Evaluation of various additives on the preparation of rice husk ash (RHA)/CaO-based sorbent for ue
gas desulfurization (FGD) at low temperature, J. Hazard. Mater. 161 (2009)
570574.
[10] I. Dahlan, K.T. Lee, A.H. Kamaruddin, A.R. Mohamed, Selection of metal oxides
in the preparation of rice husk ash (RHA)/CaO sorbent for simultaneous SO2
and NO removal, J. Hazard. Mater. 166 (2009) 15561559.
[11] I. Dahlan, K.T. Lee, A.H. Kamaruddin, A.R. Mohamed, Rice husk ash/calcium
oxide/ceria sorbent for simultaneous removal of sulfur dioxide and nitric
oxide from ue gas at low temperature, Environ. Eng. Sci. 26 (2009) 1257
1265.
[12] I. Dahlan, Z. Ahmad, M. Fadly, K.T. Lee, A.H. Kamaruddin, A.R. Mohamed, Parameters optimization of rice husk ash (RHA)/CaO/CeO2 sorbent for predicting
SO2 /NO sorption capacity using response surface and neural network models,
J. Hazard. Mater. 178 (2010) 249257.

1613

[13] A. Ersoy-Mericboyu, S. Kucukbayrak, Modeling of the isothermal sulphation

reactions of natural sorbents, Thermochim. Acta 319 (1998) 163170.
[14] Y. Yan, X.F. Peng, G.G. Fu, B.X. Wang, Study on kinetics of desulfurization reaction by CaO particles, Heat Transfer Asian Res. 32 (2003) 391401.
[15] Y. Suyadal, H. Oguz, Dry desulfurization of simulated ue gas in a uidized-bed
reactor for a broad range of SO2 concentration and temperature: a comparison
of models, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 38 (1999) 29322939.
[16] O. Levenspiel, Chemical Reaction Engineering, 3rd ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1999.
[17] S. Yasyerli, G. Dogu, I. Ar, Activities of copper oxide and CuV and CuMo
mixed oxides for H2 S removal in the presence and absence of hydrogen and
predictions of a deactivation model, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 40 (2001) 52065214.
[18] R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart, E.N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., Singapore, 2007.
[19] T. Dogu, Extension of moment analysis to nonlinear systems, AIChE J. 32 (1986)
849852.
[20] A. Garea, J.R. Viguri, A. Irabien, Kinetics of ue gas desulphurization at low temperatures: y ash/calcium (3/l) sorbent behaviour, Chem. Eng. Sci. 52 (1997)
715732.
[21] J. Guo, A.C. Lua, Adsorption of sulfur dioxide onto activated carbons prepared
from oil-palm shells impregnated with potassium hydroxide, J. Chem. Technol.
Biotechnol. 75 (2000) 971976.
[22] A.C. Lua, J. Guo, Adsorption of sulfur dioxide on activated carbon from oil-palm
waste, J. Environ. Eng. 127 (2001) 895901.
[23] J.F. Izquierdo, C. Fite, F. Cunill, M. Iborra, J. Tejero, Kinetic study of the reaction
between sulfur dioxide and calcium hydroxide at low temperature in a xedbed reactor, J. Hazard. Mater. B76 (2000) 113123.
[24] K.T. Lee, Flue gas desulfurization studies using absorbent prepared from coal
y ash, Ph.D. Thesis, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 2004.
[25] A. Irabien, F. Cortabitarte, M.I. Ortiz, Kinetics of ue gas desulfurization at low
temperatures: nonideal surface adsorption model, Chem. Eng. Sci. 47 (1992)
15331543.
[26] M.J. Renedo, J. Fernandez, Kinetic modelling of the hydrothermal reaction of
y ash, Ca(OH)2 and CaSO4 in the preparation of desulfurant sorbents, Fuel 83
(2004) 525532.
[27] K. Han, C. Lu, S. Cheng, G. Zhao, W. Wang, J. Zhao, Effect of characteristics of
calcium-based sorbents on the sulfation kinetics, Fuel 84 (2005) 19331939.
[28] T. Shikada, T. Oba, K. Fujimoto, H. Tominaga, Cleaning of ue gas by use of
molten salts. 1. Simultaneous reduction of sulfur oxides (SOx ) and nitrogen
oxides (NOx ) with V2 O5 catalyst, Ind. Eng. Chem. Prod. Res. Dev. 23 (1984)
417421.
[29] I.-S. Nam, J.W. Eldridge, J.R. Kittrell, Deactivation of a vanadiaalumina catalyst
for NO reduction by NH3 , Ind. Eng. Chem. Prod. Res. Dev. 25 (1986) 192197.
[30] H.Y. Huang, R.Q. Long, R.T. Yang, Kinetics of selective catalytic reduction of NO
with NH3 on Fe-ZSM-5 catalyst, Appl. Catal. A 235 (2002) 241251.