Course title: SYNTAX

Course duration: 45 periods

Course book: ENGLISH SYNTAX (compiled by the lecturer)
Lecturer: NGUYEN DUC DUY TAN
..........................................................................................................................................

COURSE OUTLINE
Week
1.

Content

Total periods

Lectures

Exercises

Structural ambiguity

Revision and test

Introduction to Syntax
Word classes

2.

Noun phrases
Verb phrases

3.

Adjective and adverb phrases

4.

Prepositional phrases
Revision: words classes and
phrases

5.

Functions of phrases: The

subject and the predicate

6.

Functions of phrases: The

object and the complement

7.

Functions of phrases: The

adjunct

8.

Types of clauses: sentence

patterns

9.

Types of clauses: dependent

clauses 1 Nominal clauses

10.

Types of clauses: dependent

clauses 2 relative and
adverbial clauses

11.

INTRODUCTION
1. What is Syntax?
Syntax is the study of how words are put together to form bigger units such as
phrases, clauses and sentences. (Lac, 2000)
It shows the description of the subject, the predicate, the object, the complement
and other parts of the sentence. In additions, it makes clear the relationship among
those parts.
2. Five signals of syntatic structure
2.1 Word order: the linear or time sequence in which words appear in an
utterance.
2.2 Prosody: combinations of pitch, stress and juncture sequences.
2.3 Functional words: words that have little or no lexical meaning of their own but
serve to vary the function of lexical words.
2.4 Inflections: the morphemic changes, in which the additions of suffixes and
concomitant morphophonemic adjustments do not cause any changes in the
words meaning.
2.5 Devirational contrast: the contrast between words which have the same base
but differ in the number and nature of their devirational affixes.
3. Syntatic analysis
3.1 Structural analysis: its main concern is to investigate the distribution of forms
in a language. A group of forms that can fit into a slot to make good gramatical
sentence can belong to the same gramatical category.
Example:
I heard a ............. yesterday.
In the blank can be noise, sound, story, a song etc.
The label for this category is NOUN.
3.2 Immediate Constituent analysis: this analysis is to show how small units in
sentences go together to form larger ones.
3.3 Transformational-Generative grammar Labelled Tree Diagram: this type
of diagram contains all the grammatical information found in the other
analyses. It is concentrated on the liner sequence of constituents.
Example:
S
NP

VP

Det.

Aux

The

dog

was

V
barking.
2

WORD CLASSES
I. DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION
What is a word class?
A word class is a set of words which are similar in functions, or display the same
formal properties especially their inflections and distribution (Kolln, M. J. & Funk,
R. W., (2008) Understanding English grammar, 8th ed., Longman)
Closed and open classes
Word classes are divided into two big groups: closed group and open group.
1. Closed group
Words in the closed group perform grammatical functions. They are also
called function words, which guide to the structure of a sentence (McGuinness,
D., (2005) Language development and learning to read, MIT). The membership
of the closed group is fixed, which means very few words can be added to the
group.
Members of the closed group include
pronouns
numerals
determiners
prepositions
conjunctions
auxiliaries
2. Open group
Words in the open group are called content words (also known as lexical
words) because they express most of the idea of a sentence. The number of
words in the open group is unlimited, which means new words can always be
added to the group (Akmajian, A., et al., (2001) Linguistic: An introduction to
language and communication., MIT).
Members of the open group include
nouns
lexical verbs
adjectives
adverbs
II. NOUNS
What are nouns?
Nouns generally refer to things in the broadest sense (Jackson, H., (1982)
Analyzing English: An introduction to descriptive linguistics. Pergamon Press).
Nouns normally denote a thing, person, place, quality or activity.
Classifications
The ways to divide nouns into sub-classes vary according to their meanings.
Following are common sub-classes of nouns.
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1. Proper nouns and common nouns

1.1 Proper nouns refer to a unique thing, or name a person, a thing or a place.
Proper nouns are always capitalized, and not preceded by articles or
demonstrative adjectives.
Example:
Toyota is one of the leading car manufacturers in Asia.
Michael Jackson was considered as the King of Pop.
1.2 Common nouns do not name a thing, person or place, but refer to a class of
objects or a specific object of the class. Common nouns can be preceded by
articles or demonstrative adjectives. Common nouns are not capitalized,
except for the case of starting a sentence.
Example:
He gave her a bunch of flowers on her 18th birthday.
Will you be a compass which leads me to a better place?
Common nouns are divided into either abstract and concrete nouns, or
countable and uncountable nouns.
2. Abstract nouns and concrete nouns
2.1 Abstract nouns refer to an idea, concept, feeling or quality.
Example:
Love is an irresistible desire to be irresistibly desired.
(Robert Forst)
My aspiration in life is happiness.
2.2 Concrete nouns refer to perceivable objects in the worlds, or something
regconizable through senses.
Example:
At middle age, the soul should be opening up like a rose,
not closing up like a cabbage. (John Andrew Holmes)
John sold his house, car and motorbike. He got rid of
everything.
3. Countable nouns and uncountable nouns
3.1 Countable nouns refer to objects that may be counted. A countable noun
can be either singular or plural. Countable nouns can be preceded by
indefinite articles (a, an) or numerals to form a noun phrases.
Example:
After ten days wandering, he stopped over a village with
severe hunger and thrist.
He brought out a big bottle of wine and drank it up.
3.2 Uncountable nouns (or mass nouns)nrefer to things that cannot be
counted. Therefore, they are never preceded by indefinite articles or
numerals. Uncountable nouns are often used in the singular form. Many
abstract nouns are uncountable, but not all uncountable nouns are abstract.
Example:
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Her company is a strong competitor in the field of

manufacturing kitchen equipment.
Wisdom is not a product of schooling but of the lifelong
attempt to acquire it. (Albert Einstein)
3.3 Some nouns can be both countable and uncountable, depending on the
context in which they are used. (Jackson, H., (1982) Analyzing English: An
introduction to descriptive linguistics. Pergamon Press).
Example:
Jerry, in Tom and Jerry, loves cheese. (cheese:
uncountable)
I bought these five cheeses from Switzerland. (cheese:
countable five kinds of cheese)
EXERCISE 1: Identify the nouns in the following sentences
1/ 5 goals were scored to make the match 3 to 2.
2/ The policeman was trying to stop the car from moving.
3/ As time goes by, its funny how time makes you realize youre running out of it.
4/ I was born to tell you I love you, and I am torn to do what I have to.
5/ Im a man without a home but I think with you I could spend my life.
III. VERBS
What are verbs?
Verbs are words used to indicate an action, occurence, processes or state of
being. A verb is always used in a distinct form, e.g. according the agreement with
the subject, or in an appropriate tense. Following are some commons distinct forms
of verbs
Infinitive: (to) sing, (to) work, ...
Third person singular present tense: watches, plays, studies, ...
Past tense: walked, ran, ...
Present participle: cooking, recruiting, ...
Past participle: washed, drunk, ...
EXERCISE 2: Identify the verbs in the following sentences.
1/ 5 goals were scored to make the match 3 to 2.
2/ The policeman was trying to stop the car from moving.
3/ As time goes by, its funny how time makes you realize youre running out of it.
4/ I was born to tell you I love you, and I am torn to do what I have to.
5/ Im a man without a home but I think with you I could spend my life.
Classifications
1. Auxiliaries and lexical verbs
1.1 Auxiliaries are among the closed word class and have mainly grammatical
functions. (Jackson, H., (1982) Analyzing English: An introduction to
descriptive linguistics. Pergamon Press). In a verb phrase, auxiliaries help
decide the tense and mood of the lexical verb.
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1.1.1 be, have and do: Those auxiliaries are used to determine the tense of
lexical verbs
Present tenses: be (am, is, are); have (have, has); do (do, does)
Past tenses: be (was, were); have (had); do (did)
1.1.2 Model auxiliaries are used to indicate certainty, obligation, ability,
opinion and advice. Model verbs cannot be added s, -ing or ed; and
there is no infinitive form. Lexical verbs following those auxiliaries
are often in their infinitive form without to. Here are some of the
central model verbs in English: can, could, may, might, must, ought,
shall, should, will, and would.
1.1.3 Semi-auxiliaries are multi-word constructions. Some common semiauxiliaries include be about to, be able to, be going to, be likely to, be
supposed to, had better, have to, ought to, used to, and would rather.
1.2 Lexical verbs express major meaning of verb phrases. The form of lexical
verbs may vary according to their tenses, and positions in the sentence.
Example:
They love cycling in the morning. (present simple tense)
Johnson picks up the phone, but there is no answer. (third
person singular present tense)
He ran across the brigde, then disappeared in a crowded
street. (past tense)
This is really amazing. I wasnt expecting this. (present
participle)
Dont you remember we had been together for six long
years? (past particicple)
You mustnt leave the lights on when you go out.
(infinitive form after model verb)
Lexical verbs can be divided into transitive and intransitive verbs; or
dynamic and stative verbs.
EXERCISE 3: Which verbs in the following sentences are auxiliaries, which
are lexical verbs?
1/ 5 goals were scored to make the match 3 to 2.
2/ The policeman was trying to stop the car from moving.
3/ As time goes by, its funny how time makes you realize youre running out of it.
4/ I was born to tell you I love you, and I am torn to do what I have to.
5/ Im a man without a home but I think with you I could spend my life.
2. Transitive and intransitive verbs
2.1 Transitive verbs must be followed by an object.
Example:
I know the muffin man. (Lord Farquaad, Shrek, 2011)
V
O
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I want to know what love is.

V
O
V

2.2 Intransitive verbs do not require any objects to follow. Therefore,

intransitive verbs are never used in passive voice.
Example:
The numbers of young people using smart phones has
significantly increased.
We need to talk to the manager to find what we can do
with the order.
2.3 Note: There are several verbs which are both transitive and intransitive
depending on how they are used in a particular context.
Example:
(1a) She broke her leg falling off the bicycle.
(1b) She was a strong girl. To be honest, she hardly broke
in love.
(2a) Coming out to the stage was really something,
because someone was watching.
(2b) Watching the kids playing did ease my pain.
3. Dynamic and stative verbs
3.1 Dynamic verbs often describe actions, activities or events which can begin
and finish, and can be used in continuous tenses (be + Ving). Dynamic verbs
are divided into many types. Following examples illustrate some common
types of dynamic verbs.
Activity verbs: eat, drink, play
Process verbs: enlarge, grow, increase
Verbs of bodily sensation: feel, ache
Transitional event verbs: arrive, fall
Momentary verbs: hit, jump, kick
3.2 Stative verbs refer to states or conditions, and cannot be used in continuous
tenses. They can be divided into types as follow.
Inert perception or cognition: know, believe, like, love
Relational verbs: belong, contain
IV. ADJECTIVES
What are adjectives?
Adjectives are often considered as descriptive words. They are used to modify a
noun by preceding it, or link to it by a linking verb.
Example:
Christmas is usually said to be the most beautiful time of
the year.
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I had scarcely reached the stairs when I observed a

hideous form. A little, short, broad, bow-legged
individual with long arms and a short, wizened face. (P.G.
Wodehouse, Thank You, Jeeves, 1934)
Good men are gruff and grumpy, cranky, crabbed, and
cross. (Clement Freud)
Gradable and non-gradable adjectives
Gradable adjectives can be modified by intensifying adverbs, or so-called adverbs
of degree. Most adjectives are gradable. Non-gradable adjectives cannot be
preceded by intensifying adverbs.
Example:
Gradable adjectives:
I always get a little nervous before an interview. And this
time is not an exception.
Julie became more beautiful after getting divorced with
her husband.
Non-gradable adjective:
Im broke.
The police found a dead body wrapped in plastic under the
bridge.
V. ADVERBS
What are adverbs?
An adverb is often used to modify a verb, an adjective and another adverb. It also
modifies a prepositional phrase, a clause or even a sentence.
Example:
Thanks to her special care, the kids grew very quickly.
The architect thought the surrounding buildings were not
well designed.
Frankly, I did not like the way he conducted the
presentation.
Classification
Adverbs can be divided into two groups.
The first groups include those adverbs used to describe the action, process or event
expressed by the verb. Adverbs of this type often express the time, place or manner.
Example:
Carefully drop the eggs into a bow, and then steadily stir
them with the flour. (Adverbs of manner)
Come meet me at my office tomorrow. (Adverb of time)
What are you going to do there? (Adverb of place)
The second group of adverbs include those used to intensify other adjectives and
adverbs.
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Example:
The room we stayed in during our trip was extremely
uncomfortable.
What he did to me was really disappointing.

EXERCISES
EXERCISE 1: Identify the nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs in the following
sentences
Example:
I love being alone.
Inf. Ing adj
1/ Life comes from physical survival; but the good life comes from what we care
about.
2/ Good people do not need laws to tell them to act responsibly, while bad people will
find a way around the laws.
3/ A man is called selfish not for pursuing his own good, but for neglecting his
neighbor's.
4/ There are three ingredients in the good life: learning, earning and yearning.
5/ A true friend is someone who thinks that you are a good egg even though he knows
that you are slightly cracked.
6/ There has to be evil so that good can prove its purity above it.
7/ I believe that we parents must encourage our children to become educated, so they
can get into a good college that we cannot afford.
8/ The momentous thing in human life is the art of winning the soul to good or evil.
9/ A good head and a good heart are always a formidable combination.
10/ One good thing about music, when it hits you, you feel no pain.
EXERCISE 2: Write one word that begins with one of the letter from the previous one.
The list of words must start and end by the given ones.

EXERCISE 3: Write one word in each blank to make the quotes meaningful. Then
compare with the original ones to see how similar the two versions are
1. Don't . because it's over, because it happened. (two infinitive verbs)
2. In three words I can sum up everything I've learned about .: it goes on. (one
abstract noun)
3. Sometimes the questions are and the answers are . (two
adjectives)
4. I'm not afraid of .; I just don't want to be there when it happens. (one abstract
noun)
5. Life isn't about yourself. Life is about yourself. (two present
participle)
6. The only way out of the labyrinth of suffering is (one infinitive verb)

10

WORD CLASSES (cont.)

VI. PRONOUNS
What are pronouns?
Pronouns are used to replace nouns when they are already mentioned in a particular
context. Therefore, a pronoun can be modified by an adjective.
How many types of pronouns are there in English?
Subject personal pronouns
I, we, you, they, he, she, it
Object personal pronouns
me, you, us, them, him, her, it

PRONOUNS

Reflexive pronouns
myself, yourself, ourselves, themselves, himself,
herself, itself
Possessive pronouns
mine, yours, ours, theirs, his, hers, its
Interrogative pronouns (used in questions)
who, whom, what, which, how, when, where, why
Relative pronouns (used in relative clauses)
who, whom, which, that, whose
Demonstrative pronouns
this, that, these, those
Indefinite pronouns
All, many, few
everyone, everybody, everything
anyone, anybody, anything
no one, nobody, nothing
EXERCISE 1: Identify the pronouns in the sentences and say which noun each
of them refers to
1. Because Tara and Diana worked the closing shift at Titos Taco Palace, they
often arrived to class with their eyes barely open. Tara would have given Diana the
correct answer to number seven on the chemistry exam if she hadnt fallen asleep in
the middle of it.
11

2. The puppy was howling; explosions and gunfire boomed from the television; and
a tray of brownies was calling Fred's name from the kitchen. This made studying for
the pronoun reference quiz impossible.
3. Mickey Mouse, who greets guests at the gates of the Magic Kingdom, is really a
five-foot young woman who wishes that her costume, which weighs thirty pounds,
was air conditioned.
4. Ever since Tikeja began her internship at the hospital, she has tried to take better
care of her health. They claim that eating five servings of fruit and vegetables will
protect a person from many diseases such as cancer.
5. My friend Harold, who had Mr. Byrnes last semester for US Government, never
received an on an essay. They say that Mr. Byrnes has absolutely no patience for
grammar errors of any kind.
VII. NUMERALS

NUMERALS
Cardinal numbers: merely specify
quantity and comprise the series

Ordinal numbers: specify the order

and comprise the series

one, two, three, four

first, second, third, fourth

VIII. DETERMINERS
What are determiners?
Determiners are functional words used to introduce nouns or define the reference of
a noun.
Classifications
1. Identifiers include articles (a, an, the), possessive adjectives (my, your, our,
their, his, her, its) and demonstrative adjectives (this, that, these, those)
Example:
We found a biology book with the name Jackson.
Please show me your identification such as ID card or
student card.
That project was really important not only to the
management but also to more than 500 employees.
***NOTICE: Demonstrative pronouns and demonstrative adjectives
Demonstrative pronouns have the function of the subject or object in the
sentence.
Example:
Those are the products we would like to show you.
12

I did not mean to do this, but there was no other choice.

Demonstrative adjectives always precede nouns to make noun phrases.
Example:
Those girls are all my friends.
This company is advertising new job positions.
2. Quantifiers are expressions of indefinite quantity. Some common quantifiers
include a lot of, many, few, several, little Numerals can be considered as parts
of quantifiers.
Example:
We did have a lot of difficulties finishing this project.
We need to spare several hours at the airport to get
through all required procedures.
EXERCISE 2: Find the determiners in the following sentences and state
whether they are identifiers or quantifiers
1. Jaime reached for the flagon to refill his cup. "So many vows...they make you
swear and swear. Defend the king. Obey the king. Keep his secrets. Do his bidding.
Your life for his. But obey your father. Love your sister. Protect the innocent.
Defend the weak. Respect the gods. Obey the laws. It's too much. No matter what
you do, you're forsaking one vow or the other.
2. Change is in the air. This change reminds us that we are made and beautifully
sculpted by the same power that orchestrates the change of season. Let this be the
season you embrace and align yourself with this change.
3. If her enemies were Brigan's friends and her friends were Brigan's enemies, then
the two of them could walk through the world arm in arm and never be hit by
arrows again.
IX. PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions are used to show the relationship between a noun or a pronoun and
other words in a sentence. The combination of a preposition and a noun phrase is
called a prepositional phrase.
Example:
We must not confuse dissent with disloyalty. (Edward R.
Murrow)
That building is opposite the library.
Prepositions also resemble something called a verb particle.
Example:
Oscar looked up the word.
They are waiting for the bus.

13

X. CONJUNCTIONS
What are conjunctions?
Conjunctions are structure-class words that join together grammatical structures.
How many types of conjunctions are there in English?
1. Coordinating conjunctions (coordinators): for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. Two
simple sentences are combined using a coordinator to form a compound
sentence.
Example:
I ate a lot of seafood and took a lot of photos.
I love travelling, but I have never been to a foreign
country.
2. Correlative conjunctions: both and, either or, neither nor, not
only but also
Example:
Reading books not only boosts out creativity but also
enhances our memory.
Both jazz and classical music have been receiving more
attention from young people.
3. Conjunctive adverbs:
Contrast: however, instead, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other
hand, still
Addition: also, besides, furthermore, in addition, moreover
Cause and Effect: accordingly, as a result, consequently, hence, so
therefore, thus
Example or Restatement: for example, that is
Time: afterward(s), earlier, finally, in the meantime, later, meanwhile,
then
4. Subordinating conjunctions are used to combine an independent clause with a
dependent clause to form a complex sentence. Here are some common
subordinators.
Time: after, as, as soon as, before, once, since, until, when, while
Manner: as, as if, as though, like
Contrast, Opposition: although, though, whereas, while, except (that)
Cause and Effect: because, in that, now that, since, so that
Condition: if, in case, provided (that), unless
Purpose: so that, in order that
Comparison: as...as, more than, less than, than
EXERCISE 3: Underline the conjunctions in the following sentences
1. Whew! This is certainly a cold and miserable day.
2. It may be cold here, but in Alaska it is even colder.

14

3. Neither sub-zero temperatures nor deep snow keeps the racers in the Iditarod from
packing their sleds and setting out, however.
4. Both the dogs and their drivers often perform well in the cold.
5. Do you want to participate in the race, or do you only want to watch?
6. Hey, we should hurry to find a place at the starting line, for the race is about to begin.
7. The key to winning the Iditarod is not only speed, but also endurance.
8. I enjoy watching the race, yet I dont like standing in the cold.
9. Libby Riddles was exhausted but excited when she became the first woman to win the
Iditarod.
10. Gosh, Im glad I dont have to qualify for and compete in that race!
11. More and more factories are built in the village; consequently, there will be no
playground for kids.
12. You think youre the best; however, you never know there someone better than you.

EXERCISES WORD CLASSES

EXERCISE 1: Read the following sentences and circle the statements which are
TRUE to each one.
Example: It is the most beautiful place in the world.
The sentence contains
A.
One adjective
C.
Three nouns
B.
One pronoun
D.
Two articles
1.
Visiting New Orleans is an adventure.
Sentence (1) contains
A.
two verbs
C.
two determiners
B.
three nouns
D.
no adjectives or adverbs
2.
New Orleans is a wonderful city located in the State of Louisiana (U.S.).
Sentence (2) contains
A.
a plural noun
C.
one adjective
B.
two determiners
D.
two prepositions
3.
The city is ancient by most North American standards.
Sentence (3) contains
A.
a quantifier
C.
no verbs
B.
three nouns
D.
no articles
4.
New Orleans is full of history and a vibrant culture.
Sentence (4) contains
A.
two adjectives
C.
four nouns
B.
one conjunction
D.
three determiners
5.
The sights, sounds, and food are strictly indigenous to that area of the world.
Sentence (5) contains
A.
five nouns
C.
three determiners
B.
one adverb
D.
one preposition
15

EXERCISE 2: Identify the word class of each underlined word in the following
passage.
Noun
N
Determiner det
Verb
V
Numeral
num
Adjective
adj
Preposition prep
Adverb
adv
Conjunction conj
Pronoun
pron
Example: It was 7 (num) minutes after midnight. The dog was lying (V) on the grass
in the middle of the lawn in front of (prep) Mrs Shears house.
We elderly people are much better at going to school than the young. We pay
attention in class, we never miss lessons, we do our homework and we soak up
knowledge like a parched camel at the water bowl. I know because I did it a couple of
years ago, at Birkbeck, when my mother was very poorly. I could nip to college in the
evening, have a change of scene, save myself from breakdown and wallow in history,
which I'd wanted to do all my life.
But there is bad news. My friend Susan is in a panic. She's worried that the thrilling
course on medieval women that she's just started is about to stop. Here she is, aged 70,
having always worked, and this is the first chance she's had to go to university. Her
whole life's perked up, but for how long? The government is about to pull the plug on
certain part-time, evening and lowerlevel courses. Funding for these so-called ELQs is
about to be withdrawn, because what does the modern world need with little old ladies
learning medieval history and GCSE Spanish for fun? Or people retraining, or getting
their qualifications up to date, or anyone who can only study in the evenings or
weekends, which is mostly women?
EXERCISE 3: Identify the word class of each word in the sentences below.
Example: After (conj) they (pron) had (V) visited (V) the (det) British (adj) Museum
(N), the (det) twenty (num) foreign (adj) visitors (N) made (V) their (det) way (N)
quickly (adv) to (prep) the (det) Houses (N) of (prep) Parliament (N).
1. When April with his sweet showers has pierced the drought or March to the
root, then people wish to go on pilgrimages.
2. Hardly knowing what she did, she picked up a little but of stick, and held it out
to the puppy.
3. Alice looked at the jury-box, and saw that, in her haste, she had put the Lizard
in head downwards, and the poor little thing was waving its tail about in a
melancholy way, being quite unable to move.
4. To gain the meximum amount of fruit from a strawberry bed a certain amount
of attention is needed now.
5. By this time of year most of us are viewing our flower borders with a fairly
critical eye, noting spaces where improvements can be made.
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EXERCISE 4: Each pair of sentences contain two words with the same spelling
but in different word classes. Identify the word class of each word.
Example: Watch out! watch (V)
I really love your new watch. watch (N)
1. Leonard Bernstein used to conduct that orchestra.
We disapprove of her conduct.
2. There were tears in his eyes.
Fighting tears us apart.
3. To do this drawing you need a lead pencil.
He will lead the students association.
4. The machine records your voice.
They have altered the records.
5. The performer was entertaining the audience.
The show we have just watched was really entertaining.
6. You leave this for just one minute.
He described the situation in minute detail.
7. They recently discovered human remains in that old building.
The issue remains complex.
8. The building is going to be demolished.
They are building a new railway track.
9. The cars race noisily down the track.
No distinctions should be based on race.
10. The book is very expensive.
Can you book a hotel room for all of us?
11. We waited a long time for Miles.
We didnt complain, for we knew he was busy.
12. Greeting us warmly, Ron said, Please have some refreshments.
Some dont care for tuna.
13. This is the way we solved the problem.
How could we solve this problem?
14. Goodbye! Talk to you later.
I will stop to buy some food; later, we will cook the dinner at home.
15. I am not talking to you, but to the girl behind.
What is hidden behind the curtain?
EXERCISE 5: Read the story below and complete the second version with
another form of words that are capitalized in the first version. Then identify the
word class of each of the new words.
Example: First version: Ever since I was a CHILD, ...
Second version: Ever since my (1) childhood (N), ...

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First version
Ever since I was a CHILD, I have wanted to go on the stage and ACT, like my
elder sister. She's less PRETTY than I am , and I had hoped that with LUCK I, too,
would have the chance to PERFORM three or four times A WEEK at our little local
theatre. "You are ABLE to do it," she told me, "but you may not have the PATIENCE.
It takes a lot of hard work to SUCCEED. " Then she would DESCRIBE IN DETAIL
how CONFUSED and EMBARRASSED she'd been when the man who was
DIRECTING the play told her that she SPOKE and MOVED too slowly in one scene.
She was supposed to run across the stage and, after HESITATING for a moment, say
"WELCOME" to an old woman who was ENTERING from the other side. "But be
CAREFUL not to slip," he said. There was no DOUBT that the stage was very slippery,
but she would PROBABLY have reached the other side SAFELY if she hadn't fallen
over her long skirt, which was FASHIONABLE that year, and tumbled right off the
stage. The audience were ASTONISHED.
Second version
Ever since my (1), I have wanted to go on the stage and be an (2), like my
elder sister. I'm (3) than she is, and I hoped that if I was (4), I , too, would have
the chance to give (5) three or four times (6) at our little local theatre. "you've got
the (7) to do it," she told me, " but you may be too (8). It takes a lot of hard work
to be (9)." Then she would give me a(10) (11) of her (12) and (13) when
the (14) of the play told her that her (15) and (16) were too slow in one scene.
She was supposed to run across the stage and, after a moment's (17), to (18) an
old woman who was making her (19) from the other side. "But take (20) not to
slip," he said. The stage was (21) very slippery, but it's (22) that she would have
reached the other side in (23) if she hadn't fallen over her long skirt, which was in
(24) that year, and tumbled right off the stage, to the (25) of the audience.
EXERCISE 6: Write a sentence based on each series of word classes given.
Example: pron / V (inf) / pron. I love you.
1. art / adj / N / aux / adv / P.P.
2. pron / V (past) / conj / V (past) / prep / pron.
3. prep / Ving / art / N, pron / V (past) / poss adj / N.
4. adv (of time) / pron / aux / Ving / prep / art / proper N.
5. Proper N / V / art / num / N / to inf / art / N.

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